RENEWABLE ENERGIES: MY HOUSE IN THE YEAR 2007 PROJECT
15 Şubat 2009
Written by
Neşe Marmara; Oğuz Bölük; Bahattin Tozyılmaz; Alexander Piller; Di Rocco
Marlyne; Fléjo Alan; İrem Karataş; Melis Tekant; Marta Ros; Patricia Rubio; Posso
Caroline; Rémy Severac

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W HAT IS THE W IND P OWER ?
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T
HE
H
ISTORY OF THE
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IND
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OWER
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ECHNICAL
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ETAILS
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LACEMENT
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O
NSHORE
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LACEMENT
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N
EAR
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HORE
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LACEMENT
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O
FFSHORE
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LACEMENT
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A IRBORNE P LACEMENT .............................................................................................. 8
T ECHNICAL A SSEMBLY ................................................................................................... 9
C ALCULATING THE POWER OF THE WIND ...................................................................... 9
E XAMPLE T YPES .......................................................................................................... 11
E NERCON E-70........................................................................................................ 11
R EPOWERING .............................................................................................................. 11
M APS ............................................................................................................................. 12
F RANCE (F RANCE ) ....................................................................................................... 13
T URKEY (T ÜRKIYE ) ...................................................................................................... 14
S PAIN (E SPAÑA ) .......................................................................................................... 15
G ERMANY (D EUTSCHLAND ) .......................................................................................... 16
W INDFARM M ODELS ........................................................................................................ 17
N EUTSCHER H ÖHE ...................................................................................................... 17
H AVMOLLE P ARK ......................................................................................................... 17
E CONOMICAL S COPE ....................................................................................................... 18
E NVIRONMENTAL S COPE ................................................................................................. 19
CO
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EMİSSİONS AND POLLUTİON ................................................................................... 19
E COLOGİCAL FOOTPRİNT .............................................................................................. 19
L AND USE .................................................................................................................... 19
I MPACT ON WİLDLİFE .................................................................................................... 20
B İRDS ..................................................................................................................... 20
B ATS ....................................................................................................................... 21
F İSH ........................................................................................................................ 21
O FFSHORE OCEAN NOİSE ............................................................................................. 21
S AFETY ....................................................................................................................... 21
A ESTHETİCS ................................................................................................................ 22
A DVANTAGES & D ISADVANTAGES ..................................................................................... 24
A DVANTAGES .............................................................................................................. 24
D ISADVANTAGES ......................................................................................................... 24
F REQUENTLY A SKED Q UESTIONS ..................................................................................... 25
R EFERENCES & S OURCES ............................................................................................... 29

Wind energy is an alternative source of electricity. This technology harnesses the power of the wind. Specifically, the wind spins turbines which powers generators whose main task is to produce electricity.
The wind is one of the safest and cleanest sources of renewable energy today. The concept is similar to those of <http://www.monsterguide.net/how-to-build-a-windmill.shtml" target="_blank">windmills used for crushing grains or for irrigation. However, in the case of wind turbines, the force of the wind on the blades creates rotational motion; this motion is used to generate electricity.
Wind is just a simple movement of air due to differences in temperature between air near the land's surface and air over bodies of water. In sunny days, the land receives lots of energy in the form of radiation from the sun. This unequal distribution of energy heats up the air above land in a much faster rate than the air found over bodies of water.
This creates a difference in temperature between the two masses of air, one is warmer (air over land) and one is cooler (air over bodies of water). Naturally, as the air becomes warmer, it expands and rises higher up the atmosphere. It then forces the cooler air on top of bodies of water to take its place. As the cooler air moves in to take the place of the rising air, wind is created.
Wind power is the conversion of wind energy into useful form, such as electricity, using wind turbines. In windmills, wind energy is directly used to crush grain or to pump water. At the end of 2007, worldwide capacity of wind-powered generators was 94.1 gigawatts.[1]
Although wind currently produces just over 1% of world-wide electricity use, it accounts for approximately 19% of electricity production in Denmark, 9% in Spain and Portugal, and 6% in Germany and the Republic of Ireland (2007 data). Globally, wind power generation increased more than fivefold between 2000 and 2007.
Wind power is produced in large scale wind farms connected to electrical grids, as well as in individual turbines for providing electricity to isolated locations.
Wind energy is plentiful, renewable, widely distributed, clean, and reduces greenhouse gas emissions when it displaces fossil-fuel-derived electricity. The intermittency of wind seldom creates insurmountable problems when using wind power to supply a low proportion of total demand, but it presents extra costs when wind is to be used for a large fraction of demand.
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Since ancient times, man has harnessed the power of the wind to provide motive power for transportation. Likewise, the technique of grinding grain between stones to produce flour is similarly ancient, and widespread. Quite where and when these two came together in the first windmill is unknown, but a likely scenario suggests a Persian origin, from where (tradition has it) the knowledge spread back into Northern Europe as a result of the Crusades.
