Balanced
Literacy
An Overview
Balanced literacy instruction respects and addresses the needs of all learners, views teachers as informed
decision-makers, is flexible, and is research-based. A balanced literacy approach to instruction provides
students with daily opportunities to engage in various reading and writing activities to help them communicate
more effectively. In a balanced literacy framework, students participate in read alouds, shared reading, guided
reading, independent reading, and systematic word study. In addition, they engage in modeled writing, shared
writing, interactive writing, guided writing, writers' workshop, and independent writing.
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Setting Up a Balanced Literacy Classroom
Definition: The teacher designs a classroom environment that offers opportunities and space for whole-class,
small-group, and independent work. The classroom environment supports students at their instructional level,
includes activities that allow them to take risks, and provides time for the teacher to observe and encourage
student during learning.
Purpose: Students should be offered meaningful literacy activities that engage them in reading and writing.
The Role of the Teacher is:
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to set up a classroom environment that provides space for whole-class instruction, areas for small-group
work, and quiet areas for independent work;
to use flexible grouping;
to provide a classroom environment that offers students a variety of print resources, including leveled
books, big books, writing journals, charts of poems and rhymes, word walls, and collections of students'
work; and
to establish literacy centers or work stations that offer students a variety of open-ended tasks.
The Role of the Student is:
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to actively participate in guided reading groups as well as in a variety of reading and writing activities
including shared reading, independent reading, and writer's workshop; and
to complete open-ended tasks in the classroom literacy centers or work stations.
The Administrator will see:
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classroom environments that offer students time for independent reading and writing, guided reading
and writing, and shared reading and writing;
well-defined areas for whole-class, small-group, and independent work;
the use of flexible grouping;
numerous displays print resources;
a system for managing student movement; and
classroom libraries that contain a variety of literary genres (including fiction, non-fiction, poetry, and
plays), big books and leveled books.
The Role of the Parent/Family:
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to be informed about their children's classroom environment and how this environment supports student
growth throughout the school year; to support teachers in establishing a strong classroom environment
by encouraging their children to participate fully in class activities;
to offer simple resources when requested by the teacher; and
when possible, to volunteer in the classroom. The following are three examples of how a teacher might
organize learning centers in a balanced literacy classroom.
MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS HOW THEY WORK
Planning Boards: A planning board outlines how heterogeneous groups of students move during
center time. As groups of students move through the centers, the teacher provides explicit
instruction within a guided reading or writing homogenous group. Combination As the teacher
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pulls small groups of students for guided reading or guided writing, half of the remaining
students stay at their desks/tables working on independent literacy activities and half go to
learning centers. Menu of Ideas: The teacher provides students with a menu of literacy activities
from which they choose. These activities may include independent reading, response journals,
writing folders, writers' notebooks, art responses, or an open-ended literacy task.
LITERACY CENTERS WHAT THEY LOOK LIKE
Reading the Room - Children use a variety of pointers to read material posted on the classroom walls.
Book Boxes - Familiar books are stored in crates according to guided-reading groups. This activity gives
children the opportunity to practice using reading strategies on easy, familiar text and to build fluency through
reading.
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Listening Center - Students are invited to listen to and read along with familiar books.
Writing Center - The teacher provides a varied, large supply of pencils, colored pens, erasers, staplers,
tape, sticky notes, interesting stationery, envelopes, and dictionaries. The teacher may also establish a
message board or post office where children leave messages they have written for others to read.
Alphabet Center - Magnet letters, alphabet books, white boards, and lists of student names or spelling
words can be placed in the center. Children can sort and match magnetic letters, make words, or trace
alphabet books to improve their letter knowledge, phonemic awareness, phonics, and spelling.
Overhead Projector - Children can be taught ho to use the overhead projector to reread familiar poems,
rhymes, and stories that have been written on transparencies. Children can use this center to practice
their handwriting and to write their own stories on blank transparencies.
Computer Center - Students use computers to write stories, to practice spelling words, or to use
learning games that support their development as readers and writers.
Reading Center - Students may read leveled books at their independent level and may use props to
retell or act out stories.
Project or Theme Center - Activities allow students to explore self-selected research, science, or social
studies projects. This center should include resources related to themes the class is studying.
