Summary Applying Communication Theory for Professional life.
CH1
What is Communication?
Business: Communication process is the flow of information from one person to another.
Scholars: The process by which people interactively create, sustain, and manage meaning.
What is competent communication?
It is most often understood as achieving a successful balance between effectiveness and
appropriateness. Effectiveness is the extern to which you achieve your goals in an interaction. Where
appropriateness refers to fulfilling social expectations for a particular situation.
What is theory?
Theories provide an abstract understanding of the communication process. They move beyond
describing a single event by providing a means by which all such events can be understood.
Communication theory is any systematic summary about the nature of the communication process.
In the field of communication science we distinguish three kinds of theory
1. Commonsense theory/theory-in-use: Created by an individual’s own experience. They are
the basis for our decisions about how to communicate.
2. Working Theory: Generalizations made in particular professions about the best techniques
for doing something. Working theories are more systematic than commonsense theories
because they represent agreed-on ways of doing things for a particular profession.
3. Scholarly theory: Provide more thorough, accurate, and abstract explanations for
communication than do commonsense or working theories. They are, however, more
complex.
Evaluating Theory
Five criteria to look at the relative usefulness of a theory:
1. Accuracy: This term suggests that systematic research supports the explanations provided by
the theory. Thus one should look at research studies that have used the theory and see
whether the research supports the theory or fails to find support for it.
2. Practicality: A theory with more applications is better than a theory without pratical uses.
One should look not only for how the theory has been used in the research literature but also
whether the theory has made the leap to professional practices.
3. Succinctness: Refers to whether or not a theory’s explanation or description is sufficiently
concise. So we mean that the theory is formulated using as few steps as possible. The best
way of thinking of succinctness is to compare how much of the communication situation is
explained byu the theory in proportion to how many concepts are being used to explain it.
The larger the situation and the smaller the number of necessary steps or concepts, the more
succinct the theory.
4. Consistency:
a. Internal consistency: The ideas of the theory are logically built on one another.
b. External consistency: Refers to the theory’s coherence with other widely held
theories.
5. Acuity: Refers to the ability of a theory to provide insight into an otherwise intricate issue.
WOW-effect.
CH2. Theory Development
The theory-research link
Inductive theory  Research before theory
Deductive  Theory before research. (hypothesis testing etc.)
What is research?
A disciplined inquiry that involves studying something in a planned manner and reporting it so that
other inquirers con potentially replicate the process if they choose.
Two different kinds of research:
1. Primary research is the research reported by the person who conducted it.
2. Secondary research is research reported by someone other than the person who conducted
it. (research in newspapers, magazines etc.)
Research methods in communication
Experiments (mostly social scientists): Are used to see whether one thing causes another.
Experimental research allows researchers to determine causality.
Presumed cause: independent variable and the presumed effect; dependent variable.
Laboratory experiments take place in a controlled setting so the researcher might better control the
effect at manipulation.
Field experiments take place in participants’ natural surroundings.
Survey research: Strength of surveys is that it is the only way to find out how someone thinks, feels,
or intends to behave. So surveys capture people’s perception.
Two kinds of surveys: Interviews or questionnaires. Interview is orally and a questionnaire is a
written survey. The key concepts associated with every type of survey and questioning and sampling.
Questioning: Two forms
1. Open-ended questions  allows respondents to respond in their own words giving as much
or as little information as they would like.
2. Closed-ended questions Respondents respond to a set type of answers
Sampling: Researchers work with large groups of people which is called a population (people with the
same characteristic) However researchers can also use a sample of this population.
The Law of Large Numbers (LLN) states that if samples are well selected we can generalize the
sample to the population.
Random samples are better than non-random samples or purposive samples. Because a random
sample gives a more representative information source about brand preferences than a convenience
sample.
Textual Analysis
Textual analysis is used to uncover the content, nature, or structure of messages. It can also be used
to evaluate messages, focusing on ther strengths, weaknesses, effectiveness, or even ethicality.
There are three distinct forms in textual analysis:
1. Rhetorical criticism refers to a systematic method for describing, analyzing, interpreting and
evaluating the persuasive force of messages.
2. Content analysis seeks to identity, classify and analyze the occurrence of particular types of
messages. Developed to study mass-mediated messages. Content analysis exists of four steps
a. The selection of a particular text
b. The development of content categories
c. Placing the content into categories
d. Analysis of the results
3. Interaction analysis (conversation analysis)This approach typically focuses on group or
interpersonal communication that have been recorded, with emphasis on the nature or
structure of interaction.
Problem with these approaches is that actual effects on the audience cannot be determined solely by
focusing on texts.
Ethnography (Mostly humanist)
Ethnography typically involves the researcher immersing himself or herself into a particular culture or
context to understand communication rules and meanings for that culture or context.
The key to this type of research is that it is naturalistic and emergent, which means that it must take
place in the natural environment for the group under study and that the particular methods used will
be adjusted on the basis of what is occurring in that environment.
Different roles of the ethnographies are available in the research:
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Complete participants are fully involved in the social setting, and participants do not know
that they are being studied.
Participant-observer role is when the researcher becomes fully involved with the culture or
context, but he or she has admitted his or her research agenda before entering the
environment.
Complete observers do not interact with the members of the culture or context which means
they do not interview any of the members of the group under study.
SEE PAGE 23 TABLE 2.1
Social Science and the Humanities
Communication exists of two forms, namely the art form of communicating and the social science of
communication. Those two are sometimes considered distinct pursuits. Therefore we distinct
Humanity and the Social Sciences.
The distinction between social science and humanities is mostly a philosophical one. The humanities
have the interpretation of meaning is of central concern.
Meaning is presumed to be something that is subjective and unique to the individual even though
meanings are likely influenced by social processes. Subjectivity is a hallmark where one’s own
interpretation is one of interest.
Objectivity is a central feature for the social sciences.
Because the humanities and social sciences have different areas of interest they treat theory and
research differently:
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Belief about human nature
o Social scientists belief that past experience, personality predispositions and a
number of other antecedent conditions cause people to behave in certain ways.
o Humanists believe that people have control over their behavior. People make
conscious choices to communicate to meet their goals. Theorists taking this stance
are called pragmatist because people are practical and that they plan their behavior.
o In short pragmatist believe that human beings are not passive reactors to situations
but dynamic actors. Humanists tend to focus on the choices that people that people
make, such as the choice of strategies used by major financial companies.
Goal of theory
o Social scientific theory has the goal to understand and predict communication
processes. Social sciences are interested in generalizations. If a theorist understands
the general pattern that is at the heart of a social scientific theory, then she or he
should be able to predict how any one individual might communicate.
o Humanities believe that interpretations are always subjective; unique to the
individual. They believe that theorists cannot predict how a person will behave. We
can only try to understand human communication
Process of theory development
o Social science uses deductive theory. So hypothesis with according to theory and
then research if the hypothesis can be assumed or rejected.
o Humanist believe in inductive theory.
Focus and methods of research
o Social science requires standardization and control. They study narrowly defined
areas at a time, believing that the whole picture will be uncovered eventually. This is
called particularism
o Humanists believe in looking at the big picture they believe that all pieces of the
puzzle contribute to an understanding of the problem. This is called Holism.
In short, social scientist use quantitative surveys or textual analysis. Humanists, on the other hand,
use qualitative surveys and textual analysis.
The development and change of theories
Kaplan argues that theories can change by extension or by intension:
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Extension means that the theory adds more concepts and builds upon what was already
established.
Intension means that scholars gain a deeper and a more nuanced understanding of the
original concepts presented in the theory.
CH3 Explaining theories of cognition and intrapersonal communication
In CH1 communication was defined as a process by which people interactively create, sustain and
manage meaning. However meaning is more intrapersonal than interactive because meaning is
derived only after an individual perceives a message and gives is meaning. Meaning is about
interpretation.
The Cognitive Process
The cognitive approach says that we should not only focus on an external cause or stimuli (Pavlov)
we should be concerned with the metal processes that are used to process stimuli and generate
particular effects.
Cognition refers to what happens in the mind that causes us to behave in particular ways. Henceforth
we are describing four theories that examine the cognitive and intrapersonal aspects of
communication.