However, since the Persian mills were quite unlike the early European designs it seems just as likely that the adaptation of wind as a power source was independently discovered in
Europe, albeit at a later date. (Of course wind was not the first non-human power source applied to the task of grinding corn - it was preceeded by both animal power, and in all probability by water power).
European millwrights became highly skilled craftsmen, developing the technology tremendously, and as Europeans set off colonizing the rest of the globe, windmills spread throughout the world. A primary improvement of the European mills was their designer's use of sails that generated aerodynamic lift.
The pinnacles of windmill design include those built by the British, who developed many advanced "automatic control" mechanisms over the centuries, and the
Dutch (who used windmills extensively to pump water and for industrial uses, as well as to grind grain). The first illustrations (1270 A.D.) show a four- bladed mill mounted on a central post
(thus, a "postmill") which was already fairly technologically advanced relative to the Persian mills.
The process of perfecting the windmill sail, making incremental improvements in efficiency, took 500 years. By the time the process was completed, windmill sails had all the major features recognized by modern designers as being crucial to the performance of modern wind turbine blades, including 1) camber along the leading edge, 2) placement of the blade spar at the quarter chord position (25% of the way back from the leading edge toward the trailing edge), 3) center of gravity at the same 1/4 chord position, and 4) nonlinear twist of the blade from root to tip (Drees, 1977). Some models also featured aerodynamic brakes, spoilers, and flaps. The machine shown in Figure 4 (which was operating with two of its buddies pumping water about one meter up from one irrigation pond to another in the Netherlands in 1994) features leading edge airfoil sections.
These mills were the "electrical motor" of pre-industrial Europe.
Applications were diverse, ranging from the common waterwell, irrigation, or drainage pumping using a scoop wheel (single or tandem), grain-grinding (again, using single or multiple stones), saw-milling of timber, and the processing of other commodities such as spices, cocoa, paints and dyes, and tobacco

While continuing well into the 19th century, the use of large tower mills declined with the increased use of steam engines.
So, men have sought other possible uses of the wind, including the production of electricity
The first was a three-blades 10 meters in diameter with a capacity of 10 kW. His speed was 50 rpm. The regulatory system was done by using 3 weights. The rotor was connected to the engine via a multiplier report 1 / 23. The 3 blades were braced them. The mat had a height of 15 meters and it was tie. The windmill was replaced by the second because had a poor performance.
The second windmill was equipped the same as the previous mat but with a whole new platform, a new pitch commissioned by servo motor and 3 new blades. Its diameter was
10.25 meters, and its speed was up to 75 rpm. The 10 kW engine was replaced by a 12 kW engine of 750 rpm, which was coupled to a new report multiplier 1 / 8. This turbine was disassembled because of noise, too fragile mat (at the major rotation speeds), and problems in the system followed the wind.
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As a general rule, wind generators are practical where the average wind speed is 10 mph (16 km/h or 4.5 m/s) or greater. Usually sites are pre-selected on basis of a wind atlas, and validated with wind measurements. Obviously, meteorology plays an important part in determining possible locations for wind parks, though it has great accuracy limitations. Meteorological wind data is not usually sufficient for accurate siting of a large wind power project. Site Specific Meteorological Data is crucial to determining site potential. An 'ideal' location would have a near constant flow of nonturbulent wind throughout the year and would not suffer too many sudden powerful bursts of wind. An important turbine siting factor is access to local demand or transmission capacity.
The most crucial step in the development of a potential wind site is the collection of accurate and verifiable wind speed and direction data as well as other site parameters. To collect wind data a Meteorological Tower is installed at the potential site with instrumentation installed at various heights along the tower. All towers include anemometers to determine the wind speed and wind vanes to determine the direction. The towers generally vary in height from 30 to 60 meters. The towers primarily used in determining site feasibility for potential wind farms are guyed steelpipe structures which are left to collect data for one to two years and then usually disassembled. Data is collected by a data logging device which stores and transmits data to a server where it is analyzed.
The wind blows faster at higher altitudes because of the reduced influence of drag of the surface (sea or land) and the reduced viscosity of the air. The increase in velocity with altitude is most dramatic near the surface and is affected by topography, surface roughness, and upwind obstacles such as trees or buildings. Typically, the increase of wind speeds with increasing height follows a logarithmic profile that can be reasonably approximated by the wind profile power law, using an exponent of 1/7th, which predicts that wind speed rises proportionally to the seventh root of altitude.
Doubling the altitude of a turbine, then, increases the expected wind speeds by 10% and the expected power by 34% (calculation: increase in power = (2.0) ^(3/7) – 1 =
34%).
Wind farms or wind parks often have many turbines installed. Since each turbine extracts some of the energy of the wind, it is important to provide adequate spacing between turbines to avoid excess energy loss. Where land area is sufficient, turbines are spaced three to five rotor diameters apart perpendicular to the prevailing wind, and five to ten rotor diameters apart in the direction of the prevailing wind, to minimize efficiency loss. The "wind park effect" loss can be as low as 2% of the combined nameplate rating of the turbines.
