RESEARCH SKILLS MASTER PROGRAMME:
‘RESEARCH METHODS’ PORTFOLO
1 | Page
© Epigeum Ltd, 2013
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION TO THE RESEARCH SKILLS MASTER
PROGRAMME: ‘RESEARCH METHODS’ PORTFOLIO
RESEARCH METHODS IN THE ARTS & HUMANITIES
RESEARCH METHODS IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES
RESEARCH METHODS IN THE SCIENCES
RESEARCH METHODS IN LITERATURE REVIEW
2 | Page
© Epigeum Ltd, 2013 |
3
6
17
38
49
INTRODUCTION TO THE ‘RESEARCH METHODS’ PORTFOLIO
3 | Page
© Epigeum Ltd, 2013 |
RESEARCH SKILLS MASTER PROGRAMME: Introduction to the ‘Research methods’ portfolio
What is the ‘Research Methods’ portfolio?
Welcome to the ‘Research methods’ portfolio. This document accompanies the four courses on ‘Research
methods’ in the Research Skills Master Programme.
What is the ‘Research methods’ portfolio?
This portfolio is intended to supplement and enhance your learning as you progress through the Research Skills
programme in the following ways:
The portfolio draws together all of the documents and supplementary materials available to download
throughout the main course, so that they are easily accessible from a single location.
Throughout the main course, you will be invited to undertake various reflective and supplementary activities
(called ‘Portfolio activities’). These are accompanied by the portfolio icon, above. The portfolio provides a
space for you to record your thoughts for each of these activities. You may like to return to these notes and
extend or refine them as you progress through the programme.
Your portfolio should continue to prove an invaluable tool once you have completed the Research Skills
programme, with summary sheets, templates, and your own notes and reflections providing a useful reference
manual for the duration of your research career.
4 | Page
© Epigeum Ltd, 2013 |
RESEARCH SKILLS MASTER PROGRAMME: Introduction to the ‘Research methods’ portfolio
Your ‘Research methods’ portfolio: How to use this
document
How do I use my portfolio?
Save a copy of this document on your computer.
Keep the portfolio open as you work through the Research Skills programme.
Each time you undertake a ‘Portfolio activity’, or are asked to keep a note of the results of an in-course activity,
you will find a corresponding page in this document for you to complete. (See ‘How do I navigate my portfolio?’
below for more details.)
Refer to, or complete, each portfolio document as instructed in the corresponding section of the main course.
How do I navigate my portfolio?
To navigate your portfolio easily, ensure that you have the ‘Document Map’ or ‘Navigation Pane’ feature in
Microsoft Word enabled. To do this, go to ‘View’ and tick ‘Document Map’.
On the left-hand side of your screen you will see each of the three ’Entrepreneurship’ courses listed, followed
by its accompanying portfolio documents, in order of appearance in the programme.
The titles in the ‘Document Map’ correspond with the course screen titles to enable you to easily locate the
desired document. The course and module are also displayed at the top of each portfolio document for ease of
use.
Click on a course title or a document name to jump to that section of the portfolio.
Where a section in the main course has more than one portfolio document associated with it, the documents
are numbered in brackets in order of appearance in the corresponding section of the main course.
5 | Page
© Epigeum Ltd, 2013 |
RESEARCH METHODS IN THE ARTS AND HUMANITIES
6 | Page
© Epigeum Ltd, 2013 |
RESEARCH METHODS IN THE ARTS AND HUMANITIES: Orientation
Learning outcomes
Before you begin this course, take a moment to reflect on the learning outcomes presented in this section, and your
current awareness and understanding of different research methodologies in arts and humanities projects.
Do you understand what is meant by 'research methodology'?
Have you considered the impact your research methodology might have on the shape of your research
project?
What research methodology/methodologies might you be using for your own project?
Have you thought about how you will critically engage with the material you study as part of your project?
Are you familiar with the major different critical theories? Will you apply any of these to your research?
Have you thought about taking an interdisciplinary approach to your research? What benefits might this have?
What would you like to learn or improve as a result of taking this course?
You may wish to make a note of your thoughts in the space below.
7 | Page
© Epigeum Ltd, 2013 |
RESEARCH METHODS IN THE ARTS AND HUMANITIES: Introducing research methodology in the arts and humanities
The relationship between research questions, research material and research
methods
Your research methodology



Which research methods are you already familiar with? Write a list of different kinds of projects and evidence you have worked with before
What research methods did you use?
How was your methodology directed by the kind of questions you were asking or by the kind of research material you were using?
You may wish to use the table below to record your answers.