Resources:
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Foutas I.C., & Pinnell G. S. (1996). Guided reading: Good first teaching for all children. Portsmouth,
NH: Heinemann.
Fountas I.C., & Pinnell G. S. (1999). Matching books to readers: Using leveled books in guided reading,
K-3. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Reading Aloud
Definition: The teacher daily reads aloud materials that are at students' listening level but above their reading
level. Purpose: To improve students' listening skills, reading comprehension, and attitudes toward reading, and
to build vocabulary.
The Role of the Teacher Is:
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to establish a literacy-rich environment;
to share books with students and to model appropriate reading behavior;
to reread favorite books; § to read a variety of books and other materials (including magazines and
newspapers);
to include books and other materials that students can read on their own; and
to engage students in literacy-related play activities and language games.
The Role of the Student Is:
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to enjoy listening to and discussing literature read aloud;
to retell simple narrative stories;
to use descriptive language to explain and explore ideas in the literature they hear; and
to understand that print carries the message in literature.
The Administrator Will See:
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the teacher engaging students in learning how to read;
the teacher noticing and commenting on what students are able to do and are doing well;
students understanding that print carries a message;
students understanding that print is read left-to-right and top-to-bottom;
students reading along;
students making attempts to read on their own;
students making predictions;
students beginning to match spoken words with written words;
students recognizing sound-letter matches;
students showing familiarity with rhyming and beginning sounds; and
students demonstrating comprehension.
Resource:
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Cunningham, P. M., & Arlington, R. L. (1999). Classrooms that work: They can all read and write (2nd
ed.). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Longman.
Shared Reading
Definition: For a text that is usually too difficult for the student(s) to read without help, the teacher reads aloud
at rate that allows the student(s) to join in, although usually slightly behind the teacher.
Purpose: To build upon children's interests and to increase their enjoyment and appreciation of stories, poems,
rhymes, and chants.
The Role of the Teacher Is:
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to encourage students to talk about reading experiences;
to read interesting and concept-rich materials with the students;
to help students build a sight vocabulary;
to provide many opportunities for students to explore and identify sound-letter relationships in
meaningful contexts;
to add words from the reading to a classroom word wall; and
to demonstrate and develop specific reading behaviors and strategies.
The Role of the Student Is:
to understand concepts of print such as the left-to-right and top-to-bottom progression of text;
to read along with the teacher;
to make predictions about the reading;
to match spoken words with written ones;
to recognize sound-letter matches; and
to become familiar with rhyming sounds and beginning sounds of words.
The Administrator Will See:
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the teacher engaging students in learning how to read;
the teacher noticing and commenting on what students are able to do and are doing well;
students understanding that print carries a message;
students understanding that print is read left-to-right and top-to-bottom;
students reading along;
students making attempts to read on their own;
students making predictions;
students beginning to match spoken words with written words;
students recognizing sound-letter matches;
students showing familiarity with rhyming and beginning sounds; and
students demonstrating comprehension.
Source:
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Cunningham, P. M., & Allington, R. L. (1999). Classrooms that work: They can all read and write (2nd
ed.). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Longman.
Guided Reading
Definition: The teacher works with a small group of students (4-6) who are reading at about the same
achievement level and who have similar needs. The students have individual copies of the text (preferably short
selections) and independently read orally or silently-but not round robin-as the teacher observes, coaches,
prompts, and evaluates their performance. The teacher encourages students think critically about the text. Most
of the time is spent in discussion, in appreciating and enjoying the language of literature, and in sharing
personal and group insights. Oral reading is used to emphasize a particular passage or setting, to back up
statements in discussion, and to teach strategies as the need arises.
Purpose: To support and encourage the development of strategies for independent reading.
The Role of the Teacher Is:
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to give students opportunities for reading at their instructional level;
to read and discuss a range of genres;
to support the development of students' vocabularies by selecting materials that expand the their
knowledge of words and promote language development;
to model strategies and provide practice for identifying unknown words; and
to demonstrate and model strategies to use when comprehension breaks down.
The Role of the Student Is:
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to read and retell familiar stories;
to read orally with reasonable fluency;
to identify an increasing number of words by sight;
to use sound-letter associations, word parts, and context to identify new words; and
to use strategies (for example, rereading, predicting, questioning, contextualizing) when comprehension
breaks down.