Utility-scale wind turbine generators have minimum temperature operating limits which restrict the application in areas that routinely experience temperatures less than −20 °C. Wind turbines must be protected from ice accumulation, which can make anemometer readings inaccurate and which can cause high structure loads and damage. Some turbine manufacturers offer low-temperature packages at a few percent extra cost, which include internal heaters, different lubricants, and different

alloys for structural elements, to make it possible to operate the turbines at lower temperatures. If the low-temperature interval is combined with a low-wind condition, the wind turbine will require station service power, equivalent to a few percent of its output rating, to maintain internal temperatures during the cold snap. For example, the St. Leon, Manitoba project has a total rating of 99 MW and is estimated to need up to 3 MW (around 3% of capacity) of station service power a few days a year for temperatures down to −30 °C. This factor affects the economics of wind turbine operation in cold climates.
Onshore turbine installations in hilly or mountainous regions tend to be on ridgelines generally three kilometers or more inland from the nearest shoreline. This is done to exploit the so-called topographic acceleration. The hill or ridge causes the wind to accelerate as it is forced over it. The additional wind speeds gained in this way make large differences to the amount of energy that is produced. Great attention must be paid to the exact positions of the turbines (a process known as micro-siting) because a difference of 30m can sometimes mean a doubling in output. Local winds are often monitored for a year or more with anemometers and detailed wind maps constructed before wind generators are installed.
For smaller installations where such data collection is too expensive or time consuming, the normal way of prospecting for wind-power sites is to directly look for trees or vegetation that are permanently "cast" or deformed by the prevailing winds. Another way is to use a wind-speed survey map, or historical data from a nearby meteorological station, although these methods are less reliable.
Wind farm siting can sometimes be highly controversial, particularly as the hilltop, often coastal sites preferred are often picturesque and environmentally sensitive (for instance, having substantial bird life). Local residents in a number of potential sites have strongly opposed the installation of wind farms, and political support has resulted in the blocking of construction of some installations.
Near-Shore turbine installations are generally considered to be inside a zone that is on land within three kilometers of a shoreline or on water within ten kilometers of land. These areas tend to be windy and are good sites for turbine installation, because a primary source of wind is convection caused by the differential heating and cooling of land and sea over the cycle of day and night. Wind speeds in these zones share the characteristics of both onshore and offshore wind, depending on the prevailing wind direction.
Common issues that are shared within near-shore wind development zones are aviary (including bird migration and nesting), aquatic habitat, transportation (including shipping and boating) and visual aesthetics. Local residents in some potential sites have strongly opposed the installation of wind farms due to these concerns.
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Offshore wind development zones are generally considered to be ten kilometers or more from land. Offshore wind turbines are less obtrusive than turbines on land, as their apparent size and noise can be mitigated by distance. Because water has less surface roughness than land (especially deeper water), the average wind speed is usually considerably higher over open water. Capacity factors (utilization rates) are considerably higher than for onshore and near-shore locations which allows offshore turbines to use shorter towers, making them less visible.
In stormy areas with extended shallow continental shelves (such as Denmark), turbines are practical to install — Denmark's wind generation provides about
18% of total electricity production in the country, with many offshore wind farms. Denmark plans to increase wind energy's contribution to as much as half of its electrical supply.
Locations have begun to be developed in the Great Lakes - with one project by Trillium Power approximately 20 km from shore and over 700 MW in size.
Ontario, Canada is aggressively pursuing wind power development and has many onshore wind farms and several proposed near-shore locations but presently only one offshore development.
In most cases offshore environment is more expensive than onshore. Offshore towers are generally taller than onshore towers once the submerged height is included, and offshore foundations are more difficult to build and more expensive. Power transmission from offshore turbines is generally through undersea cable, which is more expensive to install than cables on land, and may use high voltage direct current operation if significant distance is to be covered — which then requires yet more equipment. Offshore saltwater environments can also raise maintenance costs by corroding the towers, but fresh-water locations such as the Great Lakes do not. Repairs and maintenance are usually much more difficult, and generally more costly, than on onshore turbines. Offshore saltwater wind turbines are outfitted with extensive corrosion protection measures like coatings and cathodic protection, which may not be required in fresh water locations.
While there is a significant market for small land-based windmills, offshore wind turbines have recently been and will probably continue to be the largest wind turbines in operation, because larger turbines allow for the spread of the high fixed costs involved in offshore operation over a greater quantity of generation, reducing the average cost. For similar reasons, offshore wind

farms tend to be quite large —often involving over 100 turbines—as opposed to onshore wind farms which can operate competitively even with much smaller installations.
Wind turbines might also be flown in high speed winds at altitude, although no such systems currently exist in the marketplace. An Ontario (Canada) company, Magenn Power, Inc., is attempting to commercialize tethered aerial turbines suspended with helium.
The Italian project called "Kitegen" uses a prototype vertical-axis wind turbine.
