Hines Chapter 1 The Nature of Pseudoscience
Hines' Definition of Pseudoscience - "A doctrine or belief system that pretends to be a science."
Hines' Three Characteristics of a Pseudoscience:
1. They are made up of hypotheses that are "Unfalsifiable," Hines favorite example is
"psychoanalysis." E.g., Freud posits that all men have latent homosexual tendencies, if they claim
they don't, then it is due to "repression."
2. They are unwilling to look closely or critically at the phenomena they claim (e.g, evidence for
bigfoot?) even though such things CAN be studied scientifically.
3. They try to place the burden of proof on the "skeptic" where it does NOT belong (e.g., how can one
prove 100% that UFOs don't exist?). The burden of proof belongs with the claimant. Extraordinary
claims require extraordinary proof.
The Cottingly Photos - A series of photographs were taken in the small English town of Cottingly by
cousins Elsie Wright and Frances Griffiths in the 1920s. The photos showed the girls interacting with
real "fairies" and created a sensation.
1. The fairies were eventually identified as being "cutouts" from a popular children's book.
2. Carful analysis of the photos revealed thin threads hanging the cutouts from bushes.
3. It also came out that one of the girls worked part time for an uncle who owned a photo shop.
Sir Arthur Conan Doyle - English author who created the character of Sherlock Holmes (and a
friend of Harry Houdini). He believed the Cottingly fairies were real and wrote a book on the subject.
Pseudoscience and the Paranormal - Accd. to Hines, the paranormal is a "subset" of
pseudoscience. What sets it apart is a reliance upon explanations that are beyond the bounds of
established science. ESP and ghosts are "paranormal," whereas claims for various health related
gadgets, diets, and supplements are pseudoscientific but NOT paranormal.
Scientific Mistakes (N-Rays, Polywater, and Cold Fusion):
I. Rene Blondlot, N-Rays - He believed he had discovered a new form of radiation he called "NRays" (named for the University of Nancy).
1. They brightened electric sparks and rendered objects painted with a particular chemical
"luminous."
2. They were blocked by lead (like X rays).
Robert Wood, and others, were skeptical. By arranging an experiment with Blondlot, and then
secretly reversing the conditions (basically tricking Blondlot), Wood proved that N-Rays did NOT
exist.
II. Fedyakin and Polywater (anomalous water) - It had a number of distinct properties.
1. Higher boiling point than normal water.
2. Lower freezing point than normal water.
3. Fedyakin claimed it to be a "purer" form of the water molecule and several hundred papers on the
topic appeared during the 1960s.
It turned out that the properties of polywater were due to impurities "leaching" out of the glass tubes in
which it was created and stored.
III. Pons and Fleishman and Cold Fusion - Cold fusion, if it existed, has the potential to solve our
energy problems. Pons and Fleischman concluded they had succeeded because (1) their "cells"
gave off heat and (2) emitted "gamma rays."
Scientists were skeptical because they called a "news conference" BEFORE their findings had been
peer reviewed or published in a scholarly journal. Hines points out two reasons why even the best
intentioned scientists may perpetuate a false belief.
1. When attempts at replicating an exciting new finding are made, some are bound to show positive
results.
2. Findings in support of the "hypothesis" tend to be focused upon while findings that refute the
hypothesis tend to be disregarded.
Defending Untenable Claims - is not limited to pseudoscience. As these examples show, it occurs
in the more traditional sciences as well.
CSICOP (Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal) - was formed
in 1976 by a group of scientists, educators, and others. They were becoming concerned with "how
easily the public accepted almost any pseudoscientific claim."
Conspiracy Theories - This will be the first of a number of times I disagree with Hines. It does show
that he has some biases of his own! (we all do).
Why Study Pseudoscientific Claims? (4 reasons):
I. The Claims might be true:
1. Mesmerism (hypnosis) - was discredited in the 1700s. Today, though controversial, it is
recognized as a legitimate phenomenon worthy of study.
2. Rocks Falling From the Sky? - today we know that meteorites are real.
3. Accupuncture - early reports sounded farfetched. Again, though contriversial, it is now considered
worthy of scientific study.
II. Responsibility to Inform the Public:
1. Health and Nutrition quackery costs the American public $10 billion a year.
III. Psychological Issues:
1. It is important to study "perception" and "cognitive illusions" which can contribute to continued
belief in pseudoscientific phenomena.
