Introduction to Psychology
Overview of Psychology
Psychology - The scientific study of behavior and the mental process that is
tested through scientific research. (should be systematic in approach).
Goals of Psychology
Psychologists seek to do four things when studying behaviors:
1. Describe – gather information on studied behavior and present what is known.
2. Explain- creating a hypothesis (educated guess) to understand why a behavior
is practiced. A theory (more complex assumption to explain and
offered for scientific study) is produced from large amounts of
experimental study.
3. Predict- By studying past behaviors, future behaviors can be predicted based
upon theory.
4. Influence- using what is known to influence future behavior.
Basic science – research for its own sake.
Applied science - Using principles to solve more immediate
problems.
The Scientific Method
A general approach to gathering information and answering questions so that error and biases are
minimized.
Steps of Scientific Method
1. Question
2. Hypothesis
3. Experiment
4. Results
5.Conclusions (create additional hypothesis OR reject and revise hypothesis)
6. Theory (other react and test their theories)
Brief History of Psychology
- Origins of psychology begin with 5th and 6th century Greece with studying behavior.
- Copernicus & Galileo used Greek observation methods to develop theory.
- In disagreement with dualism 17th Century Rene Descartes proposed that the mind does
affect on the body by controlling movements, sensations and perceptions.
Historical Approaches to Psychology
Structuralism – study of basic elements that make up human experiences.
Wilhelm Wundt – In 1879, used people’s self observations about their thoughts
(introspection) to map out structure of the thought process.
Functionalism – study of the function or how people & animals adapt to environment.
William James – known as the “father of psychology” taught first psych class in 1875
and wrote first textbook in 1890.
Inheritable Traits – study of how heredity influences a person’s ability, character, and
behavior. Is behavior determined by heredity or environment?
Sir Francis Galton – concluded that intelligence was hereditary / good marriages
would supply the world with talented offspring. (1883).
Gestalt Psychology - perception is more than the sum of its parts – it involves a whole
pattern. German group that picked apart cognitive thought process.
Contemporary Approaches to Psychology (mid 1900’s to Present)
 Psychoanalytic Psychology- study of unconscious motives & conflict determine behavior.
Sigmund Freud – used free association and dream analysis to study behavior (1940).
 Behavioral Psychology – study of how organisms learn or change behavior based upon
responses to events in their environment. (Early-mid1900’s)
Ivan Pavlov – classical conditioning experiment with dog’s salivation
John B. Watson – behavior occurs due to stimuli in environment
B.F. Skinner – introduced concept reinforcement to show how behaviors repeat
 Humanistic Psychology – belief that each person has freedom in directing his/her future an
achieving personal growth. Humans are not controlled by
environment, but by their own self concept.
Abraham Maslow – humanist whose views differed from behaviorists and psychoanalysts
 Cognitive Psychology – study of how we process, store retrieve, and use information and
how the thought process influences our behaviors. (since 1950’s)
Jean Piaget – leader in the cognitive field of psychology.
 Biological Psychology – study of how physical and chemical changes in our bodies influence
behaviors. Ex/ brain, nervous system, hormones effect on behavior.
 Sociocultural Psychology – study of cultural and socioeconomic influences on behaviors
Psychology as a Profession
Psychologist – a trained person who studies the mind and behaviors of humans and animals.
Clinical Psychologist- diagnoses and treats people with emotional disturbances (about ½ of all
psychologists are clinical).
Counseling Psychologist- help people deal with problems / challenges of life.
Psychiatry- branch of medicine that deals with emotional and behavioral disorders. Can
prescribe medicine and is considered a medical doctor (M.D.) not a psychologist.
Developmental Psychology- study of physical, emotional, cognitive, and social changes that
occur as individuals mature.
Educational Psychologist – study topics related to educating children such as intelligence,
memory, and problem solving.
Community Psychologist – studies behavior in mental health or social welfare institution in
order to design run or evaluate programs for patients.
Industrial/Organizational Psychologist – studies concepts to make the workplace more
satisfying for employees and managers.
Experimental Psychologist – studies sensation, behavior, perception, learning, motivation, and
emotion in controlled laboratory conditions.
Forensic Psychologist – studies, diagnoses, and evaluates testimony regarding the law and
criminal behavior ( also includes effects of court on children, jury
selection, counseling victims)
Sports Psychology- studies athletics and athletic performance. Often use visualization to help
athletes mentally rehearse successful steps in completing tasks while
reducing negative thoughts of failure.
Psychological Research Methods and Statistics
Now that we have learned that psychologists use data collected from research to complete the
steps of the scientific method it is necessary to take a brief look into how data and research are
formed and used by psychologists in their various fields of study.
Pre-Research
Sample - a small group of participants out of the total number available that researchers use.
 Should be representative of the group you are studying.
 Random samples help to ensure that the group is representative
Methods of Research
Naturalistic Observation- _________________________________________
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Case Studies- _________________________________________________
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Survey- ____________________________________________________
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Longitudinal Studies- ____________________________________________
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Cross-Sectional Studies- __________________________________________
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Correlations- _________________________________________________
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Experiments- _________________________________________________
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Psychologists are expected to use ethics when conduction experiments
The Milgrim Experiment (1960’s)
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Stanley Milgrim’s Shock therapy experiment where participants were blindly asked to
give increasing electric shocks to people answering questions incorrectly.
 Single-blind experiment one party was unaware/double-blind means both parties unaware
 62% of participants were willing to administer highest shock level (false shocks).
The Placebo Effect – a change in a patient’s illness or physical state that results solely from
the patient’s knowledge and perception that a treatment works.
Statistical Evaluation
Statistics – branch of math concerned with summarizing and evaluating data
Descriptive statistics – listing data in a practical way (chart, graph, averages)
Frequency distribution- an arrangement to that indicates how often a particular behavior or
observation occurs.
Normal curve – a.k.a. a bell curve - graph of frequency distribution that displays typical results.
Measures of Central Tendency – a number describing the average score of a distribution.
Mean (average)
Median (middle score after ranking from highest to lowest)
Mode (the most common occurring score)
Variance – a measure of difference
Standard Deviation – an measure of variance that compare every score to the mean score.
The Big Idea:
Psychologists can use statistics to support their hypotheses when meaningful data is evaluated
correctly. Descriptive statistics include distributions of data, measures of central tendency,
measures of variance, and correlation coefficients. Inferential statistics are used to make
generalizations about the population from which the experiment participants come.
Review: Application of Terms Read the excerpt below and an answer the question that follow.
Jane Goodall is a British zoologist who became famous for her work with chimpanzees in
Tanzania, Africa. Her work began in 1960. By living among chimpanzees, she earned their trust
observing their daily activities and writing detailed reports. Goodall discovered while doing 30
years of research that chimps hunt and eat larger animals and make and use tools more than any
other species. Goodall also witnessed the first known instance in which a group of chimps
systematically killed another group, although the first groups survival was not threatened. The
discovery surprised naturalist and suggested that behaviors like hunting, using tools, and warfare
are not unique to humans.
What method of research does this reflect? _________________________________________
What behaviors did Goodall find among chimps?_____________________________________
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