It is an innovative plan (still in the construction phase) that consists of one wind farm with a vertical spin axis, and employs kites to exploit high-altitude winds. The Kite Wind Generator (KWG) or KiteGen is claimed to eliminate all the static and dynamic problems that prevent the increase of the power (in terms of dimensions) obtainable from the traditional horizontal-axis wind turbine generators. A number of other designs for vertical-axis turbines have been developed or proposed, including small scale commercial or pilot installations. However, vertical-axis turbines remain a commercially unproven technology.
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Terminology: Rotornabe= Rotorhub ; Gondelnachführung=Yaw Drive;
Scheibenbremse = Disc Brake; Lüfter=Ventilator; Blitzableiter=Lightning conductor;
Windfahne=Windindicator; Getriebe: Gear Box/transmission; Hauptwelle=MainDrive;
Rotorblatt=Rotorblade
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The power of the wind is transferred to the rotor blades which drive the main shaft of the gearbox. This changes the rotation of the main shaft to the necessary revolutions for the generator which converts the rotations into electric energy. The lightning conductor protects the nacelle against lightning damages. If necessary a disk brake stops the rotor blades, for example during a windstorm…etc. By means of a yaw drive, the nacelle is constantly faced into the wind as the wind direction changes.
Part of the kinetic energy of the wind is transformed into rotational energy by the rotors. These drive an electrical generator which changes the rotational energy into electricity.
This formula allows to calculate the power of the wind. p stands for air density, r is the radius of the rotor, v the wind velocity and t is the time that it takes the wind to pass through the rotor blades. Example: The air density v averages
1,22 kg/m³, the wind velocity averages 08m/s and the rotor diameter 100 m.
The kinetic energy which passes through the rotor blades averages 2,45 MW.
(4)

With the kinetic energy of the wind and the degree of efficiency of the wind power station the largest production of energy can be calculated. The degree of efficiency of all wind power stations averages 59,30%.
With the following formula the power which a wind power station is able to produce can be calculated:
The degree of efficiency of the wind power station multiplied with the kinetic energy of the wind results in the maximally producible power. Examplecalculation with the above calculated kinetic energy: Pn=0,593*2,45MW =
1,47MW is the maximum of produced power at 8m/s.
The lower limit of wind velocity for producing of electricity averages 3,5m/s.
Less than 3,5m/s the wind power station is not able to produce electricity anymore. At more than 25m/s wind velocity the wind power station turns itself off to avoid damage. The optimum wind velocity averages 12 to16m/s.
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Enercon is the German market leader with a market share of 44%. The wind power station E-70 has been developed for locations with higher wind forcees and has a capacity of
2,3 MW. The diameter of the rotor is
71m. The hight from ground to hub is between 58 – 113 m with a wind class 1. That means that this installation is constructed for wind speeds of 50 m/s in an extreme case or rather an average speed of 10 m/s.
The system concept is without a gearbox. The rotating direction is in a clockwise direction with a speed of approximately 6 – 21 rotations per minute. The nacelle features 3 rotor blades which can be changed individually. The lightning protector is integrated in the rotor blades. Generation of electricity is effected by a ring generator. As of a wind speed of approximately 28 – 34 m/s the installation shuts down.
Repowering means that old generators with less power are replaced by new generators with a better efficiency. Wind energy plants constructed in the early 90s have a power output of approximately 250 KW, today the most powerful wind energy plants have a power output of approximately 5000KW, that is a twenty fold raise. The aim is to boost the already installed power rating and at the same time minimize the exploitation of available locations.
In this way you can produce fundamentally more power with fewer machines and with that you can release the strain on the environment. A wind park with an old generation of wind energy plants, which produces approximately 18
MW, would be a good example for that. If it was repowered it could now produce 39,4
MW without any additional windmill. Of course repowering also helps the characteristic landscape, because several wind power plants would disappear.
Legend: Increase of installed power rating: In only 20 years the power rating of wind farms could be increase 100 times. Special SMW plants will multiply the power rating by the factor

T HE W IND POW ER M AP OF G ENERAL E UROPE
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W İND S
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AP OF
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W İND S PEED ( M / H )
Please click here for more detailed information about Turkey.
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This title’s content couldn’t be received from German Team. They were going to send this part to us via e-mail.
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An Example of a small
“wind park” is the
Neutscher Höhe in the
Odenwald. 37 private persons cooperated and built 3 wind installations each with
600 kW at 14,5 m/s.
One installation cost approximately 600.000
€. The mast of a wind turbine is approximately 50m high an stands of a 1,8m deep fundament with a diameter of 12m. The rotor blades have a length of 17m. The wind park was built in
1994/1995 and 2004 was the first year in which a profit was achieved. Every year approximately 2,1 mio. KWh are delivered which is enough to provide approximately
350 households ( 4 persons) with electricity. Because of the wind park 1320 tons CO2 are saved.