IV. Dangers of Paranormal Claims (3):
1. Consumer Fraud - Hines points to "faith healing" and "psychic surgery." These can take money
from, and cause extreme harm to, all but esp. the ill, the desperate, and the elderly.
2. The Witch Crazes - Thousands of people were burned, tortured , or hanged during European witch
crazes during the 14th and 18th centuries.
3. "Occult" ideas and beliefs played a role in the rise of Nazism during the 1930s.
Hines Warns - If we accept relatively benign pseudoscientific claims (e.g., astrology and psychic
prediction), then it becomes easier to accept more potentially dangerous claims (e.g., that cancer
can be psychically healed, that one race is superior to all others). Is this a simple issue?
Hines Also Says - Truth is independent of belief. Is it?
Hines Chapter 5 Psychoanalysis
Why Freud's Psychoanalysis Has "Survived" - According to Hines, because of the
"unfalsifiability" of its concepts.
The Central Role of, and Problem with, "Repression" - According to Hines, a major problem with
psychoanalytic dream interpretation is that the concept of repression can be used to support and
defend any interpretation, no matter how "absurd."
Hines' Critique of Breger, Hunter, and Lane (1971) - Breger, Hunter, and Lane (1971) had judges
analyze the dream contents of patients on the days before their surgeries. They concluded that an
upcoming surgery was "symbolically" represented in the dreams of the patients. The major flaw with
this study was that: the judges knew what type of surgery each patient was facing prior to analyzing
the dreams.
Hobson and McCarley's Dream Theory - States that dreams are triggered by random bursts of
neural activity the efforts of our brains to make some sense of that activity. Events from the day or
important issues that have been "on our mind" do show up in dreams but in a pretty straightforward
manner, not needing "interpretation."
Wilhelm Fleiss, Nasal Reflex Neurosis, and Freud - Fleiss (inventor of biorhythms and friend of
Freud) believed that the nose was a secondary sex organ and that physical problems there led to
neurosis. Fleiss botched a surgery on a woman, Emma Eckstein, resulting in severe bleeding from
the nose. According to Hines, Freud (whom she was also seeing) concluded that the bleeding was a
symptom of "Emma's sexual longing Freud."
Freud on Leonardo - Freud applied his methods of analysis to historical figures. In his
psychohistory of DaVinci, he interpreted a childhood dream or fantasy (involving a bird placing its tail
in Leonardo's mouth) as an indication of Leonardo's homosexuality. I agree with Hines that this does
not prove Leonardo was homosexual, however, I don't quite follow his line of reasoning.
Hines' and Joyce's "The Dubliners" - According to Hines, an instructor of his, interpreted the
presence of "snow" in the short story to be a psychosexual representation of "semen," indicating that
Joyce had doubts about his masculinity. Hines, of course, disagrees.
Theories of Psychosexual Development, Freud's Fecal Fascination, and "Reaction Formation"
- Hines points out that Freudian theory can be made to fit any type of personality outcome and type of
toilet training. If the adult is overly neat and rigid, strict parenting seems to fit. A messy and sloppy
adult must have had permissive parenting. However, if we see the opposite (messy offspring of strict
parents) we can call upon the defense mechanism of "reaction formation" to explain how the child
(made anxious by the strict parenting) became messy and sloppy as retaliation and protection. All of
this is "POST HOC" and so offers no explanation at all.
Eysenck and Wilson on Klein's (1968) Study Utilizing the "Blackie Pictures"- Subjects reported
how much they were bothered by a picture of Blackie doing his business (#2). These reports were
correlated with scores on a paper and pencil test of obsessive compulsiveness and Klein concluded
that those scoring high on OC had strict toilet training. Problems:
1. The actual toilet training of the subjects was unknown so causality can't be inferred.
2. The Blackie Pictures Test is a "projective test" and these are notorious for their low validity.
3. Most importantly, Eysenck and Wilson (1973) offer a much simpler explanation: People who are
"neat" and "tidy" will score higher on questionnaire measures of obsessive compulsiveness and they
will also likely be more distressed by themes involving defecation and fecal matter than will less OC
folks.