The Administrator Will See:
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the teacher setting high expectations for all students;
the teacher providing regular opportunities for students to share and collaborate;
the teacher asking questions that allow for varied student responses and interpretations;
the teacher evaluating students in a manner that is consistent with the philosophy and teaching approach
of the teacher;
students increasing the number of words they recognize by sight;
students identifying new words by using sound-letter matches, pictures, and their understanding of the
story; and
students using a variety of ways to help with comprehending a story (for example, rereading, predicting,
questioning, using visual clues).
The Role of Parents/Families Is:
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to talk about their favorite books;
to read to their children and encourage them to read to them;
to encourage children to share what they are learning about reading; and
to become involved in school activities.
Resource:
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Fountas, I. C., & Pinnell, G. S. (1996). Guided reading: Good first teaching for all children. Portsmouth
NH: Heinemann.
Independent Reading
Definition: Students read with 95/100 percent accuracy, and they choose their own books and take
responsibility for working through the challenges of the text. The teacher's role is to observe, acknowledge, and
respond.
Purpose: To provide opportunities for students to apply reading strategies, develop fluency, and build their
confidence as readers, and to work on their own to improve their reading achievement.
The Role of the Teacher Is:
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to model reading enjoyment;
to match text to students' levels of fluency, accuracy, and comprehension;
to support students in choosing texts to read;
to create a community of literacy learners that includes all students;
to give students opportunities for independent reading practice;
to read and discuss a range of different genres;
to create a climate that encourages students to engage in analytic evaluation and reflective thinking; and
to monitor students' choices of materials for independent reading.
The Role of the Student Is:
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to use reading for various purposes, including the researching of topics;
to read fluently and to enjoy reading;
to use word-identification strategies automatically and appropriately when unknown words are
encountered;
to use reading strategies efficiently (rereading, questioning, clarifying, predicting, summarizing, and
contextualizing) when comprehension breaks down;
to recognize and discuss elements of different genres; and
to make critical connections between texts.
The Administrator Will See:
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the teacher daily providing time for students to read self-selected books;
the teacher taking time to demonstrate, not just assign;
the teacher encouraging students to solve their own problems and to take ownership of their own
learning;
the teacher letting students know how they will be evaluated;
the teacher communicating effectively with parents and administrators;
students reading independently with fluency and accuracy (95+percent); and
students deciding on their own to use reading for different purposes.
The Role of Parents/Families Is:
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to build their children's love of literature in all of its forms;
to visit libraries and bookstores regularly;
during family-teacher conferences, to discuss with the teacher what their children can do in reading;
to engage their children in activities that require reading for many purposes; and
to support with reading materials their children's interests or hobbies.
Resource:
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Fountas, I. C., & Pinnell, G. S. (1999). Matching books to readers: Using leveled books in guided
reading, K-3. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Systematic Word Study
Definition: Instruction used by the teacher to introduce, teach, and provide students with opportunities to
practice using their knowledge of phonemic awareness, letter recognition, letter-sound relationships, phonics,
spelling patterns, and words.
Purpose: To help students' achieve the automatic word recognition necessary for fluency and proficient
comprehension.
The Role of the Teacher Is:
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to see that all students develop phonemic awareness, to teach letters, sounds, and spelling patterns and
decoding in a systematic progression-especially to students who demonstrate a need;
to monitor students' progress consistently and to provide early intervention for students whose
demonstrated weaknesses are limiting their progress and placing them at risk of failing to learn to read;
to provide opportunities for students to use phonetic spelling as conventional spelling develops;
to provide opportunities for students to read easy and familiar books and decodable texts to facilitate the
fluency required for comprehension; and
to use activities such as word walls, word sorts, making words, and so forth to promote students' word
recognition and spelling.
The Role of the Student Is:
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to use knowledge of sounds and letters to write phonetically;
to learn to recognize high-frequency or sight words; and
to use the spelling patterns of known words to decode, read, and spell new words.
The Administrator Will See:
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whole-group or small-group explicit instruction in working with letters and words;
students referencing the word wall;
students reading easy and familiar text;
students reading decodable texts; § evidence of word banks or student dictionaries;
students writing daily at their developmental level;
students using sound boxes to decode; and
a print-rich environment with an ample classroom library or book collection of books of appropriate
levels for students to read independently and with instruction.