Investors: 37 private persons
Built: 1994/95
Number of wind power stations: 3
Top energy yield of a plant: 600 KW
Costs of a plant: 600.000 €
Annual yield: 2.1 m. kWh
Annual CO2 saving: 1312 tons
Location: In front of the southern coast of Lolland in Denmark
Built: 2001-2004
Number of wind power stations: 72
Costs of the plants: 213 m. €
Performance of a plant: 2.3 megawatt
Performance of all of the plants: 165,6 megawatt

Export markets are growing rapidly. Overseas markets account for about half of the business of U.S. manufacturers of small wind turbines and wind energy developers. Small wind turbine markets are diverse and include many applications, both on-grid (connected to a utility system) and off-grid (stand-alone).
The potential economic benefits from wind are enormous. At a time when U.S. manufacturing employment is generally on the decline, the production of wind equipment is one of the few potentially large sources of new manufacturing jobs on the horizon.
AWEA estimates that wind installations worldwide will total more than 100,000 megawatts over the next decade, or more than $100 billion worth of business. If the U.S. industry could capture a 25% share of the global wind market through the year 2015, many thousands of new jobs would be created.
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Wind power consumes no fuel for continuing operation, and has no emissions directly related to electricity production. Operation does not produce carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, mercury, particulates, or any other type of air pollution.
It is sometimes said that wind energy, for example, does not reduce carbon dioxide emissions because the intermittent nature of its output means it needs to be backed up by fossil fuel plants. Wind turbines do not displace fossil generating capacity on a one-for-one basis. But it is unambiguously the case that wind energy can displace fossil fuel-based generation, reducing both fuel use and carbon dioxide emissions.
A study by the Irish national grid stated that "Producing electricity from wind reduces the consumption of fossil fuels and therefore leads to emissions savings", and found reductions in CO2 emissions ranging from 0.33 to 0.59 tones of CO2 per MWh.
Unlike fossil fuel and nuclear power stations, which circulate or evaporate large amounts of water for cooling, wind turbines do not need water to generate electricity. Leaking lubricating oil or hydraulic fluid running down turbine blades may be scattered over the surrounding area, in some cases contaminating drinking water areas.
To reduce losses caused by interference between turbines, a wind farm requires roughly 0.1 square kilometers of unobstructed land per megawatt of nameplate capacity. A 200 MW wind farm might extend over an area of approximately 20 square kilometers.
Clearing of wooded areas is often unnecessary. Farmers commonly lease land to companies building wind farms. In the U.S., farmers may receive annual lease payments of two thousand to five thousand dollars per turbine. The land can still be used for farming and cattle grazing. Less than 1% of the land would be used for foundations and access roads, the other 99% could still be used for farming.
Turbines can be sited on unused land in techniques such as center pivot irrigation. The clearing of trees around tower bases may be necessary for installation sites on mountain ridges, such as in the northeastern U.S.
Turbines are not generally installed in urban areas. Buildings interfere with wind, turbines must be sited a safe distance ("setback") from residences in case of failure, and the value of land is high. A lakeshore demonstration project by Toronto Hydro in
Toronto has been built.

Offshore locations use no land and avoid known shipping channels. Most offshore locations are at considerable distances from load centers and may face transmission and line loss challenges.
Wind turbines located in agricultural areas may create concerns by operators of cropdusting aircraft. Operating rules may prohibit approach of aircraft within a stated distance of the turbine towers; turbine operators may agree to curtail operations of turbines during cropdusting operations.
Danger to birds is often the main complaint against the installation of a wind turbine, but actual numbers are very low: studies show that the number of birds killed by wind turbines is negligible compared to the number that die as a result of other human activities such as traffic, hunting, power lines and highrise buildings and especially the environmental impacts of using non-clean power sources. For example, in the UK, where there are several hundred turbines, about one bird is killed per turbine per year; 10 million per year are killed by cars alone. In the United States, turbines kill 70,000 birds per year, compared to 57 million killed by cars and 97.5 million killed by collisions with plate glass. An article in Nature stated that each wind turbine kills on average
0.03 birds per year, or one kill per thirty turbines.
In the UK, the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) concluded that
"The available evidence suggests that appropriately positioned wind farms do not pose a significant hazard for birds." It notes that climate change poses a much more significant threat to wildlife, and therefore supports wind farms and other forms of renewable energy.
Some paths of bird migration, particularly for birds that fly by night, are unknown. A study suggests that migrating birds may avoid the large turbines, at least in the low-wind non-twilight conditions studied. A Danish 2005 (Biology
Letters 2005:336) study showed that radio tagged migrating birds traveled around offshore wind farms, with less than 1% of migrating birds passing an offshore wind farm in Rønde, Denmark, got close to collision, though the site was studied only during low-wind non-twilight conditions.
A survey at Altamont Pass, California, conducted by a California Energy
Commission in 2004 showed that onshore turbines killed between 1,766 and
4,721 birds annually (881 to 1,300 of which were birds of prey). Radar studies of proposed onshore and near-shore sites in the eastern U.S. have shown that migrating songbirds fly well within the reach of large modern turbine blades. In
Australia, a proposed wind farm was canceled because of the possibility that a single endangered bird of prey was nesting in the area.
A wind farm in Norway's Smøla islands is reported to have affected a colony of sea eagles, according to the British Royal Society for the Protection of Birds.