"Strangers in Dreams: An Empirical Confirmation of the Oedipus Complex" - Hall (1963)
observed that, relative to females, the dreams of males featured more males, were more aggressive,
and aggression was more often directed at males than females. According to Hines, Hall ignores the
obvious, that this just reflects everyday life.
Eysenck and Wilson on Schwartz's TAT study - Hines cites a study by Schwartz (1956) in which
responses to the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) were taken as evidence that homosexual men
had poorer psychological adjustment than heterosexual men. Eysenck and Wilson (1973) suggest
that these differences were due to social and psychiatric attitudes toward homosexuality at that time
rather than to causes relating to psychoanalytic theory. At the time, DSM considered homosexuality
a psychiatric "disorder."
Repression and the Unconscious:
The Two "Real" Causes of "Infant Amnesia" - Hines notes that "infant amnesia" has long been
used to support the repression concept. Hines suggests that it is more likely that infant amnesia is
due to the following two factors:
1. lack of development of the hippocampi before age 4 or 5 and.
2. very young children not yet having the use of language for encoding events.
Unconscious Cognitive Processes - Hines recognizes that we do process information
unconsciously (e.g., the word "king" will prime or quicken response time to the word "queen" in
reaction time studies). However, he says, this is a very different kind of processing than Freud posits
in no way validates the Freudian notion of unconscious processes.
Recovered Memories and Claims of Abuse:
The Freudian Concept of Repression - Is cited by Hines as being central to the repressed (or
recovered) memory hysteria that took place in the late 1980s.
E. Sue Bloom - In her book "Secret Survivor," suggested that half (50%) of all women were sexually
abused as children. While a serious problem, this estimate is a gross exaggeration.
Repressed Memory Therapy - Refers to the patient "recovering" the memories and confronting the
abuser. According to Hines was another dangerous aspect of this movement. Many parents were
unjustly accused and much damage was done.
Elizabeth Loftus - Has produced a huge volume of work showing just how malleable memories are.
A memory is NOT like a photo or film. It is a "reconstruction." We recall bits and pieces and then we
(or worse someone else)
fills in the blanks.
Where Recovered Memories of Childhood Abuse Begin - Is usually in the office of a well meaning
but over-zealous and/or incompetent therapist.
Hines Cites Four Methods Used in Recovering Lost Memories:
1. Hypnosis.
2. Support group participation.
3. Guided imagery techniques.
4. Drugs such as sodium pentathol.
The McMartin Preschool Case and Anatomically Correct Dolls - Hines cites the "McMartin
Preschool Case" as being probably the most infamous case of innocent people being accused of
child abuse. He takes particular issue with the use of anatomically correct dolls that was used in this
and other similar cases.
Projective Tests and The "Illusory Correlation":
The Rorschach and Anastasi - Hines cites the Rorschach as being the classic example of a
"projective test." He also cites an expert in the field of psychological testing, Anna Anastasi, as
stating that "after five decades of negative results, the status of projective techniques remains
substantially unchanged" (i.e., lacking in reliability and validity).
The Illusory correlation - Refers to an incorrect belief that there is a correlation between two things
when there really is none (e.g., drawing a picture of a man with broad shoulders means the artist is
worried about his masculinity).
(Chapman and Chapman, 1967) - Utilizing the Draw a Person (DAP) test, presented college student
judges with a drawing (man with broad shoulders) and two statements, one of which describing a
symptom of the person who supposedly drew the picture (1. paranoid, 1. worried about manliness).
Although there was really no connection at all between the pictures and the symptoms described, the
student judges did perceive relationships between the pictures and symptoms described.
(Chapman and Chapman, 1969) - Showed that trained clinicians were subject to the illusory
correlation as well.
Does Psychoanalytic Therapy work? - Hines (and I) cite a number of factors that make it
difficult to determine if it (or any type of therapy) works.
1. The placebo effect - is huge with any type of psychotherapy.
2. Spontaneous Remission - with so many people in therapy at any given time, there will be cases
where their problems just go away.
3. Regression to the Mean - People seek out therapy when at their worst, so as time goes by their
symptoms are likely to decrease with or without therapy.
Smith, Glass, & Miller (1980) - In a very well known meta analytic study demonstrated that talk
therapies are better than doing nothing. All types of therapy were about equal.
