WASH Cluster – Water in Emergencies
W11.8
Handout
W11 D – Sustainability in the Drylands
This material has been taken from: ACF-IN (2008) ‘How to make projects sustainable and successfully
disengage in vulnerable contexts; A practical manual of recommendations & good practice based on a
case study of ACF-IN water, sanitation & hygiene projects’
Context specific factors relating to sustainability in the drylands
Working in the drylands (arid and semi-arid lands), is not the same as working in other contexts. The
drylands or arid and semi arid lands (ASALs) are complex and the dynamics are changing. Sustainability
is particularly complicated in the dryland areas. A few of the key issues which should be understood
with respect to working in the drylands and which will affect sustainability of WASH include:

Water management and linkages with pasture – Pastoralist societies often have traditional
management systems for water sources, which also link the use of the water to that of the
surrounding pasture. Understanding traditional management systems may assist in designing
appropriate management systems for new or improved water sources, although care also needs to
be taken to ensure that women are not excluded from decision making, management, or access, as
this may have been the case with traditional management systems. If communities do not
understand and commit to new project designs, there may be limited engagement by the
communities in undertaking maintenance of community structures after the agency leaves.

Land and water rights, land tenure systems and conflicts – Customary rights to water and land
are sometimes not the same as those identified in government laws and policies. This can lead to
frictions and conflicts over the use of water sources, either between pastoralists, farmers and
people of other livelihood bases, or between pastoralist clans or communities. Care must be taken
that both customary and legal rights to water and land are understood when designing a new water
project. Siting a water point inappropriately in an area where there are warring clans or where
water is a scarce resource can lead to an increased risk of conflict over the new resource, or to the
project becoming the target of an existing conflict. These could lead to the abandonment of the
water source, sabotage, or loss of life.

Mobility, herd sizes, climate change and environmental degradation – Pastoral communities have
traditionally migrated with their cattle following a route sensitive to the availability of water and
pasture. Today some migrate, others practice transhumance, where they have a settled base but
move and come back to the same base, and others have become settled. People of other livelihood
bases also live in the drylands. Putting in boreholes with high yields into dryland areas can have
wide ranging impacts including modifying pastoral migration patterns and leading to increased
environmental destruction around the water source, for some distance if the herd sizes are large.
It can also lead to increasing settlement of farmers in semi-arid areas, increasing the demand on
the water source, or to pastoralist communities moving into areas where people of other livelihood
bases live, such as hunter-gathers. Both can then add additional stress to the water source or
facility and the surrounding environment as well as on the populations concerned. Climate change
is also modifying the availability of water and can hence affect the sustainability of existing or new
sources over time.

Power in pastoral societies & gender – Simply transferring the standard community management
model to pastoral communities is likely to pose additional challenges to those usually faced for
sustainability over the longer term 1. This is particularly because of the stark power differences
within pastoral societies and the power that large animal owners hold, versus those who have few
animals and also the stark differences in power relating to gender. Different models for
management should also be considered such as the use of the private sector or supporting small
family groups or women’s groups to manage sources or facilities. The power differences can lead to
powerful animal herders taking over community water projects or committees after the external
support agency has left and the reduction in access for the rest of the community or their
disengagement in the planned operation and maintenance regimes. Women may also be excluded
from access to water sources or may be expected to wait until the animals have taken their water.
They may not have any information on or control over the funds which are collected for
maintenance, nor have the power to ensure that the maintenance is undertaken. They may not
1
If the standard community voluntary committee is to be used, additional longer term support is likely to be required.
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WASH Cluster – Water in Emergencies

W11.8
have been involved in the decision making on the project and hence the project may not be
relevant to their needs which may in turn reduce their interest in ensuring that the maintenance of
the systems is undertaken.
Pastoralism in transition and pastoralist institutions – The traditional pastoralist institutions,
community relations and methods for sustaining communities are also changing or in transition. If
the complexity of pastoral societies and their transition are not understood when designing
programmes, there can be a risk of undermining what remains of traditional institutions and
creating additional dependency, which could in turn reduce people’s coping capacities further.
This has an impact on sustainability as communities may wait for agencies to return or new ones to
arrive, to undertake major rehabilitation or to provide new schemes, rather than maintaining the
existing ones themselves. The changing nature of the drylands and communities within the
drylands, poses significant challenges to humanitarian and development actors working to support
communities within them. It poses most challenges on identifying the most appropriate
management structure to ensure on-going sustainability.
Drought cycle management – Efforts are being made to minimise the impacts of the increasing
frequency of droughts by focussing on ‘drought cycle management’, which aims to build communities
coping strategies so that the impacts of the droughts are less. The drought cycle includes stages where
efforts are concentrated on drought mitigation, drought preparedness, emergency response and relief
and reconstruction. Making progress on ensuring sustainable and well managed water resources has the
multiple effect of contributing to improve people’s coping capacities and hence in turn to reduce the
risk of unnecessary movement or destitution, both of which will in turn reduce the chances of
sustainability of water facilities and hence can form part of a vicious spiral.
‘National Policy for the Sustainable Development of Arid and Semi Arid Lands of Kenya, April 2007’
This policy was prepared using a participatory approach and provides a shift in policy from one which
viewed the Arid and Semi-Arid Lands (ASALs) as unproductive and pastoralism as an out-dated and
ineffective mode of lifestyle and production, to a policy which acknowledges the productive
contribution of the ASALs to Kenya and recognises the value of the traditional pastoral model and its
suitability to the ecologically sensitive ASALs. The strategy has been developed with 3 different
perspectives – short term (5 years), medium term (10-15 years) and long term (25-30 years).
As part of the policy it also highlights a range of gender issues and strategies which it proposes to
respond to these issues, which are related to girls education, increasing access to credit facilities,
improving the legal environment for women to own property, the use of gender sensitive extension
materials.
In terms of water supply in the ASALs the policy proposes the following:

Appropriate community owned water harvesting structures, such as pans and dams which are
sustainable and environmentally friendly, are to be emphasised before the use of groundwater.