Message Design Logics (telling co-worker he/she isn’t pulling her weight)
Because people think about communication differently they also construct very different types of
messages. Message design logic (MDL) is your belief about communication that links thought to the
construction of messages. So people who have different views about the nature and function of
communication will construct different types of messages.
Three message design logics
The expressive MDL (reactive):
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A person using this pattern is concerned primarily with self-expression.
Communication is viewed as a means for conveying the sender’s thoughts and feelings.
People who use this feel a genuine pressure to say what’s on their mind.
The conventional MDL:
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Views communication as a rule-based game that is played cooperatively.
A person using this pattern is primarily concerned with appropriateness; these individuals
view communication contexts, roles and relationships as having particular guidelines for
behavior.
People have a strong urge for politeness and saying and doing the right thing.
The rhetorical MDL (pro-active):
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Views communication as a powerful tool used to create situations and negotiate multiple
goals.
They focus on the effect of messages on the recipient.
Those using this MDL pay close attention to other peoples’ communication in an effort to
figure out others’ points of view.
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The sender seeks to balance his or her own goals of stopping the harassment with the
target’s goals of protecting against embarrassment. The rhetorical MDL tries to find a
common drama in which to play.
MDL Preferences
People with the same MDL often agree that they have a communication problem. However if two
people have different MDL’s they often don’t agree that they have a communication problem but are
said to have bad intentions, mistaken beliefs or undesirable personality characteristics.
SEE Table 3.1
MDL’s are not the same as personality traits. MDLs are not stable and can change and develop over
an individual’s lifespan. Expressive MDLs view communication primarily as a means of sharing their
unique feelings, beliefs and ideas. Conventional MDLs perceive communication as a rules-based
game. Rhetorical MDLs emphasizes a highly flexible approach to communication in which the speaker
adapts to the situation, using self-expression or relying on social conventions as appropriate.
Communication accommodation theory (CAT)
CAT provides an informative platform from which to understand how we adapt our communication
when we interact with others. When interacting with others, individuals will accommodate their
speech and language patterns, either by matching their partners’ speech or by differentiating their
speech and language use.
Communicating Social Identity through in-groups and out-groups
Human beings categorize information to simplify and create understanding. One way in which we
categorize others and ourselves is through social identity groups (ethnicity, marital status, work
relation). This we divide in in-groups and out-groups.
In-groups are social affiliations to which an individual feels that one belongs.
Out-groups are those social affiliations to which a person feels that one does not belong.
CAT relies on language, speech, and non-verbal messages all communicate one’s in-group and outgroup status. Especcialy the jargon can create a big gap between different groups. Jargon can be
used to impress others in the out-group.
Accommodation through convergence or divergence
Individuals adjust their speech and conversational patterns either in an effort to assimilate with or to
deviate from others. When a person wants to be viewed as part of an in-group, CAT predicts that this
person will accommodate by convergence. Also interpersonal attraction leads to convergence, one
who is more likable and socially skilled will have others to converge to his/her speech.
If one does not want to belong to a group or finds someone not attractive one will us divergence.
Rather than match your partner’s communication you will seek to make your speech different.
Who accommodates to whom?
When looking at race, ethnicity and sex in the workplace Euro-American male employees typically
diverge. Because it is the standard therefore people diverge. Conversely, minority employees
typically must converge to this standard to achieve status. However this can place minorities in a
dilemma: maintaining their cultural and social identity is sacrificed when using the mainstream
speech patterns that are expected and rewarded.
The pitfalls of accommodation
When in doubt, individuals rely on social norms to inform their decision to accommodate or not.
Norms are implicit expectations that guide socials behavior.
CAT explains and predicts the experience of convergence and divergence in interpersonal
communication. SEE Table 3.2
Uncertainty Reduction Theory (URT)
URT holds that social life is with ambiguities, it seeks to explain and predict when, why and how
individuals use communications to minimize their doubts when interacting with others.
Three assumptions guide the uncertainty reduction framework (Berger and Calabrese)
1. The primary coal of communication is to minimize uncertainties that humans have about the
world and the people therein.
2. Individuals experience uncertainty on a regular basis and that the experience of uncertainty
is an unpleasant one.
3. Communication is the primary vehicle for reducing uncertainty.
Berger states that there are three possible preceding conditions that influence whether have the
motivation necessary to reduce their uncertainty.
Reducing Uncertainty
People are motivated to reduce uncertainty only under one of three antecedent conditions.
1. Anticipation of future interaction suggests that you are more motivated to reduce
uncertainty about someone who you are likely to see again.
2. Incentive value, includes the notion that you are prompted to learn more about someone
when the individual in question has the potential to provide you with rewards or even
punishment
3. If a person is odd, eccentric, bizarre or unusual that counters your expectations individuals
will be more likely to reduce their uncertainty about the individual.
Types of uncertainty
There are two types of uncertainty:
1. Behavioral uncertainty takes into account your insecurity about which actions are
appropriate in a given situation.
2. Cognitive uncertainty is about people who are unsure as to what to think about someone or
something. It emphasizes the doubts in your ability to pinpoint the attitudes and beliefs of
others.
Axioms explaining the uncertainty reduction process.
The process of reducing uncertainty is predicated on eight axioms, or self-evident truths, (TABLE 3.3)
that have been established and supported in previous research. URT axioms have been classified,
paired together to create theorems and tested thus have scholarly credence.
Uncertainty reduction strategies
Reducing Uncertainty needs to take in account Berger and Calabrese’s original premise: Uncertainty
reduction is central to all social relations.
URT is related to Berger’s notion of plan-based messages. When seeking information about social
realities, individuals create and use plans that vary in complexity. Three overarching strategies typify
most uncertainty reduction communication:
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Passive strategy is used when individuals observe their surroundings and surreptitiously
gather clues about which behaviors are appropriate.
Active strategy is used when one involves seeking information from a third party.
Inter-active strategy is when you go straight to the source in question and ask for as much
information as possible.
Expectancy violations theory (EVT)
EVT explains the various meaning that people attribute to the violation, or infringement of their
personal space. Similar to URT EVT is derived from different axioms and assumptions.
Assumptions
EVT builds on a number of axioms, however the assumption most central of understanding EVT is the
assumption that humans have competing needs for personal space and for affiliation. If someone
crosses your line EVT predicts that one will do something about it.
EVT also makes predictions about how individuals will react to a given violation. Will you reciprocate,
or match, someone’s unexpected behavior. Or will you compensate, or counteract, by doing the
opposite of your partners behavior.
Before making a prediction of about reciprocation or compensation you must evaluate the three core
concepts, expectancy, violation valence, and communicator reward valence.
Core concepts of expectancy violations theory
Expectancy refers to what an individual anticipates will happen in a given situation. Expectancy is
based on three primary factors:
1. Context  using behavior must be related to the situation.
2. Relationship  the relationship which you have must be taken into account
3. Communicator’s characteristics  there are expectations if one is of certain age of a
different sex etc.
Violation valence is the breach of the expectations that you had of an individual and you start
questioning his behavior. The positive or negative evaluation you make about a behavior that you did
not anticipate.
The third element that must be addressed before reciprocation or compensation involves assessing
the person whose behavior is in question. Similar to the violation valence, the communicator reward
valence is an evaluation you make about the person who committed the violation. If the person has
the ability to reward (or punish) you in the future he/she has a positive reward valence.
Predicting Reactions when expectations are violated
After assessing expectancy, violation valence and communicator reward valence one can predictions
if the individual will reciprocate or compensate the behavior.
See FIGURE 3.1!
EVT focuses broadly on the infringement of one’s expectations for normal behavior. In the study of
Burgoon it proves that violations are not always negative and expectations which are broken can
become a positive thing.
CH4 Explaining Theories of interpersonal communication
Interpersonal Communication Defined
Interpersonal Communication (IPC) has been defined in various ways:
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Scholars  Based on the situation and number of participants involved. IPC occurs between
two individuals when they are close in proximity, able to provide immediate feedback and
utilize multiple senses.