The Role of Parents/Families Is:
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encourage their children to make new words with magnetic letters and other devices and materials;
to listen to their children read familiar and easy text;
to play word games with their children;
to encourage their children to use phonetic and conventional writing; and
to talk regularly with the teacher about their children's progress
Resources:
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Adams, M. J. (1990). Beginning to read: Thinking and learning about print. Cambridge, MA: MIT
Press.
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Bear, D. R., & Templeton, S. (1998). Explorations in developmental spelling: Foundations for learning
and teaching phonics, spelling and vocabulary. The Reading Teacher, 52, 222 - 242.
Burns, M. S., Griffin, P., & Snow, C. E. (Eds.). Starting out right: A guide to promoting children's
reading success. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Cunningham, P. M. (2995). Phonics they use: Words for reading and writing. (2d ed.). New York, NY:
Harper Collins.
Fountas, I. C., & Pinnell, G. S. (1999). Matching books to readers: Using leveled books in guided
reading, K-3.
Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Hiebert, E. H., Pearson, P. D., Taylor, B. M., Richardson, V., & Paris, S.
G. (1998). Every child a reader: Applying reading research in the classroom. Ann Arbor, MI: Center for
the Improvement of Early Reading Achievement.
National Reading Panel (2000). Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the
scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction. Washington D.C.:
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development.
Comprehension Strategies
Definition: The ability of readers to construct meaning from a piece of written text. Comprehension instruction
should be an integral part of beginning reading instruction.
Purpose: To help students read for meaning.
Literacy researchers have documented that proficient readers use a small set of reading strategies to construct
meaning as they read. The teacher can introduce and discuss each of these strategies separately. However, the
students, with help from the teacher, must learn to integrate and apply all of the strategies as they read.
Research shows that, as they read, proficient readers:
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Activate Prior Knowledge Proficient readers take what they know about themselves, the world, and
other texts that they have read and apply that information to get meaning from the text they are currently
reading.
Create Visual Images Proficient readers form pictures or visual images in their mind that add depth to
the situations or characters on which their text focuses. These pictures appear to enhance memory for the
text and provide deeper understanding.
Ask Questions of the Text - Proficient readers form questions as they read. These questions clarify,
extend, and create meaning from the text. They propel readers forward, capture large units of meaning,
make readers active, and keep them engaged.
Infer By combining their background knowledge with an author's words - Proficient readers are able to
construct meaning that is not specifically written into the text. Applying this strategy allows readers to
create a deeper meaning that enhances their memory of the text. ·
Summarize and Synthesize - Proficient readers use all the strategies above to delete trivial and redundant
information, to determine what is important, and to organize that information according to concepts. The
result is a recreation of the text that is not identical to the original and that can be unique to each reader
without losing the author's intended meaning.
Self-Monitor Reading - Proficient readers consistently self-monitor their reading as they move through
text. Throughout their reading, they integrate this self-assessment with other strategies, both in terms of
understanding and in terms of word identification.
Not all beginning readers understand that text should make sense. Some see reading as a word calling
exercise. The fact that reading should make sense needs to be explicitly stated and reinforced. Research
also tells us that even after primary grade students have been taught comprehension strategies, they often
have difficulty using them independently. Therefore, primary-grade teachers need to teach and model
the effective use of comprehension strategies before, during, and after reading on a regular basis.
Prior to reading the text, activate prior knowledge and model predicting and questioning strategies.
During reading, teachers read and think aloud to model comprehension strategies and clarify meaning.
After reading the text, teachers model summarizing, making connections to other texts, and selfevaluation.
During Instruction
The Role of the Teacher Is:
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to select short but engaging texts that lend themselves to modeling specific comprehension strategies;
to teach and model strategies using a variety of texts and genres;
to teach students to recognize and use text structure as a tool for understanding;
to read and plan how to use the text (for example, where to stop and think aloud);
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to read the text aloud, stopping periodically, according to the plan, to explain how one or more
comprehension strategy is helping her/him to comprehend;
to begin to model, after focusing on each of the strategies, how the strategies come together in different
ways depending on the kind of text that is being read;
to continue to read aloud over time, but to begin to release responsibility for thinking aloud to students;
and
to use questions and discussions to monitor students' grasp and application of comprehension strategies.
