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A Foucauldian Analysis of Portrayals of Female Docility in Popular vs. Critical Media
A Correlation to Female Docility in Higher Education
Final Essay
grade A+
SOSC 3930: University and Society
Dr. Indhu Rajagopal
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Abstract
In this paper, I will argue that women in natural/physical sciences and graduate studies
are turned into Foucault’s (1995) “docile bodies” through ‘disciplinary power.’ The body is
normalized, individuated, surveilled and objectified through social power that disciplines and
controls it. Literature on the experiences of university women in natural/physical sciences and
graduate studies show that the women in these fields endure gender inequities. In my analysis, I
will explore female representations of popular vs. critical media to examine the influence of
media as the apparatus of the disciplinary power. Persuasive and pleasurable representations of
women’s ‘normalized’ behaviour and obligatory docility in popular media subjectivize and
discipline the female body. In contrast, critical media expose the disciplinary inscription on the
female body caught in the power matrix of ‘masculine’ fields.
Relevant Literature on the Process of Female Docility
Individuating and Normalizing Female Bodies
Popular media disseminates qualities of stereotypical ‘normal’ gender behaviour
(Eschholz et al., 2002, p. 299). This can be seen in popular media representations of science as a
male field (Long et al., 2001, p. 265) and males as socially dominant (Eschholz et al., 2002, p.
322; Lauzen & Dozier, 2005, p. 444). These types of ideas can decrease women’s assurance of
their capabilities (Herring & Marken, 2008, p. 234) and lead to the understanding that males are
more competent than females in certain subject matters (Herzig, 2004, p. 392; Steele et al., 2002,
p. 49). Foucault’s notion of individuation is useful to explore how women are excluded and
subjected to normalization in natural/physical sciences and graduate studies. Foucault (1984a)
sees individuation as a way to control individuals who defy norms (p. 218). Normalization
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encompasses how individuals come to accept and internalize social norms (Bernauer & Mahon,
1994, p. 143 & p. 151). Individuation and normalization can be seen to operate together as
people are separated from the population as unique and then classified based upon their actions
(Foucault, 1984c, p. 195).
The literature reveals that women in natural/physical sciences and graduate studies
experience normalization and individuation. For example, Herzig (2004) argues that professors
of natural/physical sciences favour mentoring male students (p. 380). McKinley (2005) asserts
similar findings on reports of Maori female scientists who argue that due to their culture and
gender, they are less respected as scientists (pp. 488-489). Furthermore, there is an implication
that male students represent the norm. More specifically, female contributions in graduate
education are not as acknowledged as male contributions (Wall, 2008, p. 220) and feminist
scholarship is positioned outside of mainstream academia (Hart, 2006, p. 56).
The Surveillance and Objectification of Females
In addition to experiences of normalization and individuation, women in higher education
can also be perceived to experience surveillance and objectification. To be sure, surveillance
refers to the watching of bodies (Foucault, 1984c, p. 192), which allows for power relations to
enter bodies (Foucault, 1984b, p. 180). Objectification encompasses individuals being treated as
bodies controlled by power, instead of active agents (Foucault, 1984c, p. 188). Notably, scholars
find that female students experience gender discrimination (Morrison et al., 2005, p. 158; Steele
et al., 2002, p. 49). This implies that women are being watched. Mottarella et al. (2009) also
discusses the “good mother stereotype” where women who go back to higher education after
having children are judged (p. 230). These forms discrimination and judgment can be seen to
objectify females as assumptions about their abilities (Steele et al., 2002, p. 49; Morrison et al.,
POPULAR VS. CRITICAL MEDIA
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2005, p. 158) and character (Mottarella et al., 2009, p. 230) are being derived from their
gendered bodies.
Control and Disciplining: Female Docility
Following objectification, individuals become controlled and then disciplined bodies
(Rajagopal, Lecture 5, October 27th, 2009). Women face challenges in higher education
including gender discrimination and judgment (Morrison et al., 2005, p. 158; Mottarella et al.,
2009, p. 230; Steele et al., 2002, p. 49). It is argued that such challenges can be looked at as
punishments to control female advancement (Morrison et al. 2005, p. 154). One then becomes
disciplined and docile by regulating one’s own behaviour according to established norms
(Rajagopal, Lecture 5, October 27th 2009).
To be sure, scholars recognize that female students are receiving more post-secondary
degrees than male students (Blackhurst & Auger, 2008, p. 149). Further, Cho (2006) connects
this to high levels of success for female students at the secondary level of education (p. 450).
