Chapter 19
States and Societies of Sub-Saharan Africa
THE CHAPTER IN PERSPECTIVE
Throughout most of the classical age, sub-Saharan Africa participated in the economy of
the eastern hemisphere to a limited degree. Geographic factors, most notably the Sahara desert,
restricted trade and communication between sub-Saharan Africa and its neighbors to the north.
Despite these boundaries, the peoples of sub-Saharan Africa developed “stateless” societies and
intricate religious concepts. The migration of the Bantu-speaking tribes brought languages and
iron metallurgy to most of the sub-Saharan region. Later the rise of trans-Saharan trade helped to
transform African life by inspiring larger, more centralized kingdoms and introducing new
religions such as Islam and Christianity.
OVERVIEW
Effects of Early African Migrations
By the year 1000 Bantu-speaking people had spread throughout most of sub-Saharan
Africa. During the middle of the first millennium B.C.E. the Bantu mastered iron metallurgy, and
they spread this skill throughout Africa by their migrations. Between 400 B.C.E. and 1000 C.E.
the population of sub-Saharan Africa expanded from around 3.5 million to over 22 million,
partially because of agricultural advancements such as the domestication of the banana. By
around 1000 C.E. the Bantu had spread throughout most of sub-Saharan Africa, and their
language differentiated into around five hundred different tongues. Early Bantu political
organization was marked by a structure often referred to as “stateless societies,” which meant
that there was no elaborate bureaucracy or hierarchy of officials. This does not mean, however,
that there was no governmental structure. Rather, family and kinship units played a much more
strategic role in providing a governing structure. Male family heads made up a village ruling
council, with the most prominent member acting as chief. Groups of villages would join together
to form a district, but apparently the government was more collective and less truly centralized.
After the year 1000 C.E. increasing population pressures and military challenges led to the rise of
more centralized governments and larger kingdoms. The best example of a Bantu kingdom
would be Kongo, which reached its peak in the fourteenth century.
Islamic Kingdoms and Empires
The rise of trans-Saharan trade, precipitated by among other things the increasing
domestication of the camel, profoundly influenced the world of sub-Saharan Africa. In addition
to more tangible trade goods such as gold or slaves, religious concepts such as Islam also crossed
the desert. A series of powerful and dynamic Islamic kingdoms, beginning with Ghana, rose to
dominate west Africa. Ghana, centered around its capital of Koumbi-Saleh, controlled the gold
trade across the Sahara. In the thirteenth century Ghana was superseded by Mali under the
leadership of the legendary lion king Sundiata. Mali dominated the trade routes and west Africa
from the thirteenth to the fifteenth century. The peak of Mali’s power came during the reign of
Mansa Musa, whose pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324–1325 is probably the single most dramatic
moment in medieval African history. Despite being a very conscious display of his wealth and
splendor, Mansa Musa’s pilgrimage was also indicative of his tremendous devotion to Islam and
the religion spread rapidly during his reign.
East Africa was also dependent on trade, except in this instance the trade went through
the Indian Ocean. Swahili city-states such as Mogadishu, Lamu, Malindi, Mombasa, Zanzibar,
Mozambique, and Sofala dominated east Africa politically and economically. Islamic merchants
exchanged goods from Persia, India, and China with the city-states. Eventually the Swahili
leaders converted to Islam. The most prosperous of the Swahili city-states was Kilwa, which was
influential from around 1300 until the city-state was sacked by the Portuguese in 1505. Central
African kingdoms such as Zimbabwe also indirectly shared in the trading prosperity. The
magnificence of stone complexes such as Great Zimbabwe speaks to the power and wealth of this
kingdom.
African Society and Cultural Development
Africa has always been, and continues to be, a land of extraordinary diversity. This
diversity expresses itself politically and linguistically but also socially and culturally. The larger
kingdoms developed social classes similar to most other societies studied so far, while the smaller
states and stateless societies created a more fluid social situation. In these smaller states,
conditions such as kinship, age groupings, and sex and gender expectations played a more
important role in establishing social position. Even considering the dominant role played by men
politically, women in sub-Saharan Africa possessed more opportunities than did women in other
parts of the world. Even the arrival of Islam did not substantially worsen the condition of
women in sub-Saharan Africa. Private ownership of land was not an established institution. This
fact made the possession of slaves an important barometer of personal wealth. As many as ten
million African slaves were shipped north as part of the trans-Saharan slave trade between 750
and 1500 C.E. The Zanj slave revolt led by Ali bin Muhammad expressed the important role that
slavery played in Islamic society. African religious life also mirrored the complexity of the
continent. Certain factors, however, such as the existence of a distant creator-god, the possibility
of reaching lesser gods and spirits associated with nature, and the role of diviners in making that
connection, were common motifs. The arrival of Islam and to a lesser extent Christianity, as seen
in the kingdom of Axum, brought about a transformation of African religious life. Nevertheless,
these new religions never completely eliminated the native traditions and often, in fact, took on
aspects of the original African beliefs.