The Role of the Student Is:
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at first, to listen to the teacher read and think aloud;
to continue to listen to read-alouds, but begin to take some responsibility for thinking aloud about the
ways to use the strategies;
over time, to continue to listen to read-alouds, and to participate in small groups to discuss the strategies
used during reading without listening to the teacher discuss the strategies;
to write or record some of the strategies he/she uses; and
to monitor his/her own comprehension.
The Administrator Will See:
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the teacher selecting and planning read-alouds according to a strategy-instruction plan;
the teacher reading aloud and stopping at planned places to think aloud about what comprehension
strategies to use and how to use them;
later, the teacher reading aloud and stopping at planned places to involve students in thinking aloud
about comprehension strategy use;
still later, the teacher reading aloud and stopping at planned places to allow students to engage on their
own in discussions of comprehension strategies; and
at later stages, students joining the teacher and then forming small groups by themselves to discuss their
comprehension strategy use.
When Students Read Their Own Texts
The Role of the Teacher Is:
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to determine carefully the reading level of each student;
to select materials that are at the instructional level and the independent reading level of
students; and
to guide the students in reading instructional-level text and to assign them to read
independent-level text on their own.
For each kind of texts, the teacher gives a small (five minutes or less) mini-lesson on a
specific strategy or set of strategies and asks the students to practice what they know
about that strategy as they read
The Role of the Student Is:
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to read the assigned texts;
to practice using the strategies that are the focus of instruction; and
to engage in discussions with classmates or to write a response based on the strategies.
The Administrator Will See:
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the teacher assessing reading levels of students prior to instruction;
the teacher planning comprehension strategy instruction;
the teacher selecting texts for students to read; and
students in small groups, reading and discussing what they have read.
Resources:
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Baumann, J., Jones, L., & Seifert-Kessell, N. (1993). Using think alouds to enhance children's
comprehension monitoring abilities. The Reading Teacher, 47, 184-193.
Carter, C. J. (1997). Why reciprocal teaching? Educational Leadership, 54, 64-68.
Fielding, L. G., & Pearson, P. D. (1994). Reading comprehension: What works. Educational
Leadership, 51, 62-68.
Goldenberg, C. (1992-1993). Instructional conversations: Promoting comprehension through discussion.
The Reading Teacher, 46, 316-326.
Keene, E. O., & Zimmermann, S. (1997). Mosaic of thought: Teaching comprehension in a reader's
workshop. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
National Reading Panel (2000). Teaching Children to Read: An Evidence-Based Assessment of the
Scientific Research Literature on Reading and Its Implications for Reading Instruction. Washington
D.C.: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development.
Pearson, P. D., & Dole, J. (1987). Explicit comprehension instruction: A review of research and a new
conceptualization of instruction. Elementary School Journal, 88, 151-166.
Pressley, M., Johnson, C., Symons, S., McGoldrick, J., & Kurita, J. (1989). Strategies that improve
children's memory and comprehension of text. Elementary School Journal, 90, 3-32. Stephens, E. &
Brown, J. (2000). A handbook of content literacy strategies: 76 practical reading and writing ideas.
Norwood, MA: Christopher-Gordon Publishers
Modeled Writing
Definition: The teacher demonstrates the act of writing by thinking aloud as he/she composes a text in front of
students.
Purpose: To allow students to hear the thinking that accompanies the process of writing, such as topic choice,
how to start the piece, looking for a better word, revising, and editing.
The Role of the Teacher Is:
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to use explicit language and actions to model critical writing-process concepts;
to think aloud about actions and choices in writing;
to show students the metacognitive strategies involved in reading and writing;
to use modeled writing as a mini-lesson to introduce new writing skills/genres;
to demonstrate the importance of composing a meaningful, coherent message for a particular audience
and a specific purpose;
to demonstrate the correct use of print conventions such as capitalization, punctuation, and print
directionality;
to demonstrate spelling strategies;
to connect spelling to phonics lessons; and
to demonstrate rereading as a process to help students to remember what they are writing about.