Prioleau, Murdock, & Brody (1983) - However, found that talk therapies show almost no greater
effectiveness than placebo therapies.
Professionals vs. Non-Professionals - Two reviews (Durlak, 1979; Hattie, Sharpley, & Rogers,
1984) initially claimed that patients treated by professionals actually DID WORSE than patients
treated by untrained paraprofessionals.
Berman & Norton (1985) - Were critical of Hattie et al. and reanalyzed the data. They concluded
that there was NO DIFFERENCE between patients treated by professionals and patients treated by
untrained paraprofessionals.
Eysenck 1952 - Hines cites this famous study which stated that there was no difference between
psychoanalysis and placebo therapy. It should be noted that most mainstream clinicians now reject
the Eysenck study.
Hines on Behavior Therapy - Hines suggests that ONLY behavioral and cognitive-behavioral
therapies are effective. Your instructor disagrees strongly with this conclusion. A case of physics
envy???
Symptom Substitution - "Psychoanalytic theory" predicts that, since removing a symptom does not
get at the underlying problem, a different symptom will simply emerge to take its place. This does not
usually occur. Hines uses this to support his "behavior therapy" argument. I disagree.
Neurobiology and Mental Disorders - Hines notes that some disorders are now considered to be
"biologically" caused (schizophrenia, Tourette's). While he attacks the fallacy of psychoanalysis as
an approach to these problems, he does not question behavioral approaches to these "biological"
problems???
Richman's Response to Hines' Conclusions - Hines does with behavioral and cognitive therapies
what he accuses others of doing with various topics. He seizes upon the data that support his
position and ignores data to the contrary. The "problems" he finds with assessing the effectiveness of
talk therapies apply equally to ALL therapies! And, Smith and Glass showed that "ALL" types of
therapy worked about equally well.
Psychoanalysis and phrenology - In discussing the future of psychoanalysis (which is in the
decline), Hines agrees with an analogy first made by Dallenbach (1955), comparing psychoanalysis,
in a positive light, with "phrenology." Phrenology, while basically incorrect, did get people thinking in
terms of different brain areas having different functions.
Carl Jung - Synchronicity ("Meaningful Coincidence") refers to the idea that two things are somehow
related even though neither caused or was caused by the other. Hines says finding "meaningful
coincidences" is easy if you look for them.
Humanistic psychology - Popularized by Maslow and Rogers, developed during the mid 20th
century out of a dissatisfaction with both the psychoanalytic and behavioral approaches. It has
recently been repopularized as "Positive Psychology by Martin Seligman and others. While
humanism may be overly optimistic and possibly naive, Hines makes an important error in failing to
distinguish between "Humanistic" psychology and "Pop" psychology. They are NOT the same.
Pop psychology and the "Human Potential" Movement - Seem to be characterized by individuals
making "exaggerated" and "unwarranted" claims in the areas of love, success, mental health, well
being, etc. Here are a few.
Arthur Janov - Developer of "Primal Scream Therapy," figured that screaming about your problems
would solve them.
Leo Buscaglia - Hines does not think much of this "psychobabble" practitioner who says the
problems of the world would all go away if we would just hug and love each other: He's not too
harmful though.
Wayne Dyer - Much more successful than Buscaglia, he seems to offer a combination non-sectarian
religion and motivational self help.
John Gray - This pop psychologist (with questionable credentials) was a big hit with his "Men are
from Mars, Women are from Venus" series of self help relationship books and seminars.
Francine Shapiro and EMDR - Stands for Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing.
Orignially, a treatment for PTSD, it has expanded to other disorders. If you think that following a
therapists finger moving back and forth while re-experiencing your trauma can cure you, then this is
for you.
Lucinda Bassett - If you have been scanning TV channels late at night, you have probably seen her
testimonial filled infomercials for her products which come with the claim of completely eliminating
anxiety and depression and turning your life around. You can find her book at the major bookstores.
Dr. Phil - Is he following APA Ethical Guidelines? Does he do harm? The APA seems to be behind
him. Why?
Hines Chapter 6 Astrology, the Lunar Effect, and Biorhythms
Astrology - Has a history that goes back 4,000 years and originates in Mesopotamia. The
"horoscope" developed much more recently (about 2,500 years ago).
