The Role of Acculturation in the Body Image Perceptions of Immigrants
Anurag Hingorani
University of Technology Sydney
Faculty of Business
School of Marketing
P.O. Box 123, Broadway NSW 2007, Australia
Phone: +61 2 9514 3543
E-mail: Anurag.Hingorani@uts.edu.au
Lynne Freeman
University of Technology Sydney
Faculty of Business
School of Marketing
P.O. Box 123, Broadway NSW 2007, Australia
Phone: +61 2 9514 3539
E-mail: Lynne.Freeman@uts.edu.au
Abstract
The aim of this research is to examine the role of acculturation in the body image
perceptions of an immigrant community in Australia, namely, Indian-Australians.
Acculturation is the process of change an individual experiences moving cultures, during
which values, attitudes and societal standards of the new culture can be adopted. Body
image is a multidimensional construct characterized by perceptions of, attitudes toward,
and values about the body. This research builds on existing cross-cultural, body image
research by applying a qualitatively assessed and multi-dimensionally constructed
perspective of acculturation and utilizing avatars (i.e., digital visual representations of the
‘self’) to understand perceptions.
Extended Abstract
Body image has been investigated for centuries, however, theorists and practitioners alike
are yet to achieve a complete understanding of this complex and multi-dimensional
construct. Particularly over the past 50 years, body image research has proliferated in
divergent areas of research (Cash 2004) ranging from the social sciences to medical
sciences. One of the major areas has been in the area of cross-cultural studies, and the
impact ethnicity has upon the development of body image perceptions (e.g., Abrams and
Stormer 2002; McCabe, Ricciardelli, Mellor, and Ball 2005; Ogden and Elder 1998;
Pompper and Koenig 2004; Sheffield, Tse, and Sofronoff 2005; Tiggemann and Ruutel
2001). These studies attempted to investigate ethnic variations of the body image
construct by comparing and contrasting a Western culture against an ethnic culture.
However, many of these studies involved ethnic participants who either reside in a
Western country or have had significant exposure to Western values and attitudes. They
have failed to take into consideration the possible influence of exposure to, and/or
adoption of, Western values and attitudes on their participants’ body image perceptions
(e.g., Altabe 1998; Goodman 2002; Ogden and Elder 1998; Pompper and Koenig 2004;
Sheffield et al. 2005). Soh, Touyz, and Surgenor (2006) believe that the results of these
studies are limited as the role or influence of acculturation to the Western society was not
considered.
In this research, body image has been defined as a “multidimensional construct
characterized by perceptions of, attitudes toward, and values about the body” (Cash 2004,
216). Acculturation is defined as the process of change an individual experiences moving
cultures (Berry 1990). Values, attitudes and societal standards are adopted within this
process, which in many cases may result in a change of an individual’s ethnic identity
(Berry 1990). Soh et al. (2006, 55) suggest that the study of the impact that acculturation
has on body image will provide a way forward in “teasing out” the relationship between
body image concerns and culture.
Body image studies that have attempted to investigate the impact of acculturation (e.g.,
Ball and Kenardy 2002; Soh et al. 2006) have largely conceptualised it uni-dimensionally
and measured it quantitatively. They have assessed the extent or degree of acculturation
using proxy measures such as generational status (first-generation or second-generation).
In order to achieve a contextual and multi-dimensional understanding of the acculturation
experience, Cabassa (2003) believes that existing quantitative measures should be
complemented with a qualitative methodology. This will produce a richer picture of what
particular areas of a person’s life, including body image perceptions, change, when living
in a new culture.
Building on our previous research (Agudera, Freeman, and Hingorani 2007), this research
project aims to extend body image research, which so far has predominantly assessed
acculturation uni-dimensionally and quantitatively, by utilizing qualitative methods to
examine the acculturation experience as a multi-dimensional construct, and avatars, i.e.,
digital visual representations of the ‘self”, to understand body image perceptions.
Specifically, this research has the following objectives:
1. To understand the impact of socio-cultural influences of media, peers and family,
on an individual’s perceptions of body image.
2. To investigate generational differences in body image perceptions.
3. To identify any ethnic variations in body image perceptions across two cultures.
4. To investigate the factors that shape the acculturation experience and the impact
they have on an individual’s body image perceptions.
A qualitative focus group study was conducted to allow for a contextual and holistic
investigation of the relationship between the two complex constructs of body image and
acculturation. Discussions in focus groups were guided by the research objectives and
centered on perceptions of ‘ideal self’, ‘actual self’, and a ‘typical Australian’. Leadingedge technology was developed to allow focus group participants to first individually
create avatars and then interpret them for the group. Generally speaking, avatar-creation
is tantamount to a visual projective technique. The creation of avatars facilitated clearer
articulation and discussion about body image issues, which might otherwise be unclear or
incomplete, given the reliance on participants’ drawing skills, and ability to communicate
visually using traditional paper-and-pencil methods. Prior research has demonstrated the
effectiveness of visual projective techniques to understand body image issues in a multicultural context (Haward 1955; Hayslip Jr., Cooper, Dougherty, and Cook 1997).
Most research on body image issues has focused on women, as does this research.
However, to date, there has been little research on body image in the Indian-Australian
community, which is growing rapidly (ABS, Australian Social Trends 2003). Hence, this
particular immigrant community was selected. Specifically, the focus group sample
consisted of females with Anglo and Indian heritages in an Australian context, and from
two generations, namely, Generation Y (aged 20-25 years, approximately) and Baby
Boomers (aged 43-55 years, approximately).