Estimated duration: 30 minutes
Project/evidence
Research methods used
8 | Page
© Epigeum Ltd, 2013 |
How was methodology directed by questions
asked/research material used
RESEARCH METHODS IN THE ARTS AND HUMANITIES: Approaching archives, artefacts and other evidence
Approaching artefacts
Artefacts in everyday life
Try using Fleming’s methodology on a material object of your choice: you can select something relevant to your
research topic, but it doesn’t have to be related, or even something you might think of as a historical artefact.
What can you say about its history, material construction, design and function?
Can you specify when you are using processes of identification, evaluation, cultural analysis and
interpretation?
Record your notes in the space below.
Estimated duration: 30 minutes
9 | Page
© Epigeum Ltd, 2013 |
RESEARCH METHODS IN THE ARTS AND HUMANITIES: Thinking critically, thinking theoretically
Developing your argument
Approaching topics from different theoretical angles
Practise your critical skills by making a mind map for a research topic on the rise in popularity of home
improvement television shows in the United Kingdom in the 1990s.
What kind of questions might you ask?
What kind of different questions might a sociologist ask? How about a historian? How about someone
interested in gender studies?
What research material might these questions suggest?
Can you come up with some hypotheses that you could test and explore?
Select one or two of your hypotheses and put them into order by translating them into an argument map.
You may wish to repeat this process in relation to your own research topic. Reflect on whether it raises any
questions or identifies any research material that you hadn’t previous considered.
Estimated duration: 30 minutes
10 | Page
© Epigeum Ltd, 2013 |
RESEARCH METHODS IN THE ARTS AND HUMANITIES: Thinking critically, thinking theoretically
The place of theory
Different theoretical approaches
Taking a particular theoretical approach will affect the kind of research material you will use and the kind of
research questions you might ask.
Estimated duration: 30 minutes
Consider the development of department stores in London in the early part of the twentieth century from both a
Marxist approach and a feminist approach. What different kinds of research questions might they ask?
a) Marxist approach
b) Feminist approach
Now consider different theoretical approaches in the light of your own research project:
11 | Page
© Epigeum Ltd, 2013 |
RESEARCH METHODS IN THE ARTS AND HUMANITIES: Understanding disciplinarity and interdisciplinarity
Disciplinarity and interdisciplinarity in the humanities
Interdisciplinarity in your own research
Consider whether there is an interdisciplinary element to your own research
Draw a Venn diagram to illustrate the different disciplinary subject matter and research practices that you might need to familiarise yourself with
Estimated duration: 40 minutes
12 | Page
© Epigeum Ltd, 2013 |
Can you consider at least three ways in which aspects of your research might become more interdisciplinary?
To you help you do this, consider:
If a scholar from a different discipline was looking at my topic, what kind of research questions might they ask?
Would they be very different from my own research questions?
Are there ways I could incorporate their questions into my research?
Would scholars of different disciplines be looking at different kinds of research material from me?
What sort of material might they be using?
Is there a way I could carefully use this material in my own research?
Make a note of your responses in the space below.
13 | Page
© Epigeum Ltd, 2013 |
RESEARCH METHODS IN THE ARTS AND HUMANITIES: Is it working?
Identifying and avoiding common problems (1)
Tips for managing the scope and volume of your research
Begin with clearly defined research questions, discussed and agreed with your supervisor.
Although you will probably modify and refine your questions as your research develops, it is crucial that you
keep them in focus throughout the research and writing stages of your work, and speak to your supervisor if
you feel that you are losing control of your material.
Remember that not all the material you discover necessarily has to go into your final thesis – indeed, if it is not
strictly relevant then it probably shouldn't do. But this is not to say that you have wasted that work. It could
instead be the groundwork for a conference paper or journal article.
14 | Page
© Epigeum Ltd, 2013 |
RESEARCH METHODS IN THE ARTS AND HUMANITIES: Is it working?
Identifying and avoiding common problems (2)
Making the best use of your material

Identify whether you have some primary material which you cannot use in your PhD project, either because it is not entirely relevant or you do not have
the space for it

Consider whether the material could form the basis of a separate conference paper or journal article, and whether you could perhaps collaborate on it

Speak to your supervisor and/or do some research on finding a suitable conference or journal to which you could submit.
You may wish to record your thoughts in the table below.
Estimated duration: 60 minutes
Primary material
Notes from discussion with supervisor
15 | Page
© Epigeum Ltd, 2013 |
Results of research into suitable conference or journal
RESEARCH METHODS IN THE ARTS AND HUMANITIES: Learning assessment
Learning evaluation
Take a moment to consider the reflective piece you wrote before undertaking this course.
Think about the questions you answered and the goals you outlined at the start of the course. To what extent do
you feel you have met the course learning outcomes, and your own learning needs? Do you feel better able to
apply your knowledge to your own research?