Others based on the degree of “personalness” or perceived quality of a given interaction.
IPC includes communication that is personal and occurring between people who are more
than acquaintances
Anothers based on a goal approach. IPC includes communication used to define or achieve
personal goals through interaction with others.
Four theories that are a mixture of those definitions. It refers both to the content and the quality of
messages.
Politeness Theory (PT)
PT explains how and why individuals try to promote, protect, or “save face”, especially when
embarrassing or shameful situations arise unexpectedly.
PT clarifies how we manage our own and others; identities through interaction, in particular, through
the use of politeness strategies.
Assumptions of PT
Three primary assumption guide PT:
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PT assumes that all individuals are concerned with maintaining face.
o Face refers to the desired self-image that you wish to present to others; face also
includes the recognition that your interactional partners have face needs of their
own. Two dimension to face:
 Positive Face: includes a person’s need to be liked, appreciated and admired
by select persons
 Negative Face: assumes a person’s desire to act freely without constraints or
imposition from others.
PT assumes that human beings are rational and goal oriented, at least with respect to
achieving face needs. You have choices and make communicative decisions to achieve your
relational and task-oriented goals within the context of maintaining face.
PT maintains that some behaviors are face threatening. Inevitably, you will threaten
someone else’s face, just as another person will, at some point, threaten yours. These facethreatening acts (FTAs) include common behaviors such as apologies, compliments,
criticisms, requests, and threats.
PT ties together these assumptions to explain and predict how, when, and where FTAs occur and
how we can restore this.
Preserving Face
To create and maintain the desired self-image (face), individuals must use facework. This is specific
messages that thwart or minimize FTAs.
Preventive facework strategies include communications that a person can use to help oneself or
another to avert FTAs. (Avoiding certain topics, pretending not to notice FTAs)
Corrective facework consists of messages that an individual can use to restore one’s own face or to
help another restore face after an FTA has occurred. (Avoidance, humor, apologies etc.)
Your own face may conflict with your partner’s face needs.
According to PT individuals can choose one of five suprastrategies when communicating in a manner
that could potentially threaten the face of another:
1. Avoidance  chooses not to communicate in a way that would create embarrassment or
a loss of face for another.
2. Going off record  he/she subtly hints or indirectly mentions the face-threatening topic.
3. Negative politeness Occurs when the speaker makes an effort to recognize the other’s
negative face needs. With negative politeness, you appeal to the receiver’s negative face
needs through apologies and self-effacement to make yourself appear vulnerable to the
other, while also acknowledging that the FTA is impolite and inhibits the other’s
independence.
4. Positive politeness  The speaker emphasizes the receiver’s need for positive face – that
is, the need to be liked. Mostly used with flattery and compliments, you hop to
camouflage your face-threatening behavior.
5. Bald on record The communicator makes no attempt to protect the other’s face and
simply commits the FTA.
The level of politeness is created by the prestige someone has the power that the receiver has and
the risk of hurting the other one SEE Table 4.1
PT predicts that because humans typically commit FTAs to achieve a desired goal, individuals will not
use strategies that are more polite than necessary because the cost of ambiguity is too great.
Social Exchange Theory (SET)
SET clarifies when and why individuals continue and develop some personal relationships while
ending others. SET looks at personal relationships in terms of costs versus benefits.
Assumptions of SET
Three assumptions guide SET:
1. Personal relationships are a function of comparing benefits gained versus costs to attain
those benefits.
2. People want to make the most of the benefits while lessening the costs. Minimax
principle!
3. By nature humans are selfish. Thus you tend to look out for yourself first and foremost.
Core components of SET
Three core components make SET
1. Relationships bring both rewards and costs. The outcome of the relationship is the ratio of
rewards to costs in a given relationship.
Relational rewards include any benefits that you perceive as enjoyable or that help you achieve
specific aspirations.
Relational costs are those drawbacks that we perceive as unpleasant or that prevent us from
pursuing or achieving an objective.
One hopes that the rewards outweigh the costs so it results in a positive outcome value. The
outcome value becomes a benchmark used to help measure our relational rewards in
comparison to our expectations and alternatives.
2. The comparison level (CL) represents what rewards a person expects to receive in a particular
relationship. SET maintains that individuals compare their current outcome value with their CL.
3. The comparison level of alternatives (CLalt) must be examined by every individual to decide
whether they want to continue or stop their relationship. CLalt are what are your alternatives to
staying in the relationship. Only when one perceives that the alternatives are greater than your
outcome and greater than your CL one will end a relationship.
SEE Table 4.2!
SET explains and predicts an individual’s decision to maintain or de-escalate a particular relationship.
Dialectical perspective
Relationships are dynamic; it is impossible for a relationship to maintain a certain level of satisfaction
or reach a constant status quo.
Assumptions of the dialectal perspective
Four primary assumptions guide a dialectical approach to relationship maintenance:
1. Praxis suggests that the development of a relationship is neither linear, nor repetitive.
Instead, relationships can become more intimate or less intimate over time. Thus,
relational partners act and react while their relationship’s trajectory spirals.
2. Change/motion, the only guarantee in a relationship is that it will change. It is virtually
impossible to maintain a relationship, because maintenance implies a steady state.
Relationships are sustained not maintained.
3. Relationships are grounded in interdependent contradictions. Within every relationship,
both partners have essential, yet opposing, needs. Because these needs counteract each
other such that you can’t achieve both needs at the same time, ongoing tension results.
4. Totality emphasizes the fact that without interdependence a relationship cannot exist.
So, to sustain a relationship, therefore, means that the relationship will constantly fluctuate, spiraling
forward in time, while relational partners experience and try to satisfy interdependent, yet opposing,
needs.
Between any two relationship partners three central tensions (internal dialectics) are thought to
exist:
1. Autonomy-connection dialectic refers to the tension between the desire to feel
connected to one’s partner versus the desire to maintain a sense of independence.
2. The openness-closedness dialectic includes the pull between wanting to open up an selfdisclose while also wanting to maintain one’s privacy
3. Predictability-novelty dialectic is the tension between wanting stability or steadiness
while also wanting opportunities for spontaneity.
External tensions mirror the internal dialectical tensions. The difference is that internal dialectics only
involve the competing needs the two people and external dialectics appear when the pair interacts
with other people in their lives. (Figure 4.1)
External dialectics:
1. Inclusion – seclusion dialectic emphasizes the tension partners as a unit experience when
they want to spend time with external people or they want to spend time together.
2. Revelation-concealment dialectic involves the tension between relationship partners
who want to reveal aspects of their relationship to the outside while they want to keep
some things private.
3. Conventionality – uniqueness dialectic emphasizes the tension partners seek between
wanting to behave in ways that are considered normative or traditional versus wanting
to emphasize their relationship’s uniqueness by doing something completely different.
SEE Table 4.3
Four theories to manage tensions within a relationship: (a pole in referring to external or internal
dialectic)
1. Selection strategy involves choosing to favor one pole or need at the expense of another.
2. Cyclic alteration (spiraling alteration) fulfill one pole or need now and will shift to fulfill
the other pole at a later time, creating a back-and-forth strategy of coping
3. Segmentation compartmentalizes the relationship such that certain issues coincide with
one other pole or need, and other issues are appropriate for the opposite pole.
4. Integration includes several variations and is predicated on incorporating aspects of both
poles so as to create a more fulfilling experience
Communication Privacy Management Theory
Communication Privacy Management (CPM) builds upon each of the three previous theories. Like PT,
CPM is concerned with the dilemma of how and what a communicator should say. Like SET, CPM
recognizes the power of maximizing rewards and minimizing costs in making decisions. Like
dialectics, CPM recognizes that managing tensions is the central way that relationships are sustained.
The basic premise of the theory is that people create decision-making rules to help them determine
when to reveal and when to conceal private information.
IMPORTANT: CPM is seen, by Petronio, as a macro theory, as it also can be applied in group and
organizational settings. Her theory moves beyond a focus of just self-disclosure to a focus on
disclosure in general. She argues that disclosure can only be understood in terms of privacy and so
are the two (disclosure and privacy) interdependent.