I.
Effects of early African migrations
A.
Agriculture and population growth
1.
Bantu and other migrations from 2000 B.C.E.--1000 C.E.
a.
Spread agriculture and herding throughout Africa
b.
Displaced and/or absorbed hunting/gathering/fishing people
c.
Iron metallurgy after 500 B.C.E. facilitated clearing more land
d.
Yams, sorghum, and millet cultivated
e.
Introduction of bananas after 500 C.E. caused migration and
population surge
2.
Population growth: from 3.5 million in 400 B.C.E. to 22 million by 1000
C.E.
B.
African political organization
1.
Kin-based society the norm (sometimes called "stateless society")
a.
Early societies did not depend on elaborate bureaucracy
b.
Societies governed through family and kinship groups
c.
Village council consisted of male family heads
d.
Chief of a village was from the most prominent family head
e.
A group of villages constituted a district
f.
Villages chiefs negotiated intervillage affairs
2.
Chiefdoms
a.
Population growth strained resources and increased conflict
b.
II.
Some African communities began to organize military forces,
1000 C.E.
c.
Powerful chiefs overrode kinship networks and imposed
authority and conquered
d.
Examples: Ife and Benin
3.
Kingdom of Kongo
a.
Villages formed small states along the Congo River, 1000 C.E.
b.
Small states formed several larger principalities, 1200 C.E.
c.
One of the principalities overcame its neighbors and built
kingdom of Kongo
d.
Maintained a centralized government with a royal currency
system
e.
Provided effective organization until the mid-seventeenth
century
Islamic kingdoms and empires
A.
Trans-Saharan trade and Islamic states in west Africa
1.
After 300 C.E. camels replaced horses and donkeys as transport animals
a.
Camels' arrival quickened pace of communication across the
Sahara
b.
Islamic merchants crossed desert and established relations
2.
The kingdom of Ghana became the most important commercial site in
west Africa
a.
Provided gold (most important), ivory, and slaves for traders
from north Africa
b.
Exchanged for horses, cloth, manufactured goods, and salt
c.
Koumbi-Saleh, capital city of Ghana, a thriving commercial
center
d.
Ghana kings converted to Islam by the tenth century, didn't
force on others
e.
Nomadic raids from the Sahara weakened the kingdom in the
early thirteenth century
3.
Sundiata, or lion prince, built Mali empire (reigned 1230-1255 C.E.)
4.
Mali empire and trade
a.
Controlled and taxed almost all trade passing through west
Africa
b.
Enormous caravans linked Mali to north Africa
c.
Besides the capital Niani, many other prosperous cities on
caravan routes
5.
Mansa Musa, Sundiata's grandnephew (reigned 1312-1337 C.E.)
a.
Made his pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324-1325 with huge caravan
b.
Upon return to Mali, built mosques
c.
Sent students to study with distinguished Islamic scholars in
northern Africa
d.
Established Islamic schools in Mali
6.
Decline of Mali due to factions and military pressure from neighbors and
nomads
7.
The Songhay empire replaced Mali by the late fifteenth century
B.
The Indian Ocean trade and Islamic states in east Africa
1.
Swahili is an Arabic term meaning "coasters"
a.
Dominated east African coast from Mogadishu to Sofala
b.
Spoke Swahili, a Bantu language, supplemented with some
Arabic words
c.
III.
Trade with Muslim merchants became important by the tenth
century
2.
The Swahili city-states
a.
Chiefs gained power through taxing trade on ports
b.
Ports developed into city-states governed by kings, eleventh and
twelfth centuries
3.
Kilwa: good example of busy city-state on east coast; exported gold
4.
Zimbabwe was powerful kingdom of east Africa
a.
By the ninth century, chiefs began to build stone residences
(Zimbabwe)
b.