You may wish to make a note of your thoughts in the space below.
16 | Page
© Epigeum Ltd, 2013 |
RESEARCH METHODS IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES
17 | Page
© Epigeum Ltd, 2013 |
RESEARCH METHODS IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES: Orientation
Learning outcomes
Before you begin this course, take a moment to reflect on the learning outcomes presented in this section, and your
current awareness and understanding of the process of publishing your research.
Do you understand the difference between a positivist approach and an interpretative approach in research in
the social sciences, and where your own research sits within these approaches?
How familiar are you with common research designs, and do you know which design(s) you might use for your
own study?
How familiar are you with different data collection and analysis methods, and do you know which you might use
for your research?
How much do you know about the process of publishing your research?
What would you like to learn or improve as a result of taking this course?
You may wish to make a note of your thoughts in the space below.
18 | Page
© Epigeum Ltd, 2013 |
RESEARCH METHODS IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES: Before you get started
Epistemology: The study of knowledge
Positivist and interpretative approaches
Think about the examples of positivist and interpretative approaches in this section, and then think about your own
research topic.
How might you consider it in the light of the positivist and interpretative approaches?
Which approach might be more suitable for your research project?
You may wish to record your thoughts in the space below.
Estimated duration: 20 minutes
19 | Page
© Epigeum Ltd, 2013 |
RESEARCH METHODS IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES: Framing your research question
What makes a good research question?
Rewording your research question
Having considered the advice in this section, try writing and re-writing your research question in as many different
ways as possible.
How does wording your question differently frame the question in a different way?
Which wording might be suitable for your research project?
Remember to consider all the elements of a good research question outlined in this section of the main course.
You may wish to record your ideas in the space below.
Estimated duration: 30 minutes
20 | Page
© Epigeum Ltd, 2013 |
RESEARCH METHODS IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES: Framing your research question
The implications of your research question
Considering the possible outcomes of your research question
Think about your own research question.
Write down all the possible outcomes or findings you might end up with as a result of your study. What would be the implications for each finding?
Consider whether you might need to alter your research question or design as a result of this exercise.
Estimated duration: 40 minutes
Possible outcomes/findings of your study
Implications
21 | Page
© Epigeum Ltd, 2013 |
Do you need to change your research question as a result of the above exercise? If so, make a note of some options in the space below.
22 | Page
© Epigeum Ltd, 2013 |
RESEARCH METHODS IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES: Framing your research question
Your values and priorities
Preparing for external influences on your research
Think about the issues identified in the corresponding section of the main course.
Estimated duration: 20 minutes
What values, assumptions or experiences might influence your approach to your research?
How will they influence it?
Are any of the ‘external’ considerations in the final activity in this section applicable to you?
Will you need to take them into account when designing your research?
23 | Page
© Epigeum Ltd, 2013 |
RESEARCH METHODS IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES: Framing your research question
Resources, time and feasibility (1)
Considering your resources
Write down – realistically – what resources you have available to you.
For example, think about the facilities and human resources you will need, and the funding you have.
Be realistic about the input you can expect from others, including your supervisors. If you do not have additional
funding to support your research, you need to make sure you can fund the project as it is unlikely that there will be
additional resources to support you.
You may wish to record your thoughts in the space below.
Estimated duration: 20 minutes
24 | Page
© Epigeum Ltd, 2013 |
RESEARCH METHODS IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES: Framing your research question
Resources, time and feasibility (2)
Planning your time
Take a moment to consider how much time you have available to complete your research, and how long each stage of your research will realistically take
you.
You might like to use the table below to record your thoughts, and the space beneath it to record any feedback from a discussion with your supervisor.
Estimated duration: 30 minutes
Stage of research
Duration of stage
25 | Page
© Epigeum Ltd, 2013 |
Feedback from discussion with supervisor:
26 | Page
© Epigeum Ltd, 2013 |
RESEARCH METHODS IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES: Planning considerations
Research ethics
Considering others when planning your research
Consider the examples of those who might be adversely affected by a research project in the corresponding activity
in this section.
Estimated duration: 45 minutes
Do any of these examples apply to your own research?
Can you think of any other individuals who might be affected by it?
What steps can you take to minimise any adverse effects on others?
27 | Page
© Epigeum Ltd, 2013 |
RESEARCH METHODS IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES: Planning considerations
Qualitative versus quantitative
The influence of different approaches
Search for research that has been done in your area, and consider whether it has been done using a qualitative or quantitative approach. How might these
different approaches influence the way you design your project?
You may wish to record your thoughts in the space below.