Principles of CPM Theory
Petronio and Durham outlined six major principles of CPM:
1. Public-private dialectical tension states that the major tension is between revealing and
concealing private information.
2. Private information defines private information as inaccessible to others.
3. Decisions about sharing private information are regulated by particular privacy rules. Our
decisions about sharing private information are informed by five decision criteria (SEE
table 4.4).
3.1. Cultural criteria
3.2. Gender criteria
3.3. Motivational criteria
3.4. Contextual criteria
3.5. Risk-benefit criteria
4. Boundaries (metaphor) are meant to provide a visual representation of two sides. I.e.
one side people keep information to themselves and on the other side people share
private information.
5. Boundary coordination refers to the ways that collective boundaries are maintained.
Three way
5.1. Boundary linkages refers to alliances between the owners of the information
5.2. Boundary ownership refers to the rights and responsibilities borne by the owners of
the information. The clearer the privacy rules are to the shared owners of the info,
the more likely that the info will be managed consonantly. When a boundary linkage
is created one will most of the time indicate the rules for disclosure.
5.3. Boundary permeability refers to how much information is easily passed through the
boundary.
Petronio recognized that the management of boundaries is not always a smooth process. She
developed the notion of boundary turbulence which occurs when the rules for privacy management
are not clear. Other causes are privacy violations, ethical dilemmas, differing expectation, and
misconceptions about ownership.
CH5 Explaining Theories of Group Communication
Group communication defined
A group refers to a system of three or more individuals who are focused on achieving a common
purpose and who influence and influenced by each other.
Groups differ from an organization because an organizational knows a formal hierarchy and
structured ways of communication where a group’s structure and patterns of communication
typically emerge through interaction.
A team is an ongoing, coordinated group of people working together. Teams are self-directed and
self-regulating meaning that typical chains of organizational command are suspended. Teams are
empowered to complete a task from the beginning till the end.
Understanding communication in groups and teams: System perspective
System approaches are a constellation of theories that share common assumptions and concepts.
The core of all system approaches is a focus on the interdependence that develops whenever people
interact with each other.
Assumptions of the system perspective
A central assumption of systems approaches is that communication is the means by which systems
are created and sustained. There is also a micro and a macro approach to study the communication
that takes place in relationships.
Macro approach states that systems approaches allow for recognition of how larger social
institutions might influence smaller groups of people such as work groups or families
Micro approach states that systems theories provide a way to understand how individuals and
interpersonal relationships between individuals might influence the group as a whole.
A system is a group of individuals who interrelate to form a whole. A subsystem is a smaller part of
the group as a whole. A suprasystem is the larger system within which the system operates. E.g. a
football team is a system, the defensive line is a subsystem and the NFL is the suprasystem.
Systems theories hinge on nunsummativity, the idea that the whole is greater than the sum of its
parts. The ability to achieve more through group effort than individual effort is positive synergy.
Negative synergy means that the group achieves less than the individual part would suggest. The
point of nonsummativity is that the whole is qualitatively and quantitatively different from the
individual components.
A reason the nonsummativity occurs is because of interdependence which means that all system
members are dependent on all other system members.
Another principle central to systems approaches is homeostasis which refers to the natural balance
or equilibrium within groups. It is the tendency for a gives system to maintain stability in the face of
change. This effort at stability can be either functional or dysfunctional for the system. On the one
hand, a successful system that achieves homeostasis is likely to continue to be successful. On the
other hand when there is a conflict in a system homeostasis suggests that efforts to reduce the
conflict might only engender more conflict because it is the natural balance.
Another concept of interest of interpersonal communication is equifinality which states that there
are multiple ways to achieve the same goal. So there are multiple paths the group might take to
achieve its goals. In addition, at any given time, there are multiple goals that the group can address.
The Palo Alto Group
According to the Palo Alto group there are five axioms of communication SEE TABLE 5.1.
1. The impossibility of not communicating: suggests that all behavior has the potential to be
communicative regardless of whether the sender intended the behavior to be interpreted as
a message. If someone uses the “silent treatment” it means that that person is angry with
another. The Palo Alto group is firmly committed to the belief that communication need not
be intentional
2. Content and relationship levels: suggests that when people interact with each other they are
sending particular messages which are considered the content level (verbal or nonverbal) At
the same time that they are sending content, they are also sending additional information.
The relationship level is characterized as how the content should be understood.
3. Punctuate sequences of behavior: the grammatical definition of the term punctuation refers
to the use of marks to separate sentences, clauses, and so forth. The theory suggests that
interaction is understood by the people involved in it as a series of beginnings and endings,
of causes and effects. The point of this axiom is that although communicators tend to assign
causes and effects to interactions, it is likely that interactants will view the same interactions
as having different causes and effects; punctuation is always a matter of individual
perception, with no perception being wholly correct or incorrect. Punctuation creates
conflict.
4. Digital and analogic codes: Analogic codes are those in which the symbol actually resembles
the object it represents (two fingers represent 2) Mostly nonverbal communication however
verbal communication is also possible. Onomatopoeia (a word that sounds like what it
means, buzz or click) can be considered analogic communication.
Digital communication is that in which the symbol and the meaning of the symbol are
arbitrarily linked. The meanings of some symbols are culturally determined by the
assignment of meaning (cat does not look like a cat but everyone knows what is meant)
Digital communication is mostly verbal however e.g. the OK symbol is digital non-verbal
communication (because it has different meaning in different cultures).
5. Communication can be symmetrical or complementary: when communicators behave in the
same manner they are communicating symmetrical. When they behave in different ways
they behave in a complementary fashion. It is not the opposite but the pattern of behavior is
different.
Interaction Process Analysis (IPA) /SYMLOG
IPA is a classic theory developed to explain patters of group discussion, particularly in terms of
leadership. Bales’s theory shows that groups seek to achieve two goals:
1. Task goals: requires communication geared toward achieving the groups’ goals, such as
asking for and receiving information or giving suggestions
2. Maintenance goals: achieved by socioemotional communication, such as expressing
agreement, releasing tension, and demonstrating cohesion.
The problem is that those two goals conflict with each other. Too much attention paid to the task
goals can endanger the maintenance goals. A group must strive to equilibrium.
So Bales proposed a method for analyzing the functions of group communication. SEE FIGURE 5.1
The first and fourth category refer to socioemotional behavior the second and third refer to task
behavior. The lines on the far right represent a means to identify particular strengths over
weaknesses of the group. Research shows that healthy groups utilize approximately twice as much
task talk as maintenance talk and more positive socioemotional talk than negative socioemotional
talk.
IPA suggests that the same group might have two leaders: a task leader and a maintenance leader.
Because the two goals are conflicting the two leaders keep each other in balance. Clearly the taskrelationship distinction is only appropriate in groups where the task is distinct from group cohesion.
After IPA Bales created a new theory expanding IPA he called this the System for the Multiple Level
Observation fo Groups (SYMLOG). This technique focuses on the same variables identified as
important in IPA. However, SYMLOG is simultaneously a theory of group dynamics and a practical
method for measuring and changing group behavior. Specifically, group members evaluate
themselves and all other members of the group on either their values or their behaviors to
understand the group better, improve productivity, or increase satisfaction. This evaluation centers
on three dimensions:
1. Forward-backward: Group members rate each other and themselves on the extent to which
they demonstrate forward (accepting authority) versus backward (rejecting authority).
2. Positive-negative: Positive (friendly behavior) negative (unfriendly behavior)
3. Upward-downward: upward (Dominance) downward (submissive)
It must be said that dimensions might not emerge, either because the person manifests both
behaviors and values or nether forward nor backward behavior and values.
Each individual in the group is scored and then all group members are plotted together in what is
known as a field diagram. This diagram presents a visual picture of the group.
Symbolic Convergence Theory (SCT)
SCT was founded on the idea that group members cooperatively create and sustain a shared
consciousness, including shared meaning, through interaction. SCT focuses on two aspects of group
communication: the creation of a group identity and the ways that group identity influence norms of
behavior.
Central Concepts
A number of concepts are critical for understanding the explanation of group communication.