The Role of the Student Is:
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to listen and watch; and
to use strategies that have been modeled by the teacher.
The Administrator Will See:
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the teacher thinking aloud about the writing process;
whole-group and small-group instruction;
use of chart paper or overheads;
a lesson usually no longer than 30 minutes;
students reading what the teacher writes; and
a choral reading of the text.
The Role of Parents/Families Is:
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to model their own writing through letters, grocery lists, notes, etc.; and
to encourage and support their children by providing materials and opportunities for writing.
Resources:
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Graves, D. H. (1983). Writing: Teachers and children at work. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Graves, D. H. (1994). A fresh look at writing. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Shared Writing
Definition: An activity, either whole-class or small group, in which the teacher and students share the
composing process. The key is the composition. By recording what he/she and the class want to say, the teacher
reinforces concepts of print.
Purpose: To help students learn about the writing process through structured conversations during the sharing
session. The focus is on the content of the message. The content can be a daily message, response to literature,
lists, and so forth.
The Role of the Teacher Is:
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to introduce the lesson/topic by modeling how to begin writing;
to plan text and to help students generate ideas for writing;
to record students' ideas, and
to reinforce print conventions such as capitalization, punctuation, and print directionality.
The Role of the Student Is:
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to provide ideas for the writing; and
to read and reread the composition with the teacher.
The Administrator Will See:
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the teacher working with students in whole-class or small-group settings;
the teacher modeling what he/she is doing as he/she records what the group wants to say;
students contributing ideas to the writing; and
students reading/rereading the composition with the teacher.
The Role of Parents/Families Is:
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to encourage their children to write for a variety of purposes, including lists, letters, invitations, diaries,
stories, poems, and plans for a trip.
Resources:
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Graves, D. H. (1983). Writing: Teachers and children at work. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Graves, D. H. (1994). A fresh look at writing. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Guided Writing
Definition: The teacher works with the whole class or a small group of students who have similar needs and
coaches them as they write a composition.
Purpose: To provide focused writing instruction to a small group of students in order to lead them to
independent writing.
The Role of the Teacher Is:
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to observe and assess students' writing;
to meet with individuals or small groups who have similar needs;
to prompt, coach, and guide;
to respond as a reader;
to ask open-ended questions;
to extend students' thinking in the process of composing;
to foster writing independence; and
to accept and expect approximations of spellings.
The Role of the Student Is:
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to make choices and decisions;
to write for a variety of purposes and audiences;
to write in a variety of genres; and
to respond to peers and to receive peer responses to writing
The Administrator Will See:
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small groups and individuals involved in writing; and
the teacher interacting with students as they brainstorm/write/edit.
The Role of Parents/Families Is:
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to encourage their children to experiment with writing;
to encourage their children to apply what they have learned about writing by writing letters, lists, notes,
labels, etc.; and
to read with their children to expose them to a variety of writing genres.
Resources:
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Cunningham, P. M., & Allington, R. L. (1999). Classrooms that work: They can all read and write (2d
ed.). Reading, MA: Addison Wesley Longman.
Dorn, L. J., French, C., & Jones, T. (1998). Apprenticeship in literacy: Transitions across reading and
writing. York, ME: Stenhouse Publishers.
Graves, D. H. (1994). A fresh look at writing. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
New Zealand Ministry of Education (1994). Dancing with the pen: The learner as a writer. New
Zealand: Learning Media Limited.
Independent Construction
Definition: Writing that students initiate through daily journaling, writing assignments, or notes to classmates,
teachers, and/or parents. Independent writing is the result of good instruction and provides students with the
opportunity to practice their writing skills.
Independent writing gives students the opportunity to write about their interests and to write for many purposes,
using different genres as appropriate for the grade level.
Purpose: To encourage students to experiment with and explore the uses of written language.
The Role of the Teacher Is:
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to create opportunities for students to engage in authentic, purposeful writing;
to respond to the content of the students' writing; and
to assist students with the revision and editing process.
The Role of the Student Is:
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to write for her/his own purpose to document what he/she has learned, express feelings, etc.;
to select the topic and content for writing;
to use different writing genres;
to revise and edit writing; and
to accept feedback from peers and the teacher.