Estimated duration: 45 minutes
Research
Approach
Influence on my project
28 | Page
© Epigeum Ltd, 2013 |
RESEARCH METHODS IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES: Designing your research
Some design examples
Different research designs explained
This document will give you some more detailed information on the different types of research design introduced in
this section of the main course.
Case studies
A case study usually involves a sample of one. You can use a case study to do a very in-depth study of what is
going on within that sample, identifying key issues and processes to be followed up later with other designs and
larger samples.
A common example is using one organisation as your case study, often, your own organisation or one where you
happen to have contacts. Case studies can be good for using in-depth methods, which would take too long to use
on a larger sample size. This can be very useful for identifying what the real underlying issues are, if you're tackling
a problem where it's not obvious.
Case studies can also be useful as a clear, specific illustration of principles that occur widely. A famous example is
Faraday using a single candle to demonstrate the key principles of thermodynamics.
They can also be invaluable as examples of a 'white crow' finding, where one single example is enough to disprove
a claim: for instance, finding one white crow is enough to disprove the claim that all crows are black. They are also
useful for 'demonstration of concept' studies, where you show that something is possible which had not been done
before.
Case studies have limitations. The most obvious is small sample size. You have no way of being sure how
representative your sample is of the world at large. With a case study, you're also totally dependent on that single
case for your data. If you have to abandon that case study because of a change of manager in the organisation
who decides to stop helping you, for example, then you may have serious problems finding a new one. If you do
find a new one you will probably have to start right at the beginning again and be unable to use any findings from
the abandoned study.
Some case studies observe the case without trying to intervene, others involve a deliberate intervention and this is
usually known as action research. Action research is popular in some disciplines but unpopular in others, because
it's not usually possible to untangle effects caused by the intervention from effects caused by outside factors.
Action research
Action research involves systematically combining action and reflection with the aim of improving practice. It is
usually incorporated into work roles by practitioners (e.g. teachers).
Action research gives rich information about issues and processes involved. It is often a convenient approach for
part-time students who can do action research in the organisation where they work, and can be useful for the host
organisation if the intervention works well.
29 | Page
© Epigeum Ltd, 2013 |
However, small sample sizes mean that it can be difficult to generalise the findings. There are usually problems
with observer effects, and it can be difficult to distinguish results caused by the intervention from results caused by
other outside factors. It can be costly for the host organisation if the intervention causes unexpected problems.
Field experiments
A field experiment involves performing an intervention systematically in the outside world, as opposed to in your
office or in the respondent's house. For example, if you are studying the effects of music on social behaviour, you
might get a street musician to play different types of music near an office doorway and then observe whether the
number of people holding that door open for other people varies with the type of music being played.
A well-designed field experiment will usually have fairly high external validity and can give you a respectable
sample size. However, field experiments are dependent on the outside environment, so if, for example, you are
interested in how a particular social group behaves in a given situation but none of them happen to pass by the
place where you are doing your field experiment, then you have problems. They can also raise ethical problems,
depending on the type of intervention involved.
Controlled experiments
A formal, controlled experiment involves varying one or more factors systematically, while keeping all the other
factors constant and then seeing what happens to one or more variables. A classic early example involved finding
out the cause of scurvy, a disease which frequently used to affect sailors at sea. A naval surgeon divided sailors
with scurvy into several groups, with each group as similar to the others as possible, and then gave each group a
different treatment and observed what happened to their health. In this example, the treatment was varied
systematically between the groups. The factor that is being varied systematically is known as the independent
variable. The thing being observed, in this case the sailors' health, is known as the dependent variable, because its
value is expected to depend in some way on the value of the independent variable.
A properly designed controlled experiment allows you to establish cause and effect, to measure the strength of an
effect and to separate the effects of one variable from the effects of other possible variables. Controlled
experiments are usually combined with statistics, particularly inferential statistics. Inferential statistics allow you to
calculate how likely it is that your results are due to something other than random chance variations in your sample.
(Descriptive statistics, in contrast, simply summarise your results.)
Conducting a controlled experiment properly involves careful attention to detail and may be time-consuming. As
most controlled experiments involve respondents in an unusual situation there can be issues about the external
validity of the findings.
This is why controlled experiments are usually preceded by pilot studies to check that the experiment will have
acceptable external validity.
There are numerous classic experimental designs, each suitable for different purposes and situations (for example,
designs involving groups which contain different numbers from each other versus groups which contain the same
numbers, or designs involving repeated measures on respondents versus designs involving only a single measure
on each respondent). Each design is usually suitable for a limited number of statistical tests. If you use the correct
design and corresponding statistical test, this can dramatically reduce the amount of data collection you need to do.
If you are planning to conduct a controlled experiment, then it is highly advisable to ask an expert for advice as
early as possible in the planning stage. This can avoid a lot of problems and can lead to much better work.