The Planets - Were deified (associated with specific Gods) by that ancients and influenced
personality, along with your "sign" of course. E.g., Venus had the influence of making one sensitive
and appreciative of beauty.
The Twelve Signs of the Zodiac - Were developed by grouping the stars into meaningful
perceptions as seen from earth.
Ptolemy - Lived during the second century "C.E." He was considered the greatest astrologer of the
ancient world and much of modern astrology is based on his writings.
Astrology vs. Astronomy - Hines points out that while astrologers would like to see themselves as
"scientists," they have never conducted good research. Hines specifically cites Steven Schmidt's
poor efforts at defining the personality characteristics associated with the two new signs he proposed.
Precession - Refers to the fact that the earth's orientation to its axis has gradually changed over the
centuries and astrologers have made NO corrections. So, the correspondences between the 12
constellations, and their assigned dates (and the planetary movements) that were established 2,000
years ago are NOT CORRECT TODAY.
The Planet Vulcan (no, not where Mr. Spock is from) - Another pet peeve of Hines' is that
Astrologists (and Linda Goodman in particular) hold onto the idea that there is another planet with an
orbit inside that of Mercury. Astronomers dismissed this theory long ago.
Culver and Ianna (1984) and Problems for the Proposed Forces (mechanisms) Underlying
Astrological Influence. There are 3 and all are too weak:
1. Effects of Gravity - decrease as the square of the distance between two objects. Effects of planets
and stars on a newborn must be nonexistent.
2. Tidal Forces - decrease as the cube of the distance between two objects. The mother's influence
on the newborn is 11 trillion times that of Mars.
3. Magnetic and elec-tromagnetic forces - are equally weak.
Testing Astrological Predictions:
The Sun Sign - According to astrologers like Linda Goodman, the most important astrological
influence on personality is the "Sun" sign.
Hines' Hypothetical Introvert-Extravert Experiment - The Aries personality seems to be consistent
with being extraverted. So if we run an ad for Aries and give a test of extraversion, we should find
more extraverts than introverts. A "Chi Square" test of statistical significance is done (see possible
outcomes on pg. 215). Hines makes several points regarding the value and limitations of statistical
tests:
1. Statistical tests are most valuable when inspection of the data does not clearly indicate whether or
not the results are due to chance (row 1) or NOT (row 5). Probablity less than .05 (p<.05) is typically
taken as "significant."
2. While they can tell us the likelihood that a given result was due to chance factors, they cannot tell
us which factors were at work. Maybe extraverts are more likely to respond to newspaper ads (see
HInes' classroom example too).
Multiple Statistical Tests - Assume there is really NO astrological effect and we conduct a well
designed experiment (as above) 100 times. We will get a "statistically significant" result (p<.05) about
5 times due just to chance. All too often, positive findings are reported while non-findings are
discarded. This "Filing Cabinet Phenomenon" happens in ALL sciences and is a BIG BIG problem!
Mayo, White, & Eysenck - (1978) found initial support for an astrology-extraversion relationship.
However, in a 1982 re-analysis, Eysenck and Nias found this finding to be a false "artifact." The
subjects were aware of the hypothesized astrology-personality relationship and some filled out their
personality questionnaires to fit that hypothesized relationship.
Couple Compatibility - Is purported to be highly dependent on their "Sun Signs." Hines points out
that a large number of studies have failed to bear out this prediciton.
Carlson's (1985) Two Part Study of Astrological Predictions - In part 1, horoscopes were
prepared for subjects using accepted procedures. The subjects' task was to choose their horoscope
from among 3 (theirs and 2 randomly selected others). In part 2, all subjects took the CPI personality
test. Astrologers were given a subjects horoscope and three personality profiles and asked to pick
the one belonging to the subject. In both parts, no positive results were found.
"The Transylvania Hypothesis" - (AKA Moon Madness or The Lunar Effect) Refers to the idea that
if the gravitational field of the moon can dramatically effect oceans (i.e., tides), then surely it can
effect the human body which is mostly water, influencing behavior. Rotton & Kelly published a review
that explains most of the "full moon" findings.
Templer et. al. (1982) - Found that highway accidents were more common during the full moon.
However, Rotton & Kelly point out that, during the time period studied, an unusually high proportion of
full moon nights fell on weekends.