Fantasy: According to SCT fantasy refers to a creative understanding of events that fulfills a
psychological or rhetorical need. Fantasy theme starts with a dramatizing message (joke, pun,
anecdote etc.) These messages do not refer to present happenings; instead the reference events that
have happened in the past or that are anticipated for the future with a level of emotional revelation.
Sometimes these messages are sent and immediately dropped but if the rest of the group responds
to the dramatizing message, a fantasy theme has emerged.
Continuing this can result in a fantasy chain, which is when the fantasy theme is developed through
group interaction and enters group consciousness. When a fantasy chain has risen it can result in
group cohesion, a process which is called symbolic convergence; the emergence of a fantasy chain
transforms the group from a collection of individuals to an identifiable group with a group
consciousness.
The ways that various fantasy chains combine within a group lead to a rhetorical vision. A unified way
of viewing the world. This rhetorical vision provides a set of implicit norms for group behavior. The
process of symbolic convergence affects decision making. Group consciousness and shared
motivation also influence assumptions and preferred processes by which decisions are made.
Bormann contented that group members might create fantasy themes about the decision-making
process itself. SEE FIGURE 5.2
Functional Group Decision-making Theory
A function refers to what communication does. An apology serves the function of relationship repair,
or a joke the function of tension release. The model of Gouran and Hirokawa tries to answer the
question Why do some groups make good decisions while others make bad ones?
Their model argues that the answer to this question has to do with whether the group has
successfully accomplished four functions, which they call requisite functions. SEE TABLE 5.2
1. Problem analysis: This means that the group must take a realistic look at the nature, extent,
and likely causes of the problem.
2. Goal setting: Necessitates that all members are clear about what they are trying to
accomplish. Needs group members to create criteria.
3. Identification of alternative solutions: Group members brainstorm to generate many possible
solutions, maximizing the likelihood that a good solution is ultimately chosen. Brainstorming
requires that the group members come up with as many solutions as possible.
4. Evaluate and select: group members must evaluate the possible solutions generated in the
previous function; specifically the members must compare the possible solutions with the
criteria they developed in the second function.
Functional group decision-making states that all four functions need to be accomplished to maximize
the likelihood of an effective decision and that no one function is more important than another. A
specific problem might make a particular function less challenging to accomplish. However Hirokawa
acknowledges that a specific problem might make a particular function less challenging to
accomplish.
Research shows that it does not matter in which order the problems are completed they just need to
be completed. Function group decision-making theory makes particular claims about communication
in groups. It proposes that human beings actively construct group experience based on their
communication.
Three types of communication exist in small groups:
1. Promotive discussion: communication geared toward one of the requisite
2. Disruptive communication: diverts, retards, or frustrates the ability of the group to achieve
the requisite functions
3. Counteractive communication: messages that return a disrupted group back to the requisite
functions, is likely to be most important for group decision-making.
CH6 Explaining Theories of Organizational Communication
Organizational Communication Defined
An organization is characterized by a group of people who coordinate activities to achieve individual
and collective goals. Communication within organizations typically serves three functions or
purposes:
1. Relationship function: communication takes care of socializing organizational members and
integrating them into their work environment
2. Irganizing: communication guides, directs and controls organizational activity
3. Change: communication makes organizational members analyze, problem solve, adapt and
innovate
Organizational Culture
There are two competing perspectives on organizational culture; approaches that view culture as
something an organization has and approaches that view culture as something an organization is.
Deal and Kennedy argue that organizations become high performing when they have a strong
culture. Four central elements to culture
1.
2.
3.
4.
Values: underscore the organization’s core beliefs
Heroes: the people who best represent or personify these values
Rites and rituals: refer to public performances that demonstrate the organizational values
Cultural network: the informal communication processes that take place in the organization,
including stories and gossip.
The researchers identify four types of organizational cultures that vary based on the degree of risk
the organization is willing to perform as well as the type of feedback and reward system it has. SEE
Table 6.1
1. Work hard-play hard culture: characterized by fun and action. Organizations of this type
encourage lots of activity. (Sales organizations)
2. Tough-guy macho culture: one of quickly taking gambles with the potential of high reward or
huge losses. (advertising agencies or entertainment industry)
3. Process culture: Employees in this culture typically can’t measure what they do but focus
instead on how it is done. The work is stable and consistent (banking, insurance etc.)
4. Bet-the-company culture: exemplified by high-stakes gambles that take years to pay off. (Oil
companies)
The second approach of Smircich focuses on the process of communication that creates, sustains,
and constrains interaction within the organization.
Schein described the elements that comprise an organizational culture and how organizational
cultures assist individuals in making sense of their experiences. According to Schein, culture refers to
a pattern of shared assumptions that have been invented, discovered, or developed by a given group
and are taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think, and behave. Culture is
something that emerges from interaction and continuously develops, although it is resistant to
change.
His model includes three levels of culture: artifacts, values and assumptions. According to Schein
assumptions is at the crux of organizational culture and that the first two levels, artifacts and values
may simply reflect the more abstract of subconscious assumptions shared by organizational
members.
Level 1 Artifacts
Refer to the observable evidence of culture. This can be physical entities but also patterns of
behavior. SEE TABLE 6.2 However while this level of culture is readily apparent it does not provide
much substance to an understanding of organizational culture. Attention must be turned to higher
levels for such understanding.
Level 2 Values:
Preferences about how situations should be handled. These preferences represent shared beliefs
about how things ought to happen. Organizational leaders are frequently the source of values.
(values of the founder are often the values of the employees)
However, because a leader articulates a value doesn’t make it a value. Espoused values are not
always identical to the actual values of the organization. Just because appears in the mission
statement does not mean it reaches the level of everyday practice.
Level 3 Basic Assumptions
Refers to the viewpoints organizational members hold about the world, including perceptions,
thoughts, feelings, and beliefs. These assumptions are subconscious because they have been
reinforced over and over again. Organizations specifically develop assumptions about the nature of
reality, time, space, human nature, and human relationships, among other thing.
According to Schein’s model of organizational culture and analysis of assumptions could assist
organizational members in generating a coherent blueprint for how the organization should operate.
Sometimes there are contradictory assumptions (catholic school versus academic world) these
assumptions might cause problems for members who are seeking to behave in concert with
organizational assumptions. How the organization reconciles these inconsistent assumptions
determines the overarching organizational culture.
Organizational assimilation theory
Organizational assimilation theory was created by Jablin as a way to explain how individuals become
integrated into the culture of an organization. He argues that the process of being socialized into an
organization is complex and takes place over years. The theory identifies four stages that
organizational newcomers go through before becoming full member of the organization SEE TABLE
6.3
Vocational Anticipatory Socialization
Learning about the nature of the job by observing and experiencing during our childhood what it is
like to work.
Anticipatory Socialization
Here, individuals gather information about a specific vocation, a specific position, and/or a specific
organization. It includes the process of choosing an organization, interviewing and preparing to enter
the organization. During this phase the organizational new-comer starts to become socialized into
the organization before he or she ever works in the organization.
Encounter
The organizational newcomer enters the workplace and begins to learn the normal work patters and
expectations of the organization. Typically the organizational newcomer relies on coworkers and his
or her supervisor for URT.
Metamorphosis
The movement of the individual from an outsider to an insider. During this stage, the newcomer and
the organization exert mutual influence in the process of developing a “fit” between the organization
and the employee. The newcomer internalizes the values and behaviors in order to fulfill
organizational expectations (socialization). While at the same time the organizational member seeks
to have an impact on his or her role and work environment (individualization).
Organizational Identification and control (OIC)
Organizations increase their use of team-based structures to improve quality, engender creativity,
and increase employee involvement. Although these are the stated goals team-based structures also
serve another purpose: control over employees. OIC theory centers on the way that an individual’s
connection to the organization influences behavior and decision making in team-based structures.
Three concepts:
1. Identification: refers to the sense of oneness with or belongingness to an organization; when
individuals experience identification, they define themselves in terms of the organization
(metamorphosis stage). The “we-feeling” is very important.