30 | Page
© Epigeum Ltd, 2013 |
Ethnography
Ethnography involves working and/or living with the people you are studying.
This approach can lead to much richer information than you would get from an interview, including visual
information, everyday detail that people forget to mention in interviews and questionnaires, and access to
information that isn't usually shared with outsiders.
However, this approach is usually very time-consuming (weeks or months in the field). The information is usually in
a format which is difficult to summarise and write up, and there may be ethical questions over disclosing
information given in confidence when you write up your results.
Simulations
Simulations involve building a working model of something, and seeing what happens when the model runs. The
model is usually a simplified version of the real-world phenomenon being studied and is frequently software-based,
although this is not obligatory. Some problems are better modelled using mechanical models.
Simulations can be invaluable for gaining insights, particularly into areas that are difficult or impossible to study in
other ways, such as flocking behaviour in flying birds. Software simulations showed that you could produce realistic
simulations of this complex-looking phenomenon using only a small set of simple variables. This approach is now
widely used to simulate the behaviour of human crowds and has practical applications, such as designing fire exits
in aircraft.
Simulations can give interesting insights, but this does not guarantee that the processes in the simulation are the
same as the processes in the real-world phenomenon. Very similar surface appearances can be caused by very
different deep structures. Simulations can also be affected by unintended side-effects of the technology used in the
simulation. For example, the way the software rounds off decimal values may produce accidental and unintended
regularities, which may be mistaken for properties of the phenomenon itself, rather than properties of the software
language.
Surveys
Surveys attempt to find out how widespread something is across a population, for example, how many people
engage in a particular activity or have a particular belief. An obvious way of doing this is via interviews or
questionnaires, but an obvious problem is that they may not tell you the truth. There is a substantial and
sophisticated literature on survey design, implementation and analysis. If you are thinking of doing a survey, you
should make yourself familiar with this literature, and follow best practice.
It's possible to do a survey without asking any respondents to answer any questions. For example, you could do a
survey of the ages and types of cars parked outside houses in two different areas, as an indirect indicator of likely
income in those areas.
Done correctly, a survey can tell you a lot about how widespread something is, and about correlations between it
and other factors, such as correlations between income and lifestyle.
However, surveys are usually very time-consuming, usually have problems with external validity, involve an agenda
of questions set by the investigator and often have low response rates if they are questionnaires. A response rate
of below 10% is common for mail shot questionnaires, meaning that the responses are likely to have very low
external validity.
31 | Page
© Epigeum Ltd, 2013 |
RESEARCH METHODS IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES: Designing your research
Methodology versus ideology
Identifying alternative methodologies
Think about Peter Ayrton’s recommendation in the video in this section of the main course that researchers use a
variety of methodologies to procure more diverse findings.
Now take a moment to consider which methodologies might be suitable for your own research.
Are there any new or different methodologies that you might now consider using?
You might wish to record your ideas in the table below.
Estimated duration: 30 minutes
Methodology
Advantage for my research
32 | Page
© Epigeum Ltd, 2013 |
RESEARCH METHODS IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES: Data analysis
The importance of planning your data analysis in advance
Comparing qualitative and quantitative analysis
Think about the studies you found for the ‘Portfolio activity’ in the ‘Qualitative versus quantitative’ section earlier in the main course. Consider the ways in
which the data in the studies has been analysed.
If the approaches have been quantitative, can you see clear evidence of how the statistics have been analysed?
If the approaches have been qualitative, consider the ways in which the data has been analysed using coding and themes.
You might like to use the table below to record your thoughts.
Estimated duration: 30 minutes
Study
Notes on data analysis
33 | Page
© Epigeum Ltd, 2013 |
RESEARCH METHODS IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES: Starting your research
Checklist of good and bad ideas
Planning your research: Key considerations
Who are the main previous researchers in your research field?
What are the key findings of previous researchers in your field?
Are you flexible in terms of the potential results from your research?
How are you going to analyse your results?
Have you considered the different outcomes that may arise from your research?
Is your research design original?
Have you identified risks in your research and do you have a contingency plan in place?
34 | Page
© Epigeum Ltd, 2013 |
RESEARCH METHODS IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES: Reporting your research
Writing up and audiences (1)
Considering the types of publication in your area
Have a discussion with your supervisor about the different types of publication in your area. After your meeting, think about:
Which topics you are particularly interesting in developing
The timeframe you can realistically work to.
Write your notes in the space provided below.