The Administrator Will See:
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students engaged in writing;
the teacher interacting with students;
centers for writing; § the teacher creating enthusiasm for writing; and
the teacher creating authentic purposes for writing.
The Role of Parents/Families Is:

to encourage writing for a variety of purposes: for example, lists, letters, invitations, diaries, stories,
poems, or plans for a trip.
Resources:
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Atwell, N. (Ed.). (1989). Workshop. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Calkins, L. M. (1986). The art of teaching writing. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Cunningham, P. M., & Allington, R. L. (1999). Classrooms that work: They can all read and write (2d
ed.). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Longman.
Fletcher, R., & Portalupi, J. (1998). Craft Lessons: Teaching Writing K-8. York, ME: Stenhouse
Publishers.
Writer's Workshop
Definition: A formal strategy to teach the writing process from planning to drafting to editing to final copy. The
teacher may offer writer's workshop numerous times throughout the week. In workshop, students write for
many purposes and use different genres. The use of literature as a model of the writer's craft is an important part
of writer's workshop. The teacher provides formal instruction through the use of mini-lessons that emphasize
both content and form.
"Mini-lessons" are short lessons that usually address specific topics, such as procedural concerns (how the
workshop works, its rules, etc.), writers' craft (what authors do and how they get ideas for topics, revision
strategies, etc.), and writing strategies (what readers need in order to make sense of the text, how to edit and
proofread, the correct use of punctuation and other print conventions, etc.). Mini-lessons are the vehicles for
teacher demonstrations of the stages of the writing process.
Purpose: To provide structured opportunities for students to write in order to learn about the writing process.
This process emphasizes brainstorming, drafting, feedback/questioning, editing, revising, and publishing.
The Role of the Teacher Is:
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to use mini-lessons to teach students different aspects of the writing process;
to use literature to stimulate students to think creatively and to become aware of the writer's craft;
to circulate and assist students in their writing efforts;
to model writing, beginning by thinking aloud about what to write, and then writing;
to use observation of common needs to focus mini-lessons on a particular skill;
to hold conferences with students about their writing, focusing each conference on only one or two
aspects of a student's work; and
to provide students with vehicles for sharing their writing, including the author's chair, class
publications, and family night.
The Role of the Student Is:
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to learn to use the writing process;
to work individually, with peers, and in small groups;
to participate in conferences with the teacher about writing; and
to share writing voluntarily with peers, a small group, or the whole class through the peer review
process, the author's chair, and other collaborative forums.
The Administrator Will See:
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the teacher teaching through mini-lessons that focus on a particular aspect of the writing process;
the teacher thinking aloud during writing, explaining the process as well as the strategies that writers
use;
the use of literature to build students' awareness of the writer's craft: for example, repetition in language,
character development, or point of view;
the teacher holding conferences about writing with students and encouraging students in their writing;
students engaged in writing;
students working alone, with peers, or in small groups;
students keeping portfolios with a selection of their work
in different stages of completion,
showing progress as a developing writer,
reflecting a variety of genres; and

students sharing their writing with a peer, a small group, or the whole class.
The Role of Parents/Families Is:

to encourage writing for a variety of purposes: for example, lists, letters, invitations, diaries, stories,
poems, or plans for a trip.
Resources:
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Fletcher, R., & Portalupi, J. (1998). Craft lessons: Teaching writing K-8. York, ME: Stenhouse
Publishers.
Graves, D. H. (1983). Writing: Teachers and children at work. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Marzona, Robert, et al. Literacy plus. Columbus, OH: Zaner-Bloser.
Assessment in a Balanced Literacy Classroom
Definition: Assessment is the collection of data about students' performance in order to inform instruction.
Evaluation is the interpretation of the data collected.
Purpose: To support the identification of a student's strengths as well as to determine what teaching needs to
occur next.
The Role of the Teacher Is:
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
to understand that assessment has two forms: 1. Static (summative) assessment, which occurs after
instruction and reveals what the student has learned, 2. Dynamic (formative) assessment, which occurs
during instruction and tells the teacher what the student is ready to learn next; and
to use a variety of assessment tools and to understand the purpose of each tool.
The Role of the Student Is:

to participate in each assessment, providing the teacher with data about what she/he knows and is able to
do, as well as identifying areas of focus for future teaching.