Turbine blades killed ten of the birds between August 2005 and March 2007, including three of the five chicks that fledged in 2005. Nine of the 16 nesting
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The numbers of bats killed by existing onshore and near-shore facilities has troubled bat enthusiasts. A study in 2004 estimated that over 2200 bats were killed by 63 onshore turbines in just six weeks at two sites in the eastern U.S.
This study suggests some onshore and near-shore sites may be particularly hazardous to local bat populations and more research is needed. Migratory bat species appear to be particularly at risk, especially during key movement periods (spring and more importantly in fall). Lasiurines such as the hoary bat, red bat, and the silver-haired bat appear to be most vulnerable at North
American sites. Almost nothing is known about current populations of these species and the impact on bat numbers as a result of mortality at wind power locations. Offshore wind sites 10 km or more from shore do not interact with bat populations.
In Ireland, construction of a wind farm caused pollution feared to be responsible for wiping out vegetation and fish stocks in the Lough Lee. A separate landslide is thought to have been caused by wind farm construction, and has killed thousands of fish by polluting the local rivers with sediment.
As the number of offshore wind farms increase and move further into deeper water, the question arises if the ocean noise that is generated due to mechanical motion of the turbines and other vibrations which can be transmitted via the tower structure to the sea, will become significant enough to harm sea mammals. Tests carried out in
Denmark for shallow installations showed the levels were only significant up to a few hundred meters. However, sound injected into deeper water will travel much further and will be more likely to impact bigger creatures like whales which tend to use lower frequencies than porpoises and seals. A recent study found that wind farms add 80 –110 dB to the existing low-frequency ambient noise (under
400 Hz), which could impact baleen whales communication and stress levels, and possibly prey distribution.
Operation of any utility-scale energy conversion system presents safety hazards. Wind turbines do not consume fuel or produce pollution during normal operation, but still have hazards associated with their construction and operation.
There have been at least 40 fatalities due to construction, operation, and maintenance of wind turbines, including both workers and members of the public, and other injuries and deaths attributed to the

wind power life cycle. Most worker deaths involve falls or becoming caught in machinery while performing maintenance inside turbine housings. Blade failures and falling ice have also accounted for a number of deaths and injuries. Deaths to members of the public include a parachutist colliding with a turbine and small aircraft crashing into support structures. Other public fatalities have been blamed on collisions with transport vehicles and motorists distracted by the sight and shadow flicker of wind turbines along highways.
When a turbine's brake fails, the turbine can spin freely until it disintegrates or catches fire. This is mitigated in most modern designs by aero brakes, variable pitch blades, and the ability to turn the nacelle to face out of the wind. Turbine blades may fail spontaneously due to manufacturing flaws. Lightning strikes are a common problem, also causing rotor blade damage and fires. When ejected, pieces of broken blade and ice can be thrown hundreds of meters away. Although no member of the public has been killed by a malfunctioning turbine, there have been close calls, including injury by falling ice. Large pieces of debris, up to several tons, have dropped in populated areas, residential properties, and roads, damaging cars and homes.
Often turbine fires cannot be extinguished because of the height, and are left to burn themselves out. In the process, they generate toxic fumes and can scatter flaming debris over a wide area, starting secondary fires below. Several turbine-ignited fires have burned hundreds of acres of vegetation each, and one burned 80,000 hectares (200,000 acres) of
Australian National Park.
Electronic controllers and safety sub-systems monitor many different aspects of the turbine, generator, tower, and environment to determine if the turbine is operating in a safe manner within prescribed limits. These systems can temporarily shut down the turbine due to high wind, electrical load imbalance, vibration, and other problems. Reoccurring or significant problems cause a system lockout and notify an engineer for inspection and repair. In addition, most systems include multiple passive safety systems that stop operation even if the electronic controller fails.
Wind power proponent and author Paul Gipe estimated in Wind Energy Comes of
Age that the mortality rate for wind power from 1980 –1994 was 0.4 deaths per terawatt-hour. Paul Gipe's estimate as of end 2000 was 0.15 deaths per TWh, a decline attributed to greater total cumulative generation.
By comparison, hydroelectric power was found to have a fatality rate of 0.10 per TWh
(883 fatalities for every TW·yr) in the period 1969–1996. This includes the Banqiao
Dam collapse in 1975 that killed thousands. Although the wind power death rate is higher than some other power sources, the numbers are necessarily based on a small sample size. The apparent trend is a reduction in fatalities per TWh generated as more generation is supplied by larger units.
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Historical experience of noisy and visually intrusive wind turbines may create resistance to the establishment of landbased wind farms. Residents near turbines may complain of
"shadow flicker" caused by rotating turbine blades. Wind towers require aircraft warning lights, which create bothersome light pollution. Complaints about these lights have caused the FAA to consider allowing fewer lights per turbine in certain areas.
These effects may be countered by changes in wind farm design.
Modern large turbines have low sound levels at ground level. For example, in
December 2006, a Texas jury denied a noise pollution suit against FPL Energy, after the company demonstrated that noise readings were not excessive. The highest reading was 44 decibels, which was characterized as about the same level as a 10 mile/hour (16 km/hr) wind.
