Mathematics Education and Culture:
the “CHC” Learner phenomenon
Ngai-Ying Wong
Department of Curriculum and Instruction
The Chinese University of Hong Kong
Hong Kong
In the past decades, the “CHC” (Confucian Heritage Culture) learner phenomenon had
aroused the interest of sociologists, educationalists and psychologists (Bond, 1986, 1996;
Biggs, 1994, Brand, 1987; Lau, 1996; Watkins & Biggs, 1996; Wong, 1996b, 1998a). The
apparent academic success of Asian students in international comparisons is especially
marked in mathematics (Robitaille & Garden, 1989; Lapointe, Mead, & Askew, 1992; Beaton
et al., 1996). Much effort had been made in various areas, trying to explain such a
phenomenon. Research studies were conducted with the help of conventional testing
instruments, open-ended questions and classroom observations (Cai, 1995; Ho, 1986, Morris,
1985, 1988; Stevenson & Lee, 1990; Stevenson & Stigler, 1992; Stigler & Hiebert, 1999;
Winter, 1990). Examination orientation, achievement orientation, use of repetitive learning,
synthesis of memorisation and understanding, and the use of recitation to bring about sharp
focus for better understanding were some of the themes of these research (Biggs, 1994;
Dahlin & Watkins, 2000; Hau & Salili, 1991; Leung, 1998, 1999; Marton, Watkins, & Tang,
1997; Watkins & Biggs, 1996; Zhang, 1993; Zhang & Lee, 1991).
At the same time, some tried to attribute the phenomenon to the Confucian culture. It is
often stated that salient characteristics of learning in the CHC include social-achievement
orientation, diligence, attributing success to effort, a competitive spirit and a strong belief in
the maxim “practice makes perfect” (Bond, 1986, 1996; Ho, 1986; Watkins & Biggs, 1996).
These characteristics may be the results of the de-emphasis of non-mundane pursuits in the
culture. Thus, it has become the Chinese philosophy of life to concentrate one’s efforts on
the immediate goals of this life and on how much one’s achievements can pass on to the next
generation (Qian, 1945). This was often described as the origin of collectivism (Kim et al.,
1994).
However, when we try to portray the CHC in this way, we may be unconsciously identifying
Asian/Chinese culture with Confucianism and equating Confucianism with what is said by
Confucius himself. Above all other citations of Confucius, this saying on the process of
education is the most often quoted, “Enlightenment comes when one is stunned and
understanding when one is aroused; if one can’t respond with the other three corner if a corner
is shown, then one is not in the proper track (of learning)” (Analects, 7:8). Confucius talked
about experiencing rather than indoctrination (“Does the heaven speak ? The changing of
the seasons, the growth of various beings, do the heavens speak (in order to express these
phenomena) ?” (Analects, 17:19 – see Wong, 1998b; see also Lee, 1996).
Doubt, realisation and their alternation form a central part of learning in Confucianism.
Zhu-Xi (the central figure of the neo-Confucianist movement in the Song dynasty: 960-1126)
pointed out that “Reading books (the process of learning) is the arousing of doubt when one
does not doubt and let those in doubt settle in the state of no doubt. This is where one
grows” (Li, 1270, p. 296). According to Scandura (1977), the threat of discomfort is a
prerequisite to the problem-solving process. Chan (Zen) masters also say that “A little doubt
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leads to small understanding while strong doubt leads to deep understanding”.
In fact, one
of the major tasks of Chan masters was to arouse a state of perplexity within the disciple.
This is also clear from the words of the Sixth Patriarch Hui-Neng in Chapter 10 of his
Platform Sutra (see also Wong, 1998a, 1998b).
Confucius valued individualised learning, a notion apparently quite contradictory to
collectivism, one of the perceived characteristics of the CHC. In a public lecture at the
Chinese University of Hong Kong, Ference Marton pointed out that the CHC possesses
cultural potential for the deepening of understanding by means of repetitive learning and the
following passage of Zhu-Xi was quoted. “Generally speaking, in reading, we must first
become intimately familiar with the text so that its words seem to come from our own mouths.
We should then continue to reflect on it so that its ideas seem to come from our own minds.
Only then can there be real understanding. Still, once our intimate reading of it and careful
reflection on it have led to a clear understanding of it, we must continue to question. Then
there might be additional progress. If we cease questioning, in the end there’ll be no
additional progress” (see Li, 1270, pp. 166-167; Lee, 1996, pp. 35-36). In fact, Biggs (1994)
distinguished rote learning with repetitive learning and Marton too, pointed out in the public
lecture, that continuous practice with increasing variations could deepen understanding (see
also Watkins, 1996). Confucius’ words, “Learn the new when revising the old” (Analects,
2:11) were also quoted in the lecture. In fact, scholars have pointed out that the first stance
of the Analects of Confucius on learning, “Learn and practice frequently” (Analects, 1:1)
should be interpreted as “Learn and put your knowledge into practice frequently”.
Confucius did not particularly advocate rote learning and over-drilling (see also Lee, 1996).