Despite this, gender inequalities remain prominent (Bradley, 2000, p. 1). Women are not
necessarily challenging the status quo, but instead have been turned into docile bodies as they
regulate their own behaviour according to how they are perceived (Morrison et al., 2005, p. 154).
Evidence of this docility includes a disinclination to acknowledge gender discrimination
(Middleton, 2005, p. 522; Morrison et al., 2005, p. 150), a lack of self-belief at higher levels of
education (Barata et al., 2005, p. 239), and a discontinuation of studies (Herzig, 2004, p. 392).
Potential Solutions
The literature is inconclusive with regards to solving gender inequalities for women in
higher education. Suggestions include introducing alternative ways of thinking that promote
female capabilities (Oswald, 2008, p. 201). This, however, may evoke another way in which to
POPULAR VS. CRITICAL MEDIA
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control female bodies. Other scholars advocate for a space for females to speak about their
experiences (Barata et al., 2005, p. 243), yet paradoxically education is said to be lacking room
for critical subject matter (Middleton, 2005, p. 524). Overall, a review of the literature reveals
that despite increasing participation of females in higher education, gender inequalities remain
prominent for women in natural/physical sciences and graduate studies.
The Influence of the Media as an Apparatus of Disciplinary Power
The inconsistency of the literature in regards to solving gender inequalities points to the
necessity of further investigations. Studies of popular media representations have been conducted
with a focus on gender stereotypes (Eschholz et al., 2002; Lauzen & Dozier, 2005; Long et al.,
2001). I will build on the existing literature by investigating female representations in popular vs.
critical media to examine the influence of media as the apparatus of Foucault’s (1995)
‘disciplinary power.’ Using the same conceptual themes from the literature review, I will link
female docility in higher education to media representations of female docility. My analysis of
popular media will focus on processes of obligatory docility in the film The Proposal (2009) and
season one of the television series Nurse Jackie (2009). A television advertisement and song
lyrics will also be used. I will contrast popular media with critical media in the form of cartoons.
Individuating and Normalizing Female Bodies
The above literature review discussed the ways in which females in higher education
experience normalization and individuation. Despite initial appearances to the contrary, The
Proposal (2009) and Nurse Jackie (2009) depict these processes of normalization and
individuation. On the surface, The Proposal (2009) appears to challenge traditional gender
representations by presenting Margaret, a successful female book editor, with a male assistant
named Andrew. Nurse Jackie (2009) also features Jackie as a woman who maintains a
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demanding job in medicine and a family life. Eschholz et al. (2002), however, argue that the
social power of the male continues to be normalized in popular media (p. 322). With a more
nuanced look, the findings of Eschholz et al. (2002) are confirmed in both The Proposal (2009)
and Nurse Jackie (2009).
In The Proposal (2009) Andrew’s position as a male assistant is utilized for comedic
purposes, with his family making jokes about his lack of ambition. The fact that Margaret has
two male bosses, however, is presented as an aside and not emphasized in the same manner. The
Proposal (2009) thus serves to normalize male dominance in the workplace by highlighting
Margaret and Andrew’s working relationship to ignite laughs, while simultaneously ignoring
Margaret’s relationship with her male bosses. This implies that Margaret and Andrew are
deviating from the norms of the workplace hierarchy. In addition, Margaret is depicted as a
professional and social ‘outsider.’ Margaret’s coworkers find her highly unapproachable, and it
is also revealed that she maintains no relationships outside of work (The Proposal, 2009).
The television series Nurse Jackie (2009) similarly serves to normalize male dominance
in the workplace, and individuate females as outsiders. The nurses are mainly female, while the
majority of doctors are male. In addition, Jackie is unable to integrate her public working life and
private home life. She maintains an extreme separation between these two spheres and hides the
fact that she has a husband and children at her workplace. In fact, Jackie goes so far as to remove
her wedding ring each day before work. She further carries on a secret affair with a male
coworker and does not reveal her family life to him for the majority of the season (Nurse Jackie,
2009). Jackie is thus individuated an outsider in both realms of her life since she is never able to
express her true self. Instead of this being highlighted as problematic, the separation of her lives
is utilized for dramatic purposes to promote suspense (Nurse Jackie, 2009).