Generational status is a common proxy variable for assessing acculturation in quantitative
research. It is employed under the premise that later generations experience acculturation
at a much faster rate, whilst first-generation immigrants tend to maintain and hold
fervently on to their ethnic values and attitudes. First-generation immigrants are those
born overseas, second-generation immigrants are those who were born in the host country
but their parents were born overseas and third- or greater generation immigrants are those
who were born in the host country along with their parents (Valentine 2001). To gain a
deeper understanding of the acculturation process, generational status was employed
qualitatively by exploring the manner in which first- and second-generation immigrants
have experienced acculturation and investigating the extent to which the adoption of
Australian attitudes and values has affected the development of body image perceptions
across two generations. Therefore, one of the Indian-Australian focus groups consisted
of first-generation immigrants, and the other, second-generation immigrants.
By examining two different generations of Indian-Australians, it is likely that some of the
differences in body image perceptions might be due to external influences, which are not
acculturation-related. To ensure that acculturation-related differences in the Indian
generations are clearly captured, inter-generational differences and similarities between
Generation Y and Baby Boomer Anglo-Australian groups were studied as a “control”.
Prior cross-generational body image research on Filipino- and Anglo-Australians
(Agudera et al. 2007) that did not involve computer-generated avatars found similarities
and differences between the various groups. For example, the older Anglo-Australian
group felt that the younger generation have become more materialistic and more
concerned with themselves but that they were just as concerned with their body image
when they were their age. The older Filipino-Australian group believed that because they
lived on the very basics in the Philippines and had less affordability and access to
consumer items, they were less materialistic and concerned with appearance, fashion and
body image than the younger generation.
Findings similar to the Filipino research are expected in this research on IndianAustralians when the data are completely analyzed. However, what has been determined
via observation is that unlike the Filipino research, the use of cutting-edge technology to
create avatars enabled participants in this research to more completely communicate their
perceptions, and focus on issues surrounding body image.
References
Abrams, Laura and Colleen Stormer (2002), “Sociocultural Variations in the Body Image
Perceptions of Urban Adolescent Females,” Journal of Youth and Adolescence,
31(6), 443-450.
Agudera, Michelle, Lynne Freeman, and Anurag Hingorani (2007), “Body Image and the
Effect of the Acculturation Experience: A Filipino Perspective within an
Australian Context,” unpublished thesis of the first author.
Altabe, Madeline (1998), “Ethnicity and Body Image: Quantitative and Qualitative
Analysis,” International Journal of Eating Disorders, 23(2), 153-159.
Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) (2003), Australian Social Trends 2003 (updated 20
April 2006).
Ball, Kylie and Justin Kenardy (2002), “Body weight, body image, and eating
behaviours: Relationships with ethnicity and acculturation in a community sample
of young Australian women,” Eating Behaviors, 3, 205-216.
Berry, John (1990), “Psychology of Acculturation,” Cross-Cultural Perspectives:
Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, Vol. 37, ed. J. Berman, Lincoln, NE:
University of Nebraska Press, 201-234.
Cabassa, Leopoldo (2003), “Measuring Acculturation: Where We Are and Where We
Need to Go,” Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 25(2), 127-146.
Cash, Thomas (2004), “Body Image: past, present and future,” Body Image, 1(1), 1-5.
Goodman, Robyn (2002), “Flabless is Fabulous: How Latina and Anglo Women Read
and Incorporate the Excessively Thin Body Ideal into Everyday Experience,”
Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, 79(3), 712-727.
Haward, L.R.C. (1955), “Some Inter Cultural Differences on the Draw-a-Man Test: Part
III, Conclusion,” MAN, 55, 40-42.
Hayslip Jr., Bert, Caren Cooper, Linda Dougherty, and Diane Cook (1997), “Body Image
in Adulthood: A Projective Approach,” Journal of Personality Assessment, 68(3),
628-649.
McCabe, Marita, Lina Ricciardelli, David Mellor, and Kylie Ball (2005), “Media
Influences on Body Image and Disordered Eating Among Indigenous Adolescent
Australians,” Adolescence, 40(157), 115-127.
Ogden, Jane and Charlotte Elder (1998), “The Role of Family Status and Ethnic Group
on Body Image and Eating Behavior,” International Journal of Eating Disorders,
23(3), 309-315.
Pompper, Donnalyn and Jesica Koenig (2004), “Cross-Cultural-Generational Perceptions
of Ideal Body Image: Hispanic Women and Magazine Standards,” Journalism
and Mass Communication Quarterly, 81(1), 89-107.
Sheffield, Jeanie, Kathryn Tse, and Kate Sofronoff (2005), “A Comparison of BodyImage Dissatisfaction and Eating Disturbance among Australian and Hong Kong
Women,” European Eating Disorders Review, 13, 112-124.
Soh, Nerissa, Stephen Touyz, and Lois Surgenor (2006), “Eating and Body Image
Disturbances across Cultures: A Review,” European Eating Disorders Review,
14, 54-65.
Tiggemann, Marika and Eha Ruutel (2001), “A Cross-Cultural Comparison of Body
Dissatisfaction in Estonian and Australian Young Adults and its Relationship with
Media Exposure,” Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 32(6), 736-742.
Valentine, Sean (2001), “Self-Esteem, Cultural Identity and Generational Status as
Determinants of Hispanic Acculturation,” Hispanic Journal of Behavioral
Sciences, 23(4), 459-468.