Newer wind farms have larger, more widely spaced turbines, and so look less cluttered than old installations.
Aesthetic issues are important for onshore and near-shore locations in that the
"visible footprint" may be extremely large compared to other sources of industrial power (which may be sited in industrially developed areas). Wind farms may be close to scenic or otherwise undeveloped areas. Constructing offshore wind developments at least 10 km from shore may reduce this concern.

1. The wind is free and with modern technology it can be captured efficiently.
2. Once the wind turbine is built the energy it produces does not cause green house gases or other pollutants.
3. Although wind turbines can be very tall each takes up only a small plot of land. This means that the land below can still be used. This is especially the case in agricultural areas as farming can still continue.
4. Many people find wind farms an interesting feature of the landscape.
5. Remote areas that are not connected to the electricity power grid can use wind turbines to produce their own supply.
6. Wind turbines have a role to play in both the developed and third world.
7. Wind turbines are available in a range of sizes which means a vast range of people and businesses can use them. Single households to small towns and villages can make good use of range of wind turbines available today.
1. The strength of the wind is not constant and it varies from zero to storm force. This means that wind turbines do not produce the same amount of electricity all the time.
There will be times when they produce no electricity at all.
2. Many people feel that the countryside should be left untouched, without these large structures being built. The landscape should left in its natural form for everyone to enjoy.
3. Wind turbines are noisy. Each one can generate the same level of noise as a family car travelling at 70 mph.
4. Many people see large wind turbines as unsightly structures and not pleasant or interesting to look at. They disfigure the countryside and are generally ugly.
5. When wind turbines are being manufactured some pollution is produced. Therefore wind power does produce some pollution.
6. Large wind farms are needed to provide entire communities with enough electricity.
For example, the largest single turbine available today can only provide enough electricity for 475 homes, when running at full capacity. How many would be needed for a town of 100 000 people?
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What is wind energy?
Wind energy is, in fact, a converted form of solar energy. The sun's radiation heats different parts of the earth at different rates - most notably during the day and night, but also when different surfaces (for example, water and land,) absorb or reflect at different rates. This in turn causes portions of the atmosphere to warm differently. Hot air rises, reducing the atmospheric pressure at the earth's surface, and cooler air is drawn in to replace it. The result is wind.
Air has mass and, when it is in motion, it contains the energy of that motion ("kinetic energy.") Some portion of that energy can be converted into other forms of mechanical force or electricity that we can use to perform work.
How does a wind turbine make electricity?
The simplest way to think about this is to imagine that a wind turbine works in exactly the opposite way to a fan. Instead of using electricity to make wind, like a fan, turbines use the wind to make electricity.
Almost all wind turbines producing electricity consist of rotor blades, which rotate around a horizontal hub. The hub is connected to a gearbox and generator, which are located inside the nacelle. The nacelle is the large part at the top of the tower where all the electrical components are located.
Most wind turbines have three blades, which face into the wind. The wind turns the blades around, this spins the shaft, which connects to a generator, and this is where the electricity is made.
A generator is a machine that produces electrical energy from mechanical energy, as opposed to an electric motor, which does the opposite.
How strong does the wind have to blow for the wind turbines to work?
Wind turbines start operating at wind speeds of 4 to 5 m/s and reach maximum power output between 10 to 15 m/s.
At very high wind speeds, i.e. gale force winds of 25 m/s, wind turbines shut down.
What happens when the wind stops blowing?
When the wind stops blowing, electricity continues to be provided from the grid. The
European electricity system is mostly made up of large power plants, and the system has to be able to cope if one of these goes out of action.
How many turbines does it take to make one megawatt (MW)?
Most manufacturers of utility-scale turbines offer machines in the 700-kW to 3.0-MW range.
Ten 700-kW units would make a 7-MW wind plant, while 10 3-MW machines would make a
30-MW facility. In the future, machines of larger size will be available, although they will probably be installed offshore, where larger transportation and construction equipment can be used. Units up to 5 MW in capacity are now under development.

What is a wind power plant?
The most economical application of wind electric turbines is in groups of large machines (660 kW and up) called "wind power plants" or "wind farms."
Wind farms can range in size from a few megawatts to hundreds of megawatts in capacity.
Wind power plants are "modular," which means they consist of small individual modules (the turbines) and can easily be made larger or smaller as needed. Turbines can be added as electricity demand grows.
How long do wind turbines last?
A wind turbine typically lasts around 20-25 years. During this time, as with a car, some parts may need replacing.
How much of the time do wind turbines produce electricity?
A modern wind turbine produces electricity 70-85% of the time, but it generates different outputs depending on wind speed. Over the course of a year, it will generate about 30% of the theoretical maximum output. This is known as its load factor.
Could I put a turbine in my garden or on the roof of my house?
More and more householders, communities and small businesses are interested in generating their own electricity by using small-scale wind turbines, either on their roofs or in their back gardens. For more information on small scale wind energy download "How to
Manual on Small Scale Wind Energy".