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Presenting individuation and normalization as pleasurable in the form of a comedy or
drama is dangerous. According to Stern (2005), it is possible that media portrayals of teenagers
have some bearing on adult’s opinions of teenagers in reality (pp. 33-35). Using Stern’s (2005)
analysis, the normalization of male dominance and the individuation of females may have some
bearing on people’s perceptions of women in masculine disciplines.
In contrast, critical media encourages one to recognize normalization and individuation
by poking fun at popular representations. For example, a cartoon features a table dominated by
male executives who mock the lone female’s experience of gender inequality (See Appendix A).
Another cartoon portrays a female executive who answers her own phone and is assumed to be a
secretary (See Appendix B). Notably, Giroux (2002) argues that students should be taught to
think critically in higher education (pp. 15-16). Critical media, moreover, promotes the type of
practice that Giroux (2002) asserts is necessary for democracy (pp. 15-16). In exposing the
normalization of male work hierarchies and the individuation of female bodies through humour,
critical media forces one to question, rather than blindly consume popular representations.
The Surveillance and Objectification of Females
Eschholz et al. (2002) find that popular media objectifies women (p. 323), and reproduces
social relations of dominance (p. 325). Freedman (2003) also references the objectification of
females in popular media (pp. 85-86), while Aubrey (2006) notes the pervasiveness of such
objectification in popular media (p. 384). This is evident in both The Proposal (2009) and Nurse
Jackie (2009), as the female characters are subjected to surveillance and objectification.
In The Proposal (2009) it is revealed that Margaret will face deportation due to an
expired visa. She coerces Andrew into marrying her so that she will not be deported and keep
her job. Margaret then travels to Alaska with Andrew to reveal their marriage plans to his family.
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As a result of her plot, Margaret is constantly watched and evaluated by her bosses, government
officials, and Andrew’s family. She further conforms to the ways in which these various parties
see her. For instance, Margaret adopts a confident and firm demeanor with her bosses. She then
switches to a gentler demeanor in front of government officials and Andrew’s family to convince
them of the authenticity of her love for Andrew. In addition, Margaret also experiences
objectification through her coworkers’ gendered comments. They refer to her as “it” “the witch”
and “Satan’s mistress” (The Proposal, 2009). The comment of “it” is particularly problematic as
it implies that a successful women cannot be fully female.
Jackie also experiences surveillance and objectification in Nurse Jackie (2009). She
receives judgment from her daughter who tells her to stay home more often (Daffodil, 2009;
Nose Bleed, 2009). Jackie’s gender takes centre stage in this form of surveillance. In essence, her
husband also works outside of the home, yet never receives such judgment from their daughter.
This evokes Mottarella’s (2009) discussion of the “good mother stereotype” where women who
go back to higher education after having children are similarly judged (p. 230). In addition,
Jackie experiences objectification as her abilities at work are linked to her gendered body. A
coworker tells her that nurses are supposed to be compassionate, while doctors lack emotion
(Pilot, 2009). Since most of the nurses are female and most of the doctors are male, this
comment connects one’s qualities and character to gender.
The objectification of female bodies is further reinforced in an advertisement for the
television program Californication. A male is displayed in the centre of the advertisement, with
the bodies of female students surrounding him. The faces of the female students are not shown
and they are wearing very little clothing (See Appendix C). In effect, this advertisement places
the emphasis on females’ bodies rather than on their abilities or knowledge as students.
POPULAR VS. CRITICAL MEDIA
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Popular media is thus revealed to subject female bodies to surveillance and
objectification. Aubrey (2006) finds that this can lead to one objectifying oneself (p. 381).
Interestingly, Leone et al. (2006) note that individuals feel they are less influenced by the media
than others (p. 265). At the same time, however, Freedman (2003) finds that pre-service teachers
are uncritical of popular cultural messages (p. 93). As such, Freedman (2003) reveals that media
does influence one’s beliefs despite feelings of immunity (p. 94). In this way, popular media
promotes uncritical acceptance of the surveillance and objectification of female bodies.
Critical media, however, makes the surveillance and objectification of females in
masculine fields explicit. One cartoon features two men evaluating a woman to determine if she
is suitable for a job. They explain to the woman that she is not being hired and the reason for this
is due to her gender (See Appendix D). Another cartoon depicts a male who is incredulous that a
female employee could feel she is experiencing gender inequality. Paradoxically, however, she
does not even receive a chair to sit on (See Appendix E). This cartoon insinuates that gender
influences work treatment, thereby exposing objectification. Moreover, critical media utilizes
humour to make the modes of thought that contribute to gender inequality explicit. Morrison
(2000), meanwhile, argues that higher education must advance democracy and social justice (p.