Magnificent stone complex known as Great Zimbabwe in the
twelfth century
c.
Eighteen thousand people lived in Great Zimbabwe in the late
fifteenth century
d.
Kings organized flow of gold, ivory, and slaves
5.
Islam in east Africa
a.
Ruling elite and wealthy merchants converted to Islamic faith
b.
Conversion promoted close cooperation with Muslim merchants
c.
Conversion also opened door to political alliances with Muslim
rulers
African society and cultural development
A.
Social classes
1.
Diversity of African societies: villages, kingdoms, empires, city-states
2.
Kinship groups: extended families and clans as social and economic
organizations
a.
Communities claimed rights to land; no private property
b.
Village council allocated land to clan members
3.
Sex and gender relations
a.
Men undertook heavy labor
b.
Women were responsible for child rearing, domestic chores
c.
Men monopolized public authority, but women enjoyed high
honor as the source of life
d.
Aristocratic women could influence public affairs
e.
Women merchants commonly traded at markets
f.
Sometimes women organized all-female military units
g.
Islam did little to curtail women's opportunities in sub-Saharan
Africa
4.
Age grades
a.
Assumed responsibilities and tasks appropriate to their age
grades
b.
Age group formed tight circle of friends, later allies
5.
Slavery
a.
Most slaves were captives of war, debtors, criminals
b.
Worked as agricultural labor or sold in slave markets
c.
Slave trade increased after the eleventh century
d.
Demand for slaves outstripped supply from eastern Europe
e.
Slave raids of large states against small states or villages
f.
Zanj slave revolt in Mesopotamia in tenth century
B.
African religion
1.
Creator god as source of world order
2.
Lesser gods and spirits
a.
Often associated with natural features
C.
b.
Intervened in the workings of the world
c.
Believed in ancestors' souls; had many rituals
3.
Diviners mediated between humanity and supernatural beings
a.
Interpreted the cause of the people's misfortune
b.
Used medicine or rituals to eliminate problems
c.
African religion was not theological but practical
The arrival of Christianity and Islam
1.
Early Christianity in north Africa
a.
Christianity reached north Africa during the first century C.E.
b.
Christian kingdom of Axum in Ethiopia (fourth century C.E.)
2.
Ethiopian Christianity
a.
Missionaries translated Bible and popularized Christianity there
b.
Carved churches out of solid rock
c.
Solomonic dynasty claimed descent from Israelite kings
(thirteenth century)
d.
Kebra Negast fictionalized account of lineage; was popular with
Rastafarians
3.
African Islam
a.
Appealed strongly to ruling elite and merchants of sub-Saharan
Africa
b.
Converts took their religion seriously; they built mosques and
schools, invited experts
c.
Accommodated African gender relations; women retained more
freedoms
d.
Supplemented rather than replaced traditional religions
SIGNIFICANT INDIVIDUALS
Mansa Musa (p. 437) - Ruler of Mali empire, grand-nephew of Sundiata; reigned
from 1312 to 1337; well known in Islamic world for his grand pilgrimage to
Mecca in 1324-1325; policies greatly promoted Islamic faith in his empire.
Sundiata (pp. 429, 436-37) - Founder of the Mali empire, known as the lion
prince, reigned 1230-1255 as a Muslim king; hero in the oral tradition of west
Africa.
CHAPTER GLOSSARY
age grades (pp. 443-44) -Age groups of sub-Saharan Africa, also called "age
sets;"in communal life, members of different age grades assumed different
responsibilities or tasks appropriate their levels of strength, energy, maturity,
and experience.
Bantu (pp. 430-33) -Peoples of sub-Saharan Africa; originated in the region
around modern Nigeria during the second millennium B.C.E. and spread
throughout almost all sub-Saharan Africa by about 1000 C.E.; established
divergent societies, but all spoke tongues belonging to the Bantu family of
languages.
Great Zimbabwe (p. 440) -Capital city of Zimbabwe; a magnificent stone
complex situated between the Zambesi and the Limpopo Rivers; up to eighteen
thousand residents lived in the city during the late 15-th- century.