Are wind turbines noisy?
The evolution of wind farm technology over the past decade has rendered mechanical noise from turbines almost undetectable, with the main sound being the aerodynamic swoosh of the blades passing the tower. There are strict guidelines on wind turbines and noise emissions to ensure the protection of residential amenity. It is possible to stand underneath a turbine and hold a conversation without having to raise your voice. As wind speed rises, the noise of the wind masks the noise made by wind turbines. For more information, why not visit a wind farm and experience it for yourself?
Why don't they make turbines that look like old fashioned windmills?
The old-fashioned windmill is viewed with nostalgia, and some people prefer the look of them to their modern counterparts. Just because wind turbines are modern, it doesn't mean they won't look just as good over time. A modern wind turbine is simply an improved windmill.
Every aspect of their design has been optimised, making them far more efficient than oldstyle windmills at generating electricity. To make them look more old-fashioned would just result in more expensive electricity.
What are wind turbines made of?
The towers are mostly tubular and made of steel, generally painted light grey. The blades are made of glass-fibre reinforced polyester or wood-epoxy. They are light grey since this is the colour which is most inconspicuous under most lighting conditions. The finish is matt, to reduce reflected light.
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Do wind turbines frighten livestock?
Wind farming is popular with farmers, because their land can continue to be used for growing crops or grazing livestock. Sheep, cows and horses are not disturbed by wind turbines.
I already have utility power, so why should I choose Wind Energy?
Photovoltaic systems allow you to lock in your electric rates at today's prices. With fossil fuels likely to become more expensive in the future, purchasing a Wind Energy system today is a smart economic move. In some countries, there is the possibility of having feed in tariffs or incentives to invest. Wind Energy systems also offer greater self-sufficiency, reduce dependence on imported oil, and are far better for the environment than power from conventional power plants.
What about electrical interference?
Wind turbines, like all electrical equipment, produce electromagnetic radiation, which can interfere with broadcast communications. This interference can be overcome through the installation of deflectors or repeaters.
What is a grid connected Wind Energy system?
Grid connected means that your system is connected to the utility lines or the quot;grid". A grid connected Wind Energy system is designed to meet all, or a portion of your daily energy needs. This connection enables you to obtain the balance of your electricity from your local utility. It also allows you to send excess solar electricity back to your power company for use later.
Isn't Wind Energy electricity expensive?
No. The cost of Wind Energy technology has dropped dramatically in last years and, thanks to government incentives or subsidies, a Wind Energy system may be your most costeffective power solution.
Can I use a grid connected Wind Energy system as a back-up source during a utility power outage?
A grid connected Wind Energy system can continue to provide electricity to your home during an outage if it has a inverter and batteries.
Does my grid connected Wind Energy system have to include batteries?
No. Batteries are only essential if you want 'back-up' power in the case of a utility outage.
Otherwise, your grid connected Wind Energy system will send any excess generated electricity back to the utility, using the utility grid (rather than batteries) as the storage medium.
Can I sell excess wind electricity back to my utility?
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Electrical utilities in many countries give retail credit to customers who feed excess wind electricity back into the power grid. Known as "net metering," this utility policy is implemented by letting your electric meter spin backwards when you feed excess electricity into the grid. In many countries, the whole amount of wind electricity generated is purchased by the utility company at a rate higher than the tariff applied for consumed electricity. In this case, a dedicated metering exists for wind generation, plus a second metering for domestic

consumption. Each applies different tariffs. So in this case, not only the excess electricity is remunerated, but so too is the total amount of wind production.
What is Net Metering?
If you take the AC output of your Inverter and run it to the mains coming from your utility power meter, any excess power you generate will feed back into the utility grid and drive your power meter backwards. This is called Net Metering. Effectively, you will be paid the going retail price for your electricity up to the amount of energy you use per billing period. Any excess energy you generate will be credited at a lower rate, or perhaps not at all.
In many countries, the whole amount of wind electricity generated is purchased by the utility company at a rate higher than the tariff applied for consumed electricity. In this case, a dedicated metering exists for wind generation, plus a second metering for domestic consumption. Each applies different tariffs, so in this case, not only the excess electricity is remunerated, but the total amount of wind production.
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
Windmillworld.com - http://www.windmillworld.com/windmills/history.htm, 11/4/2008

Wikipedia.org - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill#History 11/4/2008
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Telosnet.com - http://www.telosnet.com/wind/early.html 11/4/2008
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About.com http://environment.about.com/od/windpower/Environmental_Issues_Wind_Power.htm, 9/4/2008
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Wikipedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_power, 11/4/2008
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The Turkish Wind Power Union - http://www.ruzgarenerjisibirligi.org.tr/bilgibank-uretim-lisansalan.htm
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Free.fr - http://eoliennes.free.fr/eole1_c.html, 11/4/2008
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Vgl. Quaschning Volker; Regenerative Energiesysteme , Hanser 2007, S. 213,214
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
Federal association wind industry