4). She asserts the importance of recognizing how people and knowledge are implicated with
social beliefs in order to achieve this goal (Morrison, 2000, p. 3). To be sure, critical media
supports ways of thinking that Morrison (2000) argues are imperative in the university (pp. 3-4).
Control and Disciplining: Female Docility
Popular media can also be seen to depict the last stages in the process of obligatory
docility. This involves the control and disciplining of bodies (Rajagopal, Lecture 5, October 27th,
2009). The literature reveals that women face challenges in higher education (Morrison et al.,
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2005, p. 158; Mottarella et al., 2009, p. 230; Steele et al., 2002, p. 49). It was noted that these
challenges be looked at as attempts to control female advancement that eventually leads to the
disciplining of bodies (Morrison et al. 2005, p. 154),
In The Proposal (2009) Margaret faces similar techniques of control and disciplining, as
she has to sacrifice her relationships to be successful in her career. Following this, Margaret
becomes disciplined by symbolically relenting to male social power. Typical of romantic
comedies, Margaret and Andrew fall in love and Andrew moves to kiss Margaret. At this point a
coworker exclaims Andrew is demonstrating he is “the boss” (The Proposal, 2009). While this
comment is used to evoke laughter, it also implies that women must theoretically decide between
being a “boss” or being in love. Further, the entire movie is premised on the fact that Andrew
must agree to marry Margaret in order for her to keep her job (The Proposal, 2009). Therefore,
while Margaret may be Andrew’s boss at work, Andrew retains the power and control in reality.
Instances of control and disciplining are also displayed in Nurse Jackie (2009). The
challenges that Jackie must face as a working mother are shown to the extreme. For one, she is
unable to integrate her work and private life, maintaining an absolute separation between the
two. In addition, her daughter suffers emotional breakdowns when Jackie goes to work (Daffodil,
2009; Nose Bleed, 2009; Pupil, 2009; School Nurse, 2009). This implies that Jackie cannot raise
a healthy child while maintaining a career. In the end, Jackie becomes a disciplined body by
turning to prescription pills to help her cope with her struggles. This addiction leads to intriguing
story lines throughout the entire first season of the show (Nurse Jackie, 2009). Essentially,
however, Jackie is artificially escaping from reality through her addiction, rather than
challenging the normalization of working males and the disciplining of female bodies.
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Stern et al. (2005) show why such messages of obligatory docility are dangerous by
revealing how media acts an apparatus of disciplinary power. They write of “parasocial
attachment” where viewers of popular media feel they have an authentic bond with television
characters (Stern et al., 2005, p. 223). Through “parasocial attachment” television characters
impact individuals’ actions and values (Stern et al., 2005, p. 223). In this way, processes of
obligatory docility in the media may have an effect on individuals’ actions.
While popular media presents persuasive representations of obligatory female docility,
critical media deconstructs such popular representations. For example, one cartoon utilizes
humour to expose challenges that working mothers face (See Appendix F). Another comic makes
one think about obligatory docility by depicting women in the business world having to use a
male washroom (See Appendix G). Freedman (2003) advocates for critical teaching and learning
whereby media representations can be discussed and analyzed (p. 94). Critical media encourages
such practice as it deconstructs how female bodies become disciplined.
One might suggest that popular media does not necessarily discipline females in
masculine fields. For example, Long et al. (2001) note that ‘counter-stereotypes’ challenging the
dominant depiction of scientists as male are being shown on television programs (p. 264). While
these counter-stereotypes imply a critique of popular representations, they are still disseminated
by the popular media. Bishop (2000) asserts that individuals must be cautious of media critiques
generated by popular media, as they are only critical to the extent that the popular media allows
(pp. 9-10). He argues that such criticism is produced with the goal of gaining profit (Bishop,
2000, p. 10). In effect, individuals’ incentives to be critical of the media are reduced, and the
media’s control remains prominent (Bishop, 2000, p. 6). Counter-stereotypical shows are thus
not resisting the disciplinary powers of popular media, but are rather supporting media control.