Estimated duration: 45 minutes
Write your notes here:
35 | Page
© Epigeum Ltd, 2013 |
RESEARCH METHODS IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES: Reporting your research
Writing up and audiences (2)
Tailoring your article to specific journals
If you are considering preparing a journal article, have a look at the different journals in your professional area and review the guidance for authors. Consider:
Whether the journal editors are looking for short or long papers
The type of studies commonly published
The scope of academic papers covered in the journal.
You may wish to use the table below to record your thoughts.
Estimated duration: 45 minutes
Journal title
Long or short papers?
Type of studies commonly published
36 | Page
© Epigeum Ltd, 2013 |
Scope of papers covered in journal
RESEARCH METHODS IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES: Learning assessment
Learning evaluation
Take a moment to consider the reflective piece you wrote before undertaking this course.
Think about the questions you answered and the goals you outlined at the start of the course. To what extent do
you feel you have met the course learning outcomes, and your own learning needs? Do you feel better able to
apply your knowledge to your own research?
You may wish to make a note of your thoughts in the space below.
37 | Page
© Epigeum Ltd, 2013 |
RESEARCH METHODS IN THE SCIENCES
38 | Page
© Epigeum Ltd, 2013 |
RESEARCH METHODS IN THE SCIENCES: Orientation
Learning outcomes
Before you begin this course, take a moment to reflect on the learning outcomes presented in this section. How
confident are you in your current ability to formulate an effective research question and to design and plan a
scientific research study around it?
Have you considered what makes a good research question?
Are you familiar with different approaches to experimental design and do you know which approaches would be
most suitable for your project?
Do you think it is important to consider how you will analyse your data when planning your research design?
Have you thought about the practical problems that could affect your research study and how you might
manage them?
You may wish to use the space below to make a note of your thoughts.
39 | Page
© Epigeum Ltd, 2013 |
RESEARCH METHODS IN THE SCIENCES: What is science?
What is scientific research?
What makes a good scientist?
There are a number of excellent online resources which explore this question. Try to find a few key attributes.
Which of the attributes that you found do you think you demonstrate?
How will they be of benefit over the course of your research?
You might like to use the table below to record your thoughts.
Estimated duration: 30 minutes
Attribute of a good scientist
Do I demonstrate this attribute?
40 | Page
© Epigeum Ltd, 2013 |
How might this be of benefit?
RESEARCH METHODS IN THE SCIENCES: What is science?
Types of research
The best type of research for your project
Which type(s) of research listed in the corresponding activity in this section might be the best match for your
research project, and why?






Exploratory
Observational
Survey/sampling
Hypothesis testing
Modelling and simulation
Problem solving.
You may wish to use the space below to make a note of your thoughts.
Estimated duration: 30 minutes
41 | Page
© Epigeum Ltd, 2013 |
RESEARCH METHODS IN THE SCIENCES: Identifying and formulating the research question
Finding a question
Using different types of evidence to answer your research
question
Think about a possible research question on which to base your research project.
What types of evidence might you use to help frame your question? Evidence might include data and ideas derived
from:
A literature review
An internet search
Your own observations or thoughts
A pilot study
Currently accepted theory
Conversations with colleagues/visiting academics
Internal and external lectures
Even the media, TV shows, newspapers, etc.
How will you use this evidence to answer your question?
Use the space below to record your thoughts.
Estimated duration: 30 minutes
42 | Page
© Epigeum Ltd, 2013 |
RESEARCH METHODS IN THE SCIENCES: Identifying and formulating the research question
Deconstructing questions
Your research question
Using the video in this section of the main course as an example, practise breaking down a research question into manageable sub-questions.
Write down an idea for a research question in your discipline. Do you think you would be able to answer this question by the end of your PhD?
If not, try creating a tree diagram to break the question down into sub-questions until you reach a question that might be manageable for a PhD project.
Estimated duration: 30 minutes
43 | Page
© Epigeum Ltd, 2013 |
RESEARCH METHODS IN THE SCIENCES: Identifying and formulating the research question
Questions worth asking
Considering the outcomes of your research question
Draw up a table of all the possible results for your prospective research question
Would all the potential outcomes be significant in some way?
If not, can you modify your research question to ensure that all outcomes would be significant?
You might like to use the table below to record your thoughts.
Estimated duration: 30 minutes
Possible results from prospective research questions
Significant
outcome? (Y/N)
44 | Page
If no, how can you modify your research question?
© Epigeum Ltd, 2013 |
RESEARCH METHODS IN THE SCIENCES: Evaluating research questions
Bias and limitations
Bias in your own research
Estimated duration: 30 minutes
Can you think of any examples of bias in relation to your own research?
What agendas or assumptions are behind your research question?
What decisions have you made about your data collection and analysis?
Can you foresee any difficulties in carrying out your experiment(s) which might distort your results?