The Administrator Will See:

the teacher using a variety of assessment tools; · the teacher collecting and analyzing data to inform
instruction; and · evidence that the teacher shares assessment information with parents.
The Role of Parents/Families Is:
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to be informed about their children's reading progress at various times throughout the school year;
to support their children's progress by promoting and encouraging more reading and writing
opportunities outside the school day;
to communicate observations and concerns to their children's teachers.
Specific Assessments Appropriate for Early Literacy Instruction:
ASSESSMENT
HOW IT INFORMS INSTRUCTION
Running Records
Involves the observation and recording of all the student's oral
reading behaviors as she/he reads aloud text. Allows the
teacher to assess a student's fluency and word knowledge and
to determine instructional, independent, and frustration
reading levels, as well as the cues and strategies the student
uses.
Concepts About Print
Assesses what the student knows and is attending to about
books and print. Does the student know that we read English
from left to right and from the top to bottom of the page? Can
the student identify where there is something to read on a
page? Does the student know how to handle a book and where
the book begins? Helps the teacher decide when the student
has enough book knowledge to move into guided reading.
Phonemic Awareness
Before they can be successful as beginning readers, young
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children must be able to segment words into phonemes and
bale or combine separate phonemes into words. Research
indicates that a predictor of early reading achievement is the
ability to segment and blend sounds. Spelling is an easy way
to evaluate a child's phonemic awareness. How well students
spell words is one of the best indicators of their levels of
phonemic awareness. A spelling test will give the teacher an
indication of whether students know words are made up of
letters and how far along they are on the developmental
continuum of phonemic awareness. Early on, students hear
and write only the beginning sound (The word rake is spelled
"rk".) They go on to move through later stages of
development where they begin to add the vowels they hear in
the middle of a word. In addition to having students spell
words, teachers can also have students isolate or segment one
or more of the sounds in a spoken word, have students blend
or combine separate phonemes into words, or have them
manipulate the sounds in a word. These spelling,
segmentation, and blending tasks give teachers an indication
of whether students know the difference between words and
sounds and can understand and begin to use the alphabetic
nature of our language to decode and read words.
High Frequency Sight Word Lists
Indicate the extent to which a student is accumulating a sight
word vocabulary that is necessary for fluency and
comprehension.
Decodable Word Lists
Indicates how accurately and quickly students can apply
decoding skills to read decodable words such as fat, big, net,
or mop. Teachers can identify areas of strength and need and
plan for future instruction.
Writing Words
Permits the teacher to observe all the words a student can
write in a 5- or 10-minute period. Word writing provides a
record of high-frequency words that a student knows.
Retelling of a Story
Involves asking a student to retell a previously read story.
Helps the teacher to assess a student's memory for text, how
well she/he can sequence events, and her his ability to recall
the important details of the story.
Comprehension Questions
Through questioning during and after the text is read, the
teacher can determine if the student uses background
information, or schema, in making connections with the text.
The teacher can also determine the student's ability to make
predictions and inferences, ask questions, and summarize the
main ideas and details of the text. Individual Reading
Inventories are one form of assessment that includes measures
of students' comprehension. Almost all commercially
available reading tests include measures of comprehension.
Care should be taken in selecting questions that assess the
strategies and skills that are being taught and that will help
students become strategic, independent readers.
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Resources:
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Beaver, J. (1997). Developmental reading assessment. Upper Arlington, OH: Upper Arlington Public
Schools.
Clay, M. M. (1993). An observation survey of early literacy achievement. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Clay, M. M. (2000). Concepts about print: What have children learned about the way we print
language? Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Clay, M. M. (2000). Running records for classroom teachers. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Harp, B. (1996). The handbook of literacy assessment and evaluation. Norwood, MA: ChristopherGordon Publishers.
National Reading Panel (2000). Teaching Children to Read: An Evidence-Based Assessment of the
Scientific Research Literature on Reading and Its Implications for Reading Instruction. Washington
D.C.: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development.
Reading Recovery Council of New Zealand. (1999). An observation survey: The video. Auckland,
New Zealand: Heinemann.
Snow, C.E., Burns, M.S., & Griffin, P. (1998). Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young Children.
Washington D.C.: National Academy Press.
Adapted from: www.illiniosreads.com
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