Kilwa (pp. 439-40) -One of the Swahili city-states that emerged on the east
African coast during the 11-th- or 12-th- century; actively participated in trade of
the Indian Ocean basin and enjoyed tremendous prosperity; suffered a
devastating sack by Portuguese mariners in 1505.
kingdom of Axum (p. 446) -Christian kingdom of northeast Africa, located in the
highland of modern Ethiopia; converted to Christian faith in mid-4-th- century
C.E.; developed Christianity largely in isolation from the 8-th- century, and
reestablished relations with Christians of other lands from the 16-th- century.
kingdom of Ghana (p. 435) -Islamic state of west Africa, situated between the
Senegal and Niger Rivers in a region straddling the border between the modern
states of Mali and Mauritania; emerged probably as early as the 5-th- or 6-thcentury C.E.; kings converted to Islam by about the 10-th- century; became the
most important commercial site of west Africa, trading gold, ivory, and slaves
with Muslim merchants during later centuries; collapsed during the early 13-thcentury.
kingdom of Kongo (p. 433) -Early Bantu kingdom, established during the 14-thcentury in the valley of the Congo River (also known as the Zaire River), which
embraced much of modern-day Republic of Congo and Angola; maintained
effective authority until the mid-17-th- century.
Koumbi-Saleh (p. 435) -Capital city of Ghana kingdom, also a thriving
commercial center with population of some fifteen thousand to twenty thousand
people from the 11-th- to the early 13-th- century.
Mali empire (pp. 429, 436-37) -Large Bantu empire of west Africa, established by
the lion prince Sundiata on the ruins of the Ghana state during the early 13-thcentury; probably the wealthiest land in sub-Saharan Africa; known for its gold
trade; overcome by Songhay empire by the late 15-th- century.
"stateless societies"(p. 432) -One form of social organization adopted by the
Bantu in sub-Saharan Africa; governed mostly through family and kinship
groups without elaborate hierarchy of officials or a bureaucracy.
Swahili (pp. 438-39) -Peoples of the east African coast; spoke Swahili, a Bantu
language supplemented with words and ideas borrowed from Arabic;
established a number of powerful city-states along the coast by the 11-th- and 12th- centuries.
Zimbabwe (p. 440) -Interior kingdom of south-central Africa, emerged from a
chiefdom to a state by the early 12-th- century; actively participated in trade of
gold, ivory, and slaves.
Sub-Saharan African Kingdoms(DUE JANUARY 3 rd)
1.
Topic One: Political Organization in Sub Saharan Africa…
What does “Sub-Sahara” mean?
2.
Why did Africa tend to embrace “kin-based” political systems?
3.
What were the advantages and disadvantages of this system?
4.
Why did the Kongo emerge as a state that was based upon more centralized political
authority?
1.
Topic Two: Trade and Empire
“The introduction and usage of the camel ranks as one of the most important biological
introductions to any culture in human history” Would you agree or disagree with this
statement?
2.
What was Africa’s main source of trade along the sub-Saharan trade routes?
3.
Discuss the ascension of the kingdom of Ghana.
4.
How did Islam fuel the development of Africa and trade?
1.
Topic Three: Mali and Sundiata
How did Islam relate to the development of Mali?
2.
What makes Sundiata one of Africas most significant regional leaders, an African
Charlemagne if you will?
3.
Discuss the role of the Hajj in the development of Mali, consider Sundiata’s famous trek.
4.
Why was Mali a kingdom that centralized its political rule?
1.
Topic Four: East Coast Trade
What is unique about Swahili culture?
2.
How does Islam relate to the development of East Africa?
1.
2.
1.
Topic Five: Zimbabwe and Indian Ocean Trade
Discuss the unique features of Zimbabwean civilization.
How did East Africa fit into the Indian Ocean trade routes and what benefits did they
derive from it?
Topic 6: Diversity and Class
Communism is described as an economic system in which the benefit of all consumes the
livelihood of all participants, person’s work for the benefit of the community rather than
themselves. In this respect how were many African civilizations communal rather than
individualistic?
2.
What were the specific roles that Men and Women played? Was Africa a patriarchy or
Matriarchy?
3.
How were women treated in Islamic culture?
4.
Discuss Ibn Battuta’s notations on the treatment of Women in the African world and how
this is contradictory to the Arab world.
5.
How was African slavery different from your historical perspective on slavery?
6.
What was the Zanj revolt?
1.
Topic 7: Religion
How were African religions different from Islam?
2.
What types of questions did African religions usually attempt to answer?
3.
Discuss the components of Ethiopian Christianity?
4.
What was the overall impact of Islam on Africa?
5.
Did Africa change Islam to suit its own needs? If so how?