45 | Page
© Epigeum Ltd, 2013 |
RESEARCH METHODS IN THE SCIENCES: Designing and planning your research
Pilot studies
Preparing for piloting
Think about your own research project.
Estimated duration: 45 minutes
How might carrying out a pilot study help you?
What are the things you most want to check in the piloting?
What would you do as a fallback if the piloting showed that your original idea wouldn’t work?
46 | Page
© Epigeum Ltd, 2013 |
RESEARCH METHODS IN THE SCIENCES: Designing and planning your research
Practicalities
Your practicalities of your research situation
Reflect on the situation in your laboratory and office.
Estimated duration: 30 minutes
Are all the facilities required in place?
Have all the necessary practicalities been taken into account?
What, if anything, could be improved?
What action can you take?
47 | Page
© Epigeum Ltd, 2013 |
RESEARCH METHODS IN THE SCIENCES: Learning assessment
Learning evaluation
Take a moment to consider the reflective piece you wrote before undertaking this course.
Think about the questions you answered and the goals you outlined at the start of the course. To what extent do
you feel you have met the course learning outcomes, and your own learning needs? Do you feel better able to
apply your knowledge to your own research?
You may wish to use the space below to make a note of your thoughts.
48 | Page
© Epigeum Ltd, 2013 |
RESEARCH METHODS IN LITERATURE REVIEW
49 | Page
© Epigeum Ltd, 2013 |
RESEARCH METHODS IN LITERATURE REVIEW: Orientation
Learning outcomes
Before you begin this course, take a moment to reflect on the learning outcomes presented in this section, and your
current awareness and understanding of the process of publishing your research.
Do you understand why a literature review is so important, and the processes involved in undertaking a
review?
Do you feel confident in your ability to develop a methodical searching strategy for your review?
Do you feel confident in your ability to identify different types of literature and whether they will be useful to
you?
Do you feel confident in your ability to critically appraise the references included in your review?
What would you like to learn or improve as a result of taking this course?
You may wish to make a note of your thoughts in the space below.
50 | Page
© Epigeum Ltd, 2013 |
RESEARCH METHODS IN LITERATURE REVIEW: Planning your literature review
What is a literature review?
Identifying what you want from a literature review
Think about the research project or study that you are about to undertake.
Estimated duration: 30 minutes
What kind of literature review will you be undertaking? Will you be using a ‘literature review’ approach as the basis
of your research project, or do you need to understand what research has been carried out in your field before you
begin your own project, that is, undertake a preliminary review?
You might want to consider the most important information that you need to identify through your literature review.
For example, check whether your research question has been answered before and the previous methods that
have been used. Make a note of your findings and thoughts in the space below.
51 | Page
© Epigeum Ltd, 2013 |
RESEARCH METHODS IN LITERATURE REVIEW: Planning your literature review
Adopting a methodical approach to your literature review
Comparing literature reviews from different disciplines
Explore some of the literature reviews that have been undertaken within your discipline. How have these been
presented?
Now consider some reviews that have been done in other disciplines.
Did you find any common ground between the two?
What were the strongest points of each type that you can use in your own review?
You may wish to record some notes on the example reviews in the following table. You could also use the space
provided below to list the strongest elements which you might use in your own review.
Estimated duration: 45 minutes
Review title
Discipline
Notes
Elements to use in my review:
52 | Page
© Epigeum Ltd, 2013 |
RESEARCH METHODS IN LITERATURE REVIEW: Planning your literature review
Adopting a focused review question
Thinking about your research literature review question
Define the terms you will use in your literature review. Remember that many terms have different meanings
and it is important to be clear about the scope of your review right from the beginning.
Write out your literature review question in different ways to see which best reflects the needs of your research
project.
You may wish to record your ideas in the space below.
Estimated duration: 45 minutes
Terms to be used in literature review:
Different versions of review question:
You might consider writing out your question on a Post-it note and posting it anywhere you will see it regularly.
Every time you read your question, consider if it is the appropriate question for you. After a week or two, consider
these questions:
Are you happy with your final question?
Does it convey exactly what your literature review is about?
Is there anything you would still like to change?
53 | Page
© Epigeum Ltd, 2013 |
RESEARCH METHODS IN THE LITERATURE REVIEW: Searching for literature
What literature will be relevant to my review?
Developing a hierarchy of evidence
Try to work out the most relevant types of evidence needed for your review by developing your own hierarchy of
evidence below.
Consider:
Which types of evidence might be stronger than others in relation to your review question?
Which types of evidence might you use if you cannot find the strongest evidence?
The types of evidence you might consider could include:
Systematic reviews
Qualitative studies
Randomised controlled trials
Cohort studies
Case-control studies
Case reports
Editorials
Expert opinions
Media coverage
Eye-witness reports
Anecdotal evidence, etc.