2. Control: an organization needs control to get things done. OIC suggests that there are several
forms of control that an organization might use:
a. Simple control: involves direct, authoritarian control.
b. Technological control: involves the use of technology to manage what can and can’t
be done in the workplace (assembly line principle)
c. Bureaucratic control: Weber’s theory of a clear hierarchical organization. (employee
handbook)
In developing OIC however Tompkins and Cheney suggest that changes in organization have
shifted the way that control is wielded. With the growing use of team-based organizations
and organizations grounded in participation and empowerment there are two new types of
control:
d. Unobtrusive control: based on shared values within the organization. So
management’s job is to create a vision and mission for the organization. So
employees can identify themselves with the mission and vision. Control through
commitment
e. Concertive control: happens when coworkers develop mechanisms to reward and
control behavior that influences the team
SEE TABLE 6.4
3. Discipline: is achieved through a sense of responsibility to the work group because members
identify with their organization and because they share common values and a vision for the
organization. One will make a decision which is best for the organization if one does not coworkers will put pressure on the one. According to OIC, superiors need not do the
disciplining themselves but the mission and vision together with the identification will do the
work for them.
Organizing Theory
Weick’s organizing theory states that communication is the organization. Communication is what
constitutes an organization. Instead of examining the organization he examined the organizing.
Organizations exist in an information environment. Weick’s theory discusses the information that
organizations have because they need this to accomplish their goals. However using this information
is quite tough because it is unpredictable. Equivocality references the ambiguity of information
available to organizations.
Messages are equivocal to the extent that there may be multiple understandings of the information.
One must interpret the information him/herself because it is up to the individual.
However one way to reduce equivocality is to rely on rules, recipes or guidelines for behavior. If a
rule is successful use it again. Still not for every situation is a rule at hand so a second way to reduce
equivocality is to engage in communication cycles known as double interacts. Double interacts are
suited for instances of high equivocality because they require organizational members to develop
interdependent relationship in the process of communicating.
A double interact consists of an act, a response and an adjustment:



Act: a communication behavior initiated by one person or group of people
Response: the returning communication to the act
Adjustment: several forms, it might be a confirmation that the info has been understood or,
if it is still equivocal, one can gather more information.
Weick believes that double interacts are literally the links that hold an organization together. He also
believed that organizing is an evolution process, if an organization cannot adapt to their environment
it will collapse. Weick proposed a three-stage process of sociocultural evolution:
1. Enactment: occurs when members of an organization take note of equivocal information in
their information environment. Recognizing that there are multiple interpretations and
acting to put into process a mechanism for making sense of the information are at the heart
of enactment.
2. Selection: to reduce equivocality one must choose how to respond.
3. Retention: is a form of organizational memory. What was done and how it was done is stored
formally or informally, so that organizational members can refer to it again.
Weick also states that change is the key to success and change occurs through the process of
communication. If an organization cannot adapt to equivocality and its members do not utilize
double interacts to resolve new forms of ambiguity, will not survive and flourish. (DARWIN)
CH 7 Explaining theories of persuasion
Persuasion defined
Persuasion is defined as: human communication that is designed to influence others by modifying
their beliefs, values or attitudes.
O’Keefe argued that there are requirements:
1. Persuasion involves a goal and the intent to achieve that goal on the part of the message
sender
2. Communication is the means to achieve that goal
3. The message recipient must have free will.
Attitude: relatively enduring predisposition to respond favorably or unfavorably. Because attitudes
are not learned and not born one can say that it is an evaluation of self-behavior. Attitudes are
presumed to influence behavior.
Social Judgment Theory (SJT)
This theory suggests that knowing a person’s attitudes on subjects can provide you with clues about
how to approach a persuasive effort. The theory proposes that people make evaluations (judgments)
about the content of messages based on their anchors, or stance, on a particular topic.
Types of attitudes
One’s attitude can be placed into three categories:
1. Latitude of acceptance: includes all those ideas that a person finds acceptable
2. Latitude of rejection: includes all those ideas that a person finds unacceptable
3. Latitude of noncommitment: includes ideas for which you have no opinion
A person’s reaction to a persuasive message depends on his/her position on the topic. If one is very
ego-involved one will have a clear, very inflexible position on this topic.
Whether a person is ego-involved allows the persuader to make certain predictions about the
recipient of a persuasive message:
1. The more ego-involved a person is , the larger the latitude of rejection one will have
2. The more ego-involved a person is, the smaller the latitude of noncommitment
Effects of messages sent in different latitudes
SJT explains responses through two processes:
1. Contrast effect: occurs when a message is perceived as farther away from that person’s
anchor than it really is – the receiver subconsciously exaggerated the difference between the
message’s position and his or her own position. Happens when the message falls within
latitude of rejection.
2. Assimilation effect: When a message falls within the receiver’s latitude of acceptance the
individual subconsciously minimizes the difference between the message’s position and his
or her own position. Persuasion can only occur if the message you send falls within an
individual’s latitude of noncommitment or at the edges of his/her latitude of acceptance.
SEE FIGURE 7.1
Elaboration likelihood model (ELM)
This model views persuasion primarily as a cognitive event meaning that the targets of persuasive
messages use mental processes of motivation and reasoning to accept or reject persuasive messages.
ELM poses 2 routes to influence
Slow and steady: the Central route to persuasion
This model depicts persuasion as a process in which the success of influence depends largely on the
way the receivers make sense of the message. Centrally routed messages include a wealth of
information, rational arguments and evidence to support a particular conclusion. Centrally routed
messages are much more likely to create long-term change for the recipient than are peripheral
messages. ELM argues that centrally routed messages succeed in long0term change only when two
factors are met:
1. The target must be highly motivated to process all of the information being given
2. The target must be able to process the message cognitively.
Types of elaborated arguments
One must not only consider if the audience is motivated and able when looking at the central route
of persuasion. One must also consider how the audience members will likely react to the quality and
arrangement of the arguments:



Strong arguments: create a positive cognitive response in the minds of receivers while also
positively aligning the receivers’ beliefs with those views of the persuader
Neutral arguments: generate a noncommittal cognitive response from the receiver. No
attitude change occurs and the ambivalent receiver may instead turn to peripheral cues, or
shortcuts to persuasion
Weak sarguments: produce a negative cognitive response to the persuasive message. This
response will not only prevent attitude change but may have a reverse or boomerang effect
and so reinforcing the opposing point of view.
Taking a shortcut: The peripheral route to persuasion
When motivation or skill is missing the persuader can rely on a receiver’s emotional involvement and
persuade through more superficial means. Thus ELM predicts that when the audience is unmotivated
or unable to process an elaborated message, persuaders should focus on quick and easy ways to
produce change.
Types of peripheral cues:
Cialdini identified seven common cues that signal the use of a peripheral message:
1. Authority: the persuader uses the perception of authority to convince the audience to accept
the beliefs of behaviors presented
2. Commitment: emphasize a person’s dedication to product, social cause, group affiliation,
political party etc. Foot-in-the-door principle when one asks to wear a campaign button and
the other agrees one can ask to put a campaign sign in your yard, then ask to paint your
house in campaign colors. Once one has agreed and committed themselves to the campaign,
it becomes harder to refuse larger requests because there is a threat of appearing
inconsistent with your commitment
3. Contrast: Requires the communication to set up uneven points of comparison. (asking for a
big favor and it actually is a small one)
4. Liking: stresses affinity toward a person, place or object. (using celebs for product
advertising)
5. Reciprocation: Try to influence by emphasizing a give-and-take relationship.
6. Scarcity: preys on people’s worry of missing out on something. E.g. imposing time limits on
the sale of items.
7. Social proof: relies on the age-old notion of peer pressure.
It should be noted that these peripheral messages emphasize fleeting emotional responses and are
not likely to create long-lasting change.
Types of Peripheral messages
As Central Routed messages, Peripheral messages can also be evaluated as positive, neutral or
negative.



Positive peripheral messages: those that are perceived favorably by the audience and create
a positive affective state. However a change in attitude does not guarantee a change in
behavior.
Neutral peripheral messages: leave the receivers feeling emotionally ambivalent; they really
don’t know or care about the cue used to capture their interest.