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This argument is illuminated in the song “Just a Girl” (See Appendix H). On the surface,
the lyrics appear to be critiquing popular cultural depictions of women by mocking
representations of females as fragile. In the end, however, this song is part of popular culture and
only criticizes representations of female docility to the extent delineated by popular media (see
Bishop, 2000, pp. 9-10). One lyric depicts a female’s desire to no longer be a girl because of her
experiences of obligatory docility (Dumont & Stefanie, 1995). This presents the message that it
is futile to challenge female docility, as the lyrics imply that her experiences will not change
unless she is no longer a girl. This song is also dangerous since it initially appears critical of
popular representations. As Bishop (2000) argues, such forms of media reduce one’s incentive to
be critical (p. 6). Moreover, popular lyrics that appear critical on the surface actually support
media control by encouraging a passive acceptance of media messages (see Bishop, 2000, p. 17).
Concluding Thoughts
In conclusion, the literature reveals that females in natural/physical sciences and graduate
studies are turned into Foucault’s (1995) “docile bodies” through ‘disciplinary power.’ In
analyzing popular media’s representations of ‘normalized’ female behaviour and obligatory
docility it is clear that media is an apparatus of the disciplinary power. Although the media
disseminates messages in public, in the words of Gerstl-Pepin (1998), these messages are too
“thin” (as cited in Gerstl-Pepin, 2002, p. 39) as they are not easily open to scrutiny (Gerstl-Pepin,
2002, p. 39). Instead, obligatory female docility is portrayed in comedic, dramatic, and
unsubvertable manners. At the same time, however, critical media reveals how females in
masculine fields are inscribed by disciplinary powers. Unpacking and exposing the disciplinary
power of popular media, one hopes, will serve to enhance the reflexive abilities of students and
citizens, which would open the possibilities for resistance against gender inequality.
POPULAR VS. CRITICAL MEDIA
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APPENDIX A
Critical Media: Normalization and Individuation
(Sizemore. J. “Anyone else like to share a ‘glass ceiling horror story’?” Cartoon. www.cartoonstock.com.
<http://www.cartoonstock.com/cartoonview.asp?catref=jsin220>.)
APPENDIX B
Critical Media: Normalization and Individuation
(Bacall, A. “No, this is not Mel’s secretary. This is Mel.” Cartoon. www.cartoonstock.com
<http://www.cartoonstock.com/cartoonview.asp?catref=aba0459>)
POPULAR VS. CRITICAL MEDIA
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APPENDIX C
Objectification in Popular Media
(Californication Advertisement. 1 Sept. 2009
<http://www.cityweekly.net/utah/imgs/media/Bill/Californication_Season_3.jpg>)
APPENDIX D
Critical Media: Surveillance and Objectification
(Kes. “Of course it isn't a case of sexual discrimination. We just don't think you're the right man for the job.”
Cartoon. www.cartoonstock.com. <http://www.cartoonstock.com/cartoonview.asp?catref=ksmn955>.)
POPULAR VS. CRITICAL MEDIA
15
APPENDIX E
Critical Media: Surveillance and Objectification
(Flanagan, M. “Sex discrimination? What are you talking about?” Cartoon. www.cartoonstock.com
<http://www.cartoonstock.com/cartoonview.asp?catref=mfl0325.>)
APPENDIX F
Critical Media: Controls
(Streeter, B. “Sorry, still got my 'raising kids' head on...” Cartoon. www.cartoonstock.com.
<http://www.cartoonstock.com/cartoonview.asp?catref=bstn180>.)
POPULAR VS. CRITICAL MEDIA
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APPENDIX G
Critical Media: Disciplining
(Jolley, R. "Do you ever worry that you've had to sacrifice your femininity to succeed?"
Cartoon.
www.cartoonstock.com. <http://www.cartoonstock.com/cartoonview.asp?catref=rjo0287>.)
APPENDIX H
Excerpt of Popular Media Song Lyrics: “Just a Girl”
“…Cause I'm just a girl, little ol' me
Don't let me out of your sight
I'm just a girl, all pretty and petite
So don't let me have any rights
Oh. . . I've had it up to here!
The moment that I step outside
So many reasons for me to run and hide
I can't do the little things
I hold so dear
'Cause it's all those little things
That I fear
'Cause I'm just a girl,
I'd rather not be…”
(Dumont, T. & Stefani G. (1995). Just a Girl [No Doubt]. On Tragic Kingdom [CD]. Interscope Records. Lyrics
accessed online: http://www.lyrics007.com/No%20Doubt%20Lyrics/Just%20A%20Girl%20Lyrics.htm)
POPULAR VS. CRITICAL MEDIA
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