Arnold Leiber & Sherin (1972) - Found a relationship between the full moon and homicide rates in
Dade County FL. However, since they conducted 96 statistical tests, it is no surprise to us that three
reached the .05 level of significance (chance predicts 4.8).
Biorhythm Theory - Developed by Wilhelm Fleiss (a "world class crackpot" and friend of Freud's)
around 1900, an outgrowth of his theory of universal bisexuality. At the moment of birth, 3 rhythms
that influence our lives are set in motion.
1. The 23 day physical rhythm.
2. The 28 day emotional rhythm.
3. The 33 day intellectual rhythm.
Up Days - Are days when the rhythm is above "baseline" are GOOD for engaging in related activities.
Down Days - Are days when the rhythm is below baseline are BAD for engaging in related activities.
Critical Days - Are days when the rhythm is "crossing" the baseline and are especially risky. On the
dreaded Triple Critical Day (when all three rhythms are crossing) one should just stay in bed.
20% of all days are "Critical Days" - Hines (1998) reviewed 132 studies and found no more
accidents on critical days than would be expected by chance.
Why Does Biorhythm Theory Survive?
Phantom Studies - Are studies that simply don't exist. Both Gittelson (1982) and Thommen (1973)
supposedly deal with the use of Biorhythms by Japanese corporations but neither can be located.
Two Statistical Errors Described by Hines:
1. Some researchers (e.g., Williamson, 1975) suggest that - If a person was born near midnight, it
is legitimate to consider both days in calculating biorhythm predictions such as critical days. Of
course, it's not OK.
2. Hines Describes the "Shotgun Approach" - In which multiple rhythms among multiple persons
create so many possible predictions that one is likely to come to pass. Knowles and Jones (1974)
studied police-subject altercations. With three rhythms for two or three people, the possibilities for
finding "something" are literally limitless.
The "Fallacy of Personal Validation" - Recall the selective nature of human memory, we tend to
remember when predictions come true but tend to forget when they don't. See Randi's demonstration
below.
Is James Randi a Bad Guy? - Randi gave a woman biorhythm chart that was supposedly hers. She
reported it as very accurate (it was really Randi's biorhythm chart). After apologizing, he promised to
give her the right chart and did the same thing again. She reported it as even more accurate!
Hines Chapter 10 Faith Healing
Mrs. Helen Sullivan and Kathryn Kuhlman - Hines begins his chapter on faith healing with an
account of a woman suffering from cancer who went to the "Miracle Service" of healer Kathryn
Kuhlman. After the serveice:
1. That night, Helen felt so much better that she gave thanks to "the Lord and Kathryn Kuhlman."
2. The next morning she awoke in terrible pain.
3. She died two months later
Interest in Faith Healing - Increased dramatically during the 1980s with the rise of religious
fundamentalism.
The Role of Endorphins - A high level of excitement accompanies the typical faith healing service,
with music, dancing, chanting, etc. This releases "endorphins" (the body's natural pain killers) and
this is the primary cause for people feeling better right after a faith healing.
Testimonials - Some genuine, and some out and out fraud, are another factor that convinces people
that faith healing works.
Morarji Desai and Urine Therapy - Hines cites this as an example of a testimonial. In 1977 Time
magazine reported that Indian Prime Minister Morarji Desai attributed his strength and vigor at age 81
to drinking a cup of his own urine each morning.
The "Nature" of Disease - Works for the faith healer. A severely ill person will have periods when
he or she feels better (symptom severity varies) and the temporary improvement may attributed to the
faith healer. However, the overall trend is one of steadily declining health (see Fig. 21).
Regression to the Mean - As noted above, symptom severity varies. Most people seek out faith
healers when their symptoms are particularly bad. Therefore, there is a good chance that they will
feel better soon after seeing the faith healer. The healer did nothing BUT the person attributes feeling
better to the faith healer.
The Placebo Effect - Is well known and can certainly have pain lowering effects.
Effect of "Naloxone" - Hines notes that the placebo effect (for pain in particular) can be
experimentally eliminated (thereby proving its existence) by giving an injection of the drug "naloxone"
which blocks the effect of endorphins.
Spontaneous Recovery (Remission) - There are rare cases in which a cancer or other illness does
go away by itself. The "law of large numbers" tells us that a faith healer will run into a few such
cases. The cure will be attributed to the faith healer.