Negative peripheral messages: produce negative or disapproving emotional responses within
the receiver.
ELM makes very clear predictions, which are summarized in FIGURE 7.2. The theory predicts that if
listeners are motivated and able to consider an elaborated message, persuaders should rely on
strong, factually based arguments. Arguments can backfire if they are weak or poorly presented,
however. Conversely, persuaders should focus on emotionally based peripheral messages if receivers
cannot or will not consider an elaborated message.
Theory of planned behavior
SJT and ELM give clear advice if you are trying to persuade someone to think or feel a particular way.
But what if your goal is to move beyond attitude change and want to change someone’s behavior.
Then the theory of planned behavior may provide a template
The theory of reasoned action
Before explaining this theory Fishbein recognized that something likely mediates the relationship
between an attitude and behavior.
1. It is important to note that Fishbein and Ajzen assumed that all behavior is intentional. We
act because we have a reason to do so. This assumption led to develop the notion of a
behavioral intention which means your plan to act a particular way
2. These authors then determined what creates a behavioral intention. They state that there
are two predictors
a. Attitudes: defined as our sum of beliefs about something. Theory of reasoned action
beliefs that it is built from two components; our evaluation of the object and our
belief strength.
b. Normative beliefs: your perceptions about what others in your social network expect
you to do. In addition to the value you place on others in your network, the theory
suggests we must also consider our motivation to comply with these others. \
3. The determination of behavioral intention is achieved by looking at the relative weights of
the two predictors. In some cases attitudes weigh stronger and in other cases the behavioral
norms will weigh stronger.
Adding to the theory
Azjen extended the theory by adding a third major predictor, changing the name to planned
behavior. Azjen recognized that sometimes we might intend to behave a certain way, but our plans
are not carried through because we don’t have control over the situation. Next to attitudes and
normative beliefs the perceived behavioral control is also comprised of two elements\
1. Self-efficacy: refers to an individual’s belief that she/he can actually perform the behavior.
2. Controllability: recognizes that sometimes things are simply out of our control- or are at
lease perceived that way.
SEE FIGURE 7.3
Inoculation theory
McGuire’s inoculation theory presents a way to understand how resistance to persuasion might be
achieved. (comparison with a vaccine) An inoculation message presents a weaker form of a contrary
argument. Once exposed to this weak argument people are less likely to change their attitudes when
presented with a stronger form of the argument.
Developing the Concept
The theory focused solely on what is called “cultural truism” (“you should brush your teeth after
every meal” and “mental illness is not contagious”) Critics said that these noncontroversial issues did
not provide an adequate test of how well people will resist persuasive efforts about controversial
subjects.
Pfau, however, created an inoculation theory that is applicable to broader persuasive contexts.
He states that there are two major components to an inoculation message:
1. Threat: simply involves a forewarning of a potential persuasive attack on beliefs, making sure
that the target of the persuasive effort is aware of his/her susceptibility to the attack.
2. Refutational pre-emption: The inoculation message should anticipate what the
counterpersuasive effort will be by raising specific challenges and then contesting them. In
the study of Banas & Rains however show that “matching the content of refutations exactly
to what actually occurs in the counterargument is unnecessary; any preemptive refutation
seems to bolster the inoculation effect.
McGuire argued that inoculation efforts should be threatening enough to be defense-stimulation,
but so strong as to overwhelm. SEE TABLE 7.1
CH 8 Explaining theories of Leadership
Leadership defined
Leadership and management are often said to be interchangeable. However they require different
skill. Management is a formal position in an organizational hierarchy, whereas leadership is not
based on a structural position.
The major challenge of management is coping with complexity. The major challenge of leadership is
to cope with change. Accordingly, leaders must demonstrate vision, they must motivate people, and
they must empower people to accomplish what is necessary to achieve the vision. In short to manage
means to function within a structure; to lead means to create a structure in which to function.
Likert’s four systems
Likert’s theory suggests that there are four distinct leadership systems within an organization:
1.
2.
3.
4.
System 1 “Tells”
System 2 “Sells”
System 3 “Consults”
System 4 “Joins”
System 1/exploitative authoritative system: Leaders motivate employees through threats and fear
appeals. Communication is top-down. Employees are often hostile towards organizational goals and
may actively behave contrary to these goals. Satisfaction and productivity are low. Leader “tells”
people what to do
System 2/benevolent authoritative system: Like system 1 however leaders tend to be less controlling
when using this approach. Top-down communication. Lower-level employees may make decisions
but only using the mechanisms prescribed by upper levels. Leaders tend to sell their point of view.
System 3/consultative system: in this scheme, leaders typically use rewards to motivate workers, as
well as occasional punishments; leadership is characterized by involving lower-level employees in
some decision making and goal setting that affect their specific realm of work. Gathering employee
feedback is called consults. Because communication flows both ways productivity and satisfaction
and employee turnover rates are good.
System 4/ participate system: This scheme incorporated genuine participation among all levels in
decision making and goal setting. Communication is extensive over all ranks. Employee participation
determines organizational goals, all organizational members are respected and have a say in how the
corporation operates. Therefore this style is called joins.
Likert argues that system 4 leads to the highest productivity and satisfaction and the least employee
turnover.
Transformational Leadership
Bass argued that the global economy has shifted the type of leadership needed in current
organizations. The second theory consists of two leadership styles: transactional and
transformational leadership. Bass argues that transformational leadership is more effective these
days than transactional leadership.
Transactional leadership: leaders seek to achieve solid, consistent performance from subordinates.
Leaders use bilateral exchange to achieve their goals. There are three primary characteristics of
transactional leaders:
1. Transactional leaders work with subordinates develop clear and specific objectives and
promise rewards if these objectives are met
2. Transactional leaders exchange rewards and promises of rewards for employee effort. The
leader is not simply recognizing the completed goals but is also rewarding people for the
extra effort involved in attaining said goals.
3. Transactional leaders are responsive to the immediate self-interests of works, particularly if
the workers’ needs can be met while also getting the job done.
In short, transactional leadership is responsive to employees and is clear and structured in terms of
expectations. This leadership style focuses on meeting immediate needs as quickly and effectively as
possible.
Transformational leadership: is founded on particular attitudes and behaviors that support
organizational change. It seeks to inspire exceptional performance. At the center of transformational
leadership is the ability to use subordinates’ ideas and actions as a catalyst for transformation –
moving ideas and actions toward the greater good of the organization.
Bass identified four facets of transformational leadership:
1. Idealized influence: efforts to establish positive attitudes among employees toward each
other and toward the work itself. Associated with charisma, the leader models ideal behavior
for employees.
2. Inspirational motivational: requires transformational leaders to present employees with a
clear vision and a desirable future. Employees’ self-interest is subsumed to the interest of the
greater good
3. Intellectual stimulation: Transformational leaders challenge their own assumptions and
encourage new approaches. Differences of opinion are addressed openly and without fear.
Followers are encouraged to reject tradition as a means for operating and to challenge their
own thinking.
4. Individualized consideration: the hallmark of transformational leadership. The leader
considers each individual’s needs and abilities while supporting development and mentoring
efforts. Effectiveness is preferred to efficiency and equity is preferred to equal exchange.
Both leaderships are associated with achievement of organizational goals. Transformational
leadership is associated with greater individual with greater individual and organizational outcomes.
Employees are encouraged to look only at what affects them, because they are rewarded for their
own performance. The transactional system provides little incentive to change unless the change
benefits the individual directly.
Transformational leadership is more communication focused. The style engenders a team-based,
cooperative and participative atmosphere, which allows for greater adaptability and responsiveness.
So why would someone use transformational leadership. There is a link with emotional intelligence
which is defined as a set of beliefs and skills that facilitate organizational performance. Five qualities
are associated with EQ SEE TABLE 8.2
EQ rests on understanding both self and others. Empathy etc very important so better social skills. To
summarize, transformational leadership is contracted with transactional leadership. Both are
effective leadership styles however transformational leadership is associated with higher personal
and organizational outcomes. Transformational leadership goes hand in hand with EQ.
Contingency model
Fiedler hypothesized that leadership style alone cannot explain leadership effectiveness. Fiedler
created situational parameters to explain leadership effectiveness. The most important one is
situational constraints.