New boreholes will only be drilled after comprehensive environmental and social assessments and
when consensus is agreed by all stakeholders.

The potential for irrigation will be explored in the semi-arid areas.

The GoK efforts are now being supplemented by various actors including the private sector, local
authorities and NGOs.

Priority actions will include the protection and management of water catchment areas and the
promotion and encouragement of the community / private sector in the management of water
facilities.

The GoK will explore the implementation of the full Water Act, through cost sharing and the
privatisation of the urban supplies and in remote areas, where privatisation may not be feasible,
through community groups running water facilities with the GoK providing back up services.

A plan to build capacity for water facility rapid response teams to be financed by the communities
and respective authorities.

De-silting of dams and pans and opportunities for the treatment of water resources to be explored.
Under social and community development the policy also notes the need to expand training
programmes and strengthen institutional capacity in ASAL management including the public and private
sectors, NGOs and communities at all levels and it also encourages the development of human and
social capital ‘through the development of community groups and associations and business
development groups, livestock marketing and farmers’ cooperatives…’
Session Plan – W11 D: Context specific – sustainability in the drylands
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WASH Cluster – Water in Emergencies
W11.8
Proven sustainable technologies for the drylands
The selection of appropriate technology for the drylands will be a key factor in the long term
sustainability of the system. Deep boreholes may provide an all round service for water in very dry
environments but they are expensive to construct, can have a negative impact on the environment due
to the focus on a limited area of large numbers of people and animals and need a rigorous operation
and maintenance regime.
Proven dryland sustainable technologies
Water Source
Type
Description2
Charco Dam
The shapes of these dams are like a calabash cut in half. They are dug
deeper in the middle to try and reduce evaporation loss. These dams are
common in the semi-arid parts of Tanzania.
Groundwater dam
- sand storage
dam
The dam impounds water in sediments caused to accumulate behind the dam
and the water is protected from evaporation by the sand.
Groundwater dam
- sub-surface dam
The dam is constructed below ground level and arrests the flow in a natural
aquifer. The water is stored in the sand particles behind the dam and is
protected from evaporation by the sand.
Earth reservoirs /
deep pans
collection of rain
from the ground
(hafirs)
Large ponds dug into natural depressions. Soil dug from the hafirs can be
used to form banks surrounding the reservoir to increase its volume. Hafirs
(in Sudan) typically range from 500 to 10,000 cubic meters, but larger ones
can be dug with machinery.
Ponds / Pans
Natural depressions in the ground where rainwater gathers. Pans can be
extended or deepened (and some are lined).
Rock catchments
These catch the water falling on a rock surface. The water is then caught in
a dam structure or in a tank. The ‘rock’ can also be artificially formed by
constructing a concrete surface.
Tanks for
rainwater from
roofs
A range of different sized tanks can be constructed to collect water from
roofs. They can also be made from a range of materials – cement blocks,
ferrocement, bricks, barbed wire and other materials.
Underground tanks
with ground
catchment
(birkads)
Birkads are tanks excavated and lined with concrete blocks or ferro-cement
which store water which is directed into it from the ground surface. Usually
they are rectangular but this can result in cracking when they dry. Oval
shaped birkads are stronger. Adding silt traps can reduce silt loads. The
birkads can also be used as tanks to store water from tankers. Birkads can
have roofs. A range of other materials can also be used for constructing
underground tanks.
Valley dam
A valley dam is constructed across a naturally occurring valley to collect
water in a reservoir.
2
References for the information in this table are the series of publications by Nissen-Petersen et al on technologies for the drylands
– refer to the reference box at the end of the section.
Session Plan – W11 D: Context specific – sustainability in the drylands
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WASH Cluster – Water in Emergencies
W11.8

Hesse, C & Cotula, L (2006) ‘Climate Change and Pastoralists: Investing in people to respond to
adversity’, Sustainable Development Opinion, IIED, 2006

IIRR, ACACIA & CordAid (2004) on ‘Drought Cycle Management; A toolkit for the drylands of the
Greater Horn’ – excellent publication

Nilsson, A (2005) ‘Groundwater Dams for Small-Water Supply, ITDG

Nissen-Petersen, E et al (2006) a series of publications funded by DANIDA on: Water Surveys and
Designs; Water from Dry Riverbeds; Water from Roads; Water from Rock Outcrops; Water from
Roofs; Water from Small and Dams - downloadable free from the website:
www.waterforaridland.com

WaterAid (2002) ‘Social Conflict and Water; Lessons from north-east Tanzania’, Discussion Paper,
WaterAid
Session Plan – W11 D: Context specific – sustainability in the drylands
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