Cure by Biopsy - Rarely, a cancer victim may be convinced that they were healed by a faith healer
when in reality, a sample of tissue taken by a doctor for tests ended up removing the whole tumor.
Hines refers to this as cure by biopsy.
James Randi on the techniques of W. V. Grant and Peter Popov - Hines recommends Randi's
book, "The Faith Healers" for a more detailed study of techniques used.
Cold Reading - Faith healers are excellent cold readers.
W. V. Grant's Techniques - Randi reported and Hines confirmed that"
1. Before the service, staff members chat with early arrivals to collect information.
2. Staff members used "hand signals" to give Grant information about the person he was healing.
Randi on Popov - Working with a communications specialist, Randi (1986b) picked up radio signals
being sent from Popov's wife backstage to a tiny receiver hidden in his ear.
The "Wheelchair" Trick - Is commonly used by used by Grant, Popov and numerous other faith
healers. Elderly people who CAN walk are offered wheelchairs for comfort as they enter. Later,
amidst the confusion, they are helped out of the chair and a miracle is claimed.
Hines experience as an "Usher" - He was able to get a position as an usher/collector at a Grant
faith healing. He says that conservatively $100,000 in cash was taken in that night.
Faith Healers Believing in their Own Abilities - Hines cites Pat Robertson as a person who makes
many vague predictions on TV. Some people will get better and will write in. Those who don't get
better probably won't. So, the healer's belief in his or her own abilities is made stronger.
Psychic Surgery:
Sleight of Hand - Is most important tool of the psychic healer. The technique is simple but extremely
convincing. One giveaway, however, is that no matter where in the body the problem is, the surgeon
"ALWAYS works on the STOMACH."
The Philippines - Is the home of psychic surgery and most people went there at the height of its
popularity.
Andy Kaufman - A famous person who sought out psychic surgery in the Philippines as a last resort
for cancer, which did not work.
The Dangers of Faith Healing:
Hines takes this topic seriously. He says plain and simple, that "they kill people. People may be
dissuaded from seeking legitimate help and may be given bad advice like "throwing away their pills."
Christian Scientists - Hines notes that this religion forbids parents from taking their children for
traditional medical care. "Practitioners" (essentially faith healers) within the church are the source of
treatment. Accordion to Hines, deaths have resulted.
Shrines - Sometimes it is not a person but a place that heals through faith. Lourdes is the most well
known and most visited. All cases are investigated by the International Medical Community of
Lourdes and ruled upon by the church. A tiny percentage of cases are considered true miracles.
Hines Chapter 11 Health and Nutrition Quackery
Annual Cost of Useless Remedies - Is placed at $10 billion a year by Hines.
Andrew Weil - One of the "most famous" proponents of alternative medicine. Hines takes issue with
Weil's reporting of a case in which a bone cancer patient cured himself with exercise and a good diet,
because no "documentation or real evidence" was provided. Weil, a Harvard graduate, is considered
fairly mainstream by some.
Hines' Criteria for Therapy Effectiveness - A therapy can be considered effective only when it
produces improvement beyond that produced by the "placebo effect."
Placebo Effect Sources - According to Hines, any or all of the following can produce "placebo
effects": (see text example with Parkinsonism)
1. The patient.
2. The therapist.
3. The Evaluator.
Spontaneous Remission and Regression to the Mean - Hines cites both as factors that and lead
people to believe that an "alternative" therapy works (as was the case with faith healing).
Scientific Sounding Terms - Such as energy fields, auras, etc. are characteristic of alternative
medicines (accd. to Hines).
Weil and "Quantum Physics" - Hines does not like Weil and cites his use of terms like "quantum
physics" and "quantum mechanics" as examples of scientific sounding terms that have no real
meaning.
Samuel Hahneman - Was the 18th century German physician who developed the concept of
homeopathy.
Homeopathy defined - The patient can be cured by administration of extraordinarily small amounts
of a drug or substance that would, in larger doses, cause the symptoms the patient is suffering from.
Nicaraguan Study of Homeopathy - Wagner discusses a placebo controlled study by Jacobs et al.
