Zvyšování jazykově-metodické odbornosti učitelů anglického jazyka na základních
a středních školách v rámci dalšího vzdělávání pedagogických pracovníků
reg. č.: CZ.1.07/1.3.00/14.0020
VERBS
(syntactic and semantic characteristics, grammatical categories)
The term verb is used in two senses:
1) as one of the elements in clause structure (like the subject and the object)
2) as a word class (like a noun and an adjective)
The two senses are related in this way: a verb phrase consists of one or more verbs (sense 2)
is making, works, might be leaving – the verb phrase operates as the verb (sense 1).
As a word class, verbs can be divided into 3 major categories, according to the function
within the verb phrase:
verbs
main verbs (lexical, full)
auxiliaries
- primary (be, have, do)
- modal (can, may, must, will,
etc.)
Zvyšování jazykově-metodické odbornosti učitelů anglického jazyka na základních
a středních školách v rámci dalšího vzdělávání pedagogických pracovníků
reg. č.: CZ.1.07/1.3.00/14.0020
If there is only one verb in the phrase, it is the main verb. If there is more than one verb, the
final one is the main verb, and the on or more verbs that come before it are auxiliaries.
aux. aux. main
She might be leaving soon.
The verb, as other word classes is determined by its grammatical categories.
Morphological categories of the English verb comprise: PERSON, NUMBER, TENSE,
MOOD, VOICE and ASPECT.
If we can identify all the grammatical categories in the given verb form, then it is the FINITE
verb form, if not, it is NON-FINITE.
Finite verb forms have the only syntactic function – the predicate – and as such they must
agree with the subject as for the person and number.
Non-finite verb forms (infinitives, participles, gerunds) have other functions – sentence
condensation, parts of analytical verb forms, complementation of the object etc.
Basic semantic role of the verb is to express ACTION or STATE.
The form of the English verb is not as specific as in Czech. Due to conversion many verbs
have the same form as nouns (act, shop, flood) or as adjectives (clean, secure). The only
typical derivational suffixes of verbs are –is(z)e, -ify, -en and there is also prefix en(endanger, enrich)
The means to express grammatical categories of verbs are either SYNTHETIC (inflectional
morphemes) or ANALYTICAL (using auxiliary verbs), NON-VERBAL (the categories of
person and number are often indicated only by the subject).
VERBAL FORM AND THE VERB PHRASE
English verbs usually have five forms:
1) the BASE FORM (call) is
a) finite verb in:
▪ the present tense in all persons and numbers except 3rd person
▪ the imperative Call at once!
▪ the present subjunctive They demanded that she call and see them.
b) non-finite verb in:
▪ the bare infinitive He may call tonight.
Zvyšování jazykově-metodické odbornosti učitelů anglického jazyka na základních
a středních školách v rámci dalšího vzdělávání pedagogických pracovníků
reg. č.: CZ.1.07/1.3.00/14.0020
▪ the to infinitive We want her to call.
2) the –S FORM (calls) is a finite verb She calls every day.
3) the PAST FORM (called) is a finite verb Someone called yesterday.
4) the –ING PARTICIPLE (calling) is a non-finite verb in:
▪ the progressive aspect following be
He’s calling her now.
▪ -ing participle clauses
Calling early, I found her at home.
5) the –ED PARTICIPLE (called) is a non-finite verb in:
▪ the perfect aspect following have
He has called twice today.
▪ the passive voice following be
Her brother is called John.
▪ -ed participle clauses
Called early, he ate a quick breakfast.
Irregular verbs can have 3 (put, puts, putting) up to 8 forms (be, am, is, are, was, were, being,
been).
Modal auxiliaries do not have: infinitive, participles and –s forms.
Regular verbs form the –s forms and the –ed forms following certain spelling rules.
Irregular verbs are usually divided into several groups according to the number of forms and
changes in the base.
MAIN VERBS
As for the form, main verbs can be divided into one-word verbs and phrasal verbs where the
second part of the phrase can be and adverbial particle or a preposition.
Syntactic classification of verbs
Main verbs are classified according to the required complementation:
LINKING VERBS are only formally ranked among main verbs because their meaning is
almost zero. They are followed by a subject complement (SVC pattern) or an adverbial (SVA
pattern).
Daniel stayed very quiet. (SVC) Daniel stayed in bed. (SVA)
INTRANSITIVE VERBS do not require any obligatory element (SV pattern)
to cough, to die etc.
Zvyšování jazykově-metodické odbornosti učitelů anglického jazyka na základních
a středních školách v rámci dalšího vzdělávání pedagogických pracovníků
reg. č.: CZ.1.07/1.3.00/14.0020
TRANSITIVE VERBS – they require complementation by an object or two and occur in
patterns SVO, SVOO, SVOC or SVOA.
I saw him. (SVO) He gave her a flower. (SVOO) We elected her our
delegate. (SVOC) He got himself into trouble. (SVOA)
Unfortunately there is no strict barrier between transitive and intransitive verbs, they are not
formally distinguished as in Czech (ex. to grow)
boil = vařit, vařit se form = tvořit, tvořit se
Thus even typical intransitives can change into transitives (and are called CAUSATIVES)
to walk x to walk a dog, to starve x to starve sb. to death
The usual object of these verbs is the same as the former subject:
the student failed – he failed the student
I hurried off – don´t hurry me
Special type of transitivity is when the object refers back to the subject – REFLEXIVE
VERBS. There are not so many reflexive verbs in English as in Czech.
If the verb expresses some activity connected with one’s own body then the usage of the
reflexive pronoun depends on the context:
to wash sb. x to wash oneself
Sometimes, with the verbs where you can decide about the usage of the reflexive pronoun, its
presence implies effort, aim:
to dry – oschnout x to dry oneself – osušit se
she recovered – zotavila se x she tried to recover herself – snažila se
vzpamatovat
If the verb does not express effort or aim then there are different ways of expressing
reflexivity:
- reflexive pronoun enjoy oneself, injure oneself
- intransitive verbs he drowned – utopil se, she woke
- the verb to get + past participle get lost, married, excited, drowned
Sometimes there is an implied difference:
he drowned himself – utopil se (sebevražda)
he got drowned – nešťastná náhoda
Semantic classification of lexical verbs
Basic classification : dynamic x stative, but it is better to speak of dynamic or stative usage of
verbs, which is revealed in the usage of the progressive form.
Zvyšování jazykově-metodické odbornosti učitelů anglického jazyka na základních
a středních školách v rámci dalšího vzdělávání pedagogických pracovníků
reg. č.: CZ.1.07/1.3.00/14.0020
DYNAMIC VERBS
a) activity
to learn, drink, eat, work, write
b) process
change, grow, mature
c) bodily sensation
feel, hurt, itch (Dušková – stative), but they can be in the
progressive He felt/was feeling worse.
d) transitional event verbs arrive, die, fall, leave (telická – děj má proběhnout
úplně – Dušková)
atelická want, listen, rain, know reaching the end of the expressed action is not
important
e) momentary verbs hit, jump,kick, nod have little duration and thus the progressive
form suggests repetition He was jumping.
STATIVE VERBS
a) verbs of inert perception and cognition adore, dislike, love, please, smell, see, want
they do not normally occur in the progressive – usually some change in meaning
I am seeing a friend – paying a visit to
b) relational verbs apply to, concern, include, lack, need – usually impossible in the
progressive
Some verbs can be either stative or dynamic according to changes in meaning:
to think – myslet - stative
– přemýšlet - dynamic