There are other misunderstandings of Confucius’ words. For instance, his saying that “I
transmit, but I do not create” (Analects, 7:1) do not imply that Confucians suppress creativity
(Elliott, 1999). What it actually means is the philosophical stance that truths are to be
unfolded, not man-made.
Though it was often asserted that “the unifying intellectual philosophy in the Chinese ‘great
tradition’ is Confucianism” (Yu, 1996, p.231), yet there are influences on the CHC that come
from Taoism, Buddhism and other traditions. Chan Buddhism won high regards from
Western scholars such as Fromm who took it as the blending of Taoism and Buddhism
(Fromm, 1960). Nevertheless, Chan masters throughout the ages made every attempt to
establish a suitable (learning) environment to bring about insight (sudden enlightenment) of
the learner. The sudden and gradual paths laid down by Buddhism provide a great variety of
learning experience which suits the temperament of individuals. The Buddhist philosophy
of nurturing the potential of every single individual has its own merit and so we see that the
“CHC style of education” (if there is such a notion) has far greater divergence than just rote
learning and memorisation (Wong, 1998b).
When we talk about the CHC being an examination culture, perhaps we should distinguish
learning from institutionalised learning. For instance, both the Confucian School in the
Zhau (722-481 BC) and the neo-Confucian Colleges of the Song Dynasties were somewhat
anti-establishment (if not anti-government) in their time. Moreover, there had not prior
experience of universal education which cannot be likened to the recruitment of civil servants
that started in the Han Dynasty (206BC – 220AD) and the unified (“public”) examination
system which began in the Sui (589-617) dynasty. The governments in these dynasties were
not the provider of education and thus the curricula (how one teaches) were not unified in
China, although there could be examination syllabuses and recommended textbooks (such as
the Ten Mathematical Scriptures in the Tang Dynasty – 618-906 : see, for example Li & Du,
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1976).
In sum, we should not confine ourselves to a number of perceived characteristics of CHC.
Being pragmatic, rigid and striving only for social status may not be the only characteristics.
The extent to which attention is paid to examination scores (and taking them as the only
indicator of educational success) may also vary across social classes. Over-simplification
and generalisation of the characteristics the CHC could detract us from looking ahead in the
curriculum development of these regions (Wong & Wong, in preparation).
A recent research reveals that mathematics is perceived by Hong Kong students as an
organised and a “calculable” subject where imagery, visualisation, feeling for numbers,
spatial sense and reasoning are suppressed. The students tend to possess a narrow
conception of mathematics (Wong, Lam, & Wong, 1998). That could be attributed to a
unified curriculum, a unified examination format and even a unified teaching style which
geared closely to examination requirements (some described it as “bird-cage teaching”, see
Leung, 1995; Wong, 1996c). Educationalists have called for curriculum reform which
release such a tension and some have suggested that we can put in non-routine examination
questions to make teaching non-routine, put in high-order testing items in order to promote
the teaching of higher-order skills. This lends great support from examination technology,
which claims that this is possible, in a large scale. However, we may not be aware that, in
doing so, we are, in fact, reinforcing the “examination driven-ness” of the curriculum (Hau,
1997; see also Lee, Zhang & Zheng, 1997; Zhang, 1993; Zhang & Lee, 1991). Rote learning
which result from examination-orientation (not just an examination itself) does not only
hamper intellectual growth but may not be a good tool for selection of talents since those who
succeed in examinations may have passed by means of memorising standard solutions to
stereotyped examination questions. This is clear if one analyses the situation generated from
the eight-legged essays type of examinations popular in the Ming Dynasty (1368-1636)
(Peterson, 1979).
We see from the above reasoning that there is no ground for believing that an examination
culture is an unshakable part of the CHC, bringing about a “spoon-fed” education. There are
no grounds either, for legitimising over-drilling by saying that CHC learners excel only in
rote learning and do not aim for understanding. These assertions are not justified (Wong,
1997). The “backwash effect” of examinations should be turned into a driving force to
enhance understanding rather than for screening and selection (Biggs, 1995).
Besides exploring the strengths of Chan, Confucius and Taoist traditions in nurturing the
self-development of learners, in mathematics, the ways ancient Chinese mathematics did
mathematics could also shed light on present-day mathematics teaching and learning (Fung &
Wong, 1998; Siu, 1995; Zhang, 1993).
What can be said in a prescribed curriculum, including curriculum documents and teaching
material, could be limited (Ericson & Shultz, 1992). As rightly pointed out by Lee, Zhang &
Zheng (1997) that employing administrative means is not solution. J. Stigler (see Jackson,
1997) also pointed out that we need a reform that happens in the classroom (Stigler & Hiebert,
1999). Contrary to more unification and curriculum control, we should think of creating an
environment that is conducive to learning and allows for the growth of the individual (Wong,
1993, 1996a). Such a desirable learning environment is needed regardless of what
characteristics we find in the CHC culture. Professionalism of the teacher is prerequisite to
such a genuine curriculum change that takes place beyond the issue of curriculum documents.
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Indeed we need a new breed of “scholar-teachers” to reverse the vicious circle of rote learning
(Siu, Siu, & Wong, 1993; Wong & Su, 1994).
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