(1994)in which children in Nicaragua suffering from diarrhea received a homeopathic treatment or a
placebo. The findings were NOT impressive and two specific flaws were noted by Wagner:
1. There was no control group that got an established effective treatment and.
2. The most severely ill children were not included in the study.
Therapeutic touch (laying on of hands) - Laying on hands is an older term which carries religious
connotations. Therapeutic touch grew out of the work of (1) Dolores Krieger, a New York University
nurse and faculty member and (2) Dora van Gelder Kunz, an Indonesian born mystic, during the
1970s.
Hines Raises Three Questions Regarding Therapeutic Touch:
1. Does the human energy field, as postulated by supporters of Therapeutic Touch, exist at all.
2. Can practitioners, in fact, detect any energy field that may exist.
3. Does Therapeutic Touch really result in demonstrable improvement.
Answer 1. Yes, humans do Emit an energy field - Heat!
Answer 2. No, The 1998 "Rosa" Study Addresses This - The first modern test of whether or not a
practitioner could detect a human energy field. The experimenter would randomly place her right or
left hand about 4" above the practitioner's hand (view was blocked). The practitioners scored right
about at chance. Emily Rosa was a nine year old girl who designed the study and co-authored its
publication.
Answer 3. The Turner et al. (1998) Study and Two Flaws - The study (funded by the Defense
Department) was to see if therapeutic touch could help reduce pain and anxiety in burn victims. They
obtained very modest positive results. However, Hines points out two flaws:
1. They used seven different outcome measures and.
2. they used inappropriate and "weak" statistical procedures.
The Long, Bernhardt, and Evans (1998) Study and its Findings - Similar to the Rosa study, they
did get positive results. However, as Hines points out, what is actually being detected is just "heat
being given off by the skin of the target subject." Nothing mystical.
Hines Conclusion on Therapeutic Touch - Given the existing data, it is not ethical to continue its
use or to bill for it.
Herbal Remedies:
"Dietary Supplements" - Use of this "labeling" legally exempts the products from need to be proven:
1. Effective.
2. Safe.
3. Consistent (in terms of containing the amount of the active ingredient specified).
Ginko Biloba, A Tiny Effect with no Real Value - Hines has reviewed the literature and concludes
that while some studies have shown a tiny "statistically significant" increase in cognitive functioning, it
is far too small to be of any practical use.
St. John's Wort, Yes for Mild Depression - According to Hines, St. John's Wort does have
demonstrated beneficial effects as a treatment for mild depression. I'm not so sure.
Naturopathy, What is it? - It grew out of the 19th century health teachings of Sylvester Graham and
Harvey Kellogg. Includes homeopath, "cleansings," joint manipulations, and other "natural"
treatments.
Hines on Urine Therapy - Hines opinion on drinking your own urine is that it won't do you much real
harm.
Magnetic Therapy and Franz Anton Mesmer - Origins go back to the 16th century and mesmerism
(animal magnetism). At the request of Louis the XVI, Benjamin Franklin then ambassador to France,
headed a committee to investigate. The conclusion was that only "the power of suggestion" was at
work.
Ramey's (1998) Review on Static and Pulsating Magnetic Fields - Hines concludes that static
magnetic fields do not reduce pain. However, no evidence is given for or against the pain reducing
ability of pulsating magnetic fields.
Magnets and Mental Illness Revisited - Early in his career, Freud was a "magnetizer." Recent
research has used strong electromagnetic fields to treat mental disorders. After some initial "buzz"
about it, I have heard nothing more.
Accupuncture - It is "controversial" like a number of other treatments (e.g., chiropractic). Hines, not
too positive, notes:
1. interest in it increased with president Nixon's visit to (and improved relations with) China in the
1970s
2. its use has been supported for dental and low back pain, probably chance findings accd. to Hines
though.
3. Its anti pain properties are likely due to the release of endorphins.
4. it has NOT been effective for weight reduction or smoking cessation.
Healing Effects of Intercessory prayer:
Sir Francis Galton and the First Study on Prayer and Well-Being - He figured that clergymen
(because they pray more) should live longer than doctors or lawyers. He found no differences.
Conti and Matthews (2000) Separating Intercessory Prayer From Placebo - They found that
patients improved more if they THOUGHT they were being prayed for. It made NO DIFFERENCE
whether or not anyone was actually praying for them or not. The placebo effect at work!