Remember that it is important to work out your ‘hierarchy of evidence’, which will depend entirely on the nature of
both your research and review questions, and the evidence available to you.
Estimated duration: 30 minutes
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
54 | Page
© Epigeum Ltd, 2013 |
RESEARCH METHODS IN LITERATURE REVIEW: Searching for literature
Identifying inclusion and exclusion criteria
Your research question: Inclusion and exclusion criteria
Think about the research question for your review and write appropriate inclusion and exclusion criteria for your search.
Remember to be as specific as you can and remember that the criteria will be a mixture of pragmatism (you may not be able to access all available literature,
for example, in different languages) and the needs of your review.
Estimated duration: 30 minutes
Inclusion criteria
Exclusion criteria
55 | Page
© Epigeum Ltd, 2013 |
RESEARCH METHODS IN LITERATURE REVIEW: Searching for literature
Searching for literature electronically
Searching strategies
Think about possible keywords that you could use for your literature search. Consider words used in the UK and other countries, and out-of-date or ‘politically
incorrect’ terms that might have been used in previous years.
Remember that terms which are too broad will retrieve far too much literature and terms that are too narrow might limit your field excessively. Try running
different searches using different keywords in databases that are relevant to your subject.
Estimated duration: 45 minutes
Term
Relevance
Search results
56 | Page
© Epigeum Ltd, 2013 |
RESEARCH METHODS IN LITERATURE REVIEW: Searching for literature
Additional searching strategies
Alternative methods
Sometimes even careful and considered electronic searches do not pull the required information, or an adequate number of resources. As discussed in this
section of the main course, there are a number of alternative searching strategies, including:
Searching sources by hand
Searching indexes of sources
Author searching
Contacting the main authors in the field
Checking citation information.
Think about instances in which your electronic database searches have not been successful. For each search term or topic, try the alternative methods listed
above, and note down your findings in the table below.
Can you think of any other alternative search methods? Add the results of these to your table too.
Estimated duration: 45 minutes
57 | Page
© Epigeum Ltd, 2013 |
Search term or topic:
Alternative strategy
Results
58 | Page
© Epigeum Ltd, 2013 |
RESEARCH METHODS IN LITERATURE REVIEW: Searching for literature
Documenting your searching strategy
A summary of your searching methods
Documenting your searching strategy will demonstrate that you have undertaken a systematic and comprehensive
searching process. Using your summary, it should be possible to replicate your search process to check your
findings or build on your search.
You may be required to provide a summary of your searching methods as part of your final thesis.
Your summary should include:
Details of your own ‘hierarchy of evidence’
Details of any inclusion or exclusion criteria you applied
Search terms and keywords
Strategies you used in addition to searching electronic databases.
Using the information that you have built up for the last four portfolio activities in this module, write a summary of
your searching strategy below. You may wish to discuss how to present your searching strategy in your thesis with
your supervisor.
Estimated duration: 30 minutes
Write your notes here:
59 | Page
© Epigeum Ltd, 2013 |
RESEARCH METHODS IN LITERATURE REVIEW: Evaluation of the literature
The need to be critical
Considering the credibility of the material in your literature
review
In the example of the (now retracted) Wakefield paper (1998), we have seen the importance of being critical of the
information you use in your literature review.
Take some time to think about the material you will use in your literature review.
Read and re-read it
Is it credible?
Can you cite it confidently?
Are there any related papers that you should identify in reference to it?
You may wish to record your thoughts in the table below.
Estimated duration: 45 minutes
Material in your review
Notes
60 | Page
© Epigeum Ltd, 2013 |
RESEARCH METHODS IN LITERATURE REVIEW: Evaluation of the literature
Critical appraisal tools
Using appraisal tools for your review
Search for critical appraisal tools that are used in your research area. You are looking for tools that help you to
assess the strengths and weaknesses of literature and consider whether it is useful for your review.
Some key texts also contain appraisal tools or they can be found using a generic internet search. This time, you
might have to search broadly to find appraisal tools which might be hard to locate.
You may wish to record your thoughts in the table below.
Estimated duration: 45 minutes
Critical appraisal tool
Notes
61 | Page
© Epigeum Ltd, 2013 |
RESEARCH METHODS IN LITERATURE REVIEW: Learning assessment
Learning evaluation
Take a moment to consider the reflective piece you wrote before undertaking this course.
Think about the questions you answered and the goals you outlined at the start of the course. To what extent do
you feel you have met the course learning outcomes, and your own learning needs? Do you feel better able to
apply your knowledge to your own research?
You may wish to make a note of your thoughts in the space below.
62 | Page
© Epigeum Ltd, 2013 |