Firstly it is important to know that Fiedler recognized two distinct approaches of leadership:
1. Task leader: focuses primarily on accomplishing particular organizational goal (productivity)
2. Relationship: emphasizes positive relations between all members of the group (satisfaction)
The Contingency approach makes predictions about which style will work in certain situations.
Situational Constraints
Situational control consists of three elements:
1. Leader-member relation: refers to the degree of trust and support followers provide to the
leader.
2. Task structure which has four dimension
a. Clarity of the group goal
b. Path multiplicity, or the number of potential courses of action available to the group
c. Effect verifiability, the extent to which the effects of decisions are clear
d. Specificity of decision to be made
A task is deemed structured if the goals are clear, there are relatively few different courses of
action, the effects are verifiable, and the decisions are specific.
3. Position power. Hereby we need to recall that leadership is not based on a position in a
hierarchy. Difference between rewarding system (strong hierarchical position) or liking and
respect (not strong hierarchical position).
Fiedler combined these constraints to make predictions about the most effective form of leadership.
The combination of the constraints led to a determination of control over the situation. SEE TABLE
8.3
The contingency model predicts that task-oriented leadership is required to prevent the group from
falling apart; someone needs to “take charge” or else paralysis and infighting will prevent either
productivity or satisfaction from being achieved.
Fiedler argued that relationship-oriented leadership is appropriate in three conditions because of the
moderate level of control over the situation. (see page 154+155)
Fiedler’s contingency model suggests that different situation require different leadership styles. The
foundation for which leadership style to use is grounded in the degree of control that the leader has
over the situation.
Leader-member exchange (LMX)
LMX was developed in response to the majority of traditional leadership models that typically
focused on leadership traits. LMX suggests that leaders treat each of their subordinates differently
(like pets)
LMX recognizes that leadership consists of an interpersonal relationship between a superior and
subordinate and are not equally constructed. LMX relationships (in-group relationships) are
characterized by mutual trust, social support and liking. There is more interaction between
organizational members in an LMX relationship.
Supervisory exchange (SX) relationships (out-group relationships), are impersonal in nature, with
little superior-subordinate interaction taking place.
At the middle of the continuum are middle-group relationships. The involve elements of both LMX
and SX. Interaction is often impersonal, but there are occasional provisions of social support.
Moderate amounts of trust and liking occur between the supervisor and the subordinate. Individuals
in the middle group are often aware that they are not in the group. SEE FIGURE 8.1
LMX relationships are associated with higher employee job satisfaction, greater satisfaction with the
manager, and higher organizational commitments. Those with SX relationships have the opposite.
Factors that determine the type of relationship between manager and employee:
1. Liking: most associated with perceived similarity, more perceived similarity more LMX
2. Performance: high employee performance leads to a LMX relation but also vice-versa. It
seems that when a supervisor perceives an employee to be high skilled, he or she is more
likely to develop an LMX relation
LMX recognizes that managers respond to employees in different ways. When managers develop
strong interpersonal ties with their employees they have an LMX relationship. Other employees (the
out-group) create a more SX relationship with their manager which is strictly based on the rules and
roles designated by the organization.
CH9 Explaining theories of mediated communication
Despite the commonly held view of negative media effects, scholarly research often conflicts with
popular beliefs and even contradicts other scholars’ work. Intellectual and political debate remains
over who are most affected, to what extent these individuals are influenced, and why some people
are more affected than others.
Mass Communication versus Mediated communication
Mediated communication refers to any communication in which something exists between the
source and the receiver. This “something” can refer to technology (media) but also to other things
(translator).
Mass Communication refers to mediated communication between a source and a large audience that
is often unknown by the source. The source don’t necessarily know their audiences’ motivations,
biases etc.
All Mass communication is mediated but not vice versa.
Media Richness Theory
Media richness theory recognizes that as new communication technologies develop, the decision
about the best way to send a message becomes more complex.
What is a rich medium?
The central argument of media richness theory is that communication professionals should match
the communication channel to the content of the information. Media richness refers to the
information-carrying capacity of the medium. One determines the richness of the media by assessing
four characteristics:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Speed of feedback
Ability to personalize the message
Availability of multiple cues
Language variety
Face-to-face interaction is considered the most “rich” medium. SEE TABLE 9.1
How ambiguous is the message
The main idea of the theory is that the medium should match the message. As such, the second
major consideration is the nature of the message that needs to be sent.
Ambiguity refers to the possibility of multiple interpretations. If the goal of communication is
understanding, then ambiguous messages are those that run a greater risk of being misunderstood.
According Media Richness Theory the more ambiguous the message the more richer the medium
should be in communicating the message.
As asserted earlier, communication effectiveness is assumed to occur because of a match between
the ambiguity of the message and the richness of the media. There are objective differences in the
ability of various communication channels to communicate particular types of messages. As such, a
skilled communicator needs to consciously consider media richness in the communication process.
Uses and gratifications theory (UGT)
UGT represents a somewhat different means by which to analyze and explain the use of mass media.
UGT focuses on why a receiver uses particular media outlets. The choices and decisions that you
make are based on personal needs and values that you wish to fulfill. Thus, you can select among
various media to gratify your individual needs.
Assumptions
Three primary assumptions drive our discussion of UGT
1. Katz believed that audience members actively use various media to fulfill certain needs or
goals. Thus, media usage isn’t passive, involuntary or coerced; instead, today’s mass media
represent numerous options available to fulfill a person’s social or psychological needs and
values. In this way UGT suggests that media use is active and goal driven based on individual
needs.
2. Mass communication isn’t something that happens to you; nor do mass media do anything to
you. UGT maintains that a person must identify his or her need and make a media choice.
Katz did not believe in the simple “straight-line effect” whereby a given medium causes
people to think or behave differently. Audience members choose a medium and allow
themselves to be swayed, changed and influenced – or not.
3. Media outlets compete with other available means of satisfying personal needs. Stated
differently there are many ways to fulfill individual needs.
Why do we watch what we watch?
McQuail identified four broad classes of motivations that include several subcategories: (SEE TABLE
9.2)




Entertainment: for relaxation or for a thrill
Information presents the individuals with opportunities
o To learn
o To obtain advice
o Feel secure or satisfy curiosity
Individuals use the media to reflect, reinforce or contrast their personal identity
Personal relationships and social interactions. Media exposure can help individuals learn
about or connect with others through comparisons of interpersonal relationships and social
situations
In short UGT maintains that people have many options from which they deliberately select to meet
personal needs. UGT takes the perspective that individuals actively make specific media choices
based on four common needs.
Agenda-setting theory
McCombs and Shaw argued that public opinion is shaped, in part, by media coverage – particularly
with regard to political news and political campaigns. The public reflects what is presented by the
news media. In other words, McCombs and Shaw conceived that the news media present audiences
with an “agenda” for what events the public “should” consider as important. Relying on several
assumptions, McCombs and Shaw were able to test this “agenda-setting function” of the media.
Two key-assumptions guide agenda-setting theory:
1. The news media have an agenda. That is, the news media tell audiences what “news” to
consider as important.
2. Most people would like help when trying to understand and evaluate politics and political
reality. Because people need assistance with determining their political viewpoints, audience
members come to rely on news media to point out topics of importance
Based on those assumptions McCombs and Shaw found that a clear association exists between that
the news media present to their audiences and what the audiences perceive of the issues reported.
“Framing” the news
TABLE 9.3 gives an overview of framing in the news. We should note that although agenda setting
focuses on the gate-keeping ability of the media, other people besides journalists, editors and
broadcasters can influence the media agenda. Public relations professionals, lobbyists, and even the
president of the USA can influence what the media cover as news.
Issues and individuals most affected
Even despite the media’s ability to influence individuals’ thoughts, opinions, and actions are not
predetermined by the news media’s agenda. Certain issues are more likely to influence audience
through, and certain individuals are more likely to be influenced by these issues.
Individuals have differing needs for external advice or direction, also known as the need for
orientation. Those needs depend both on relevance as well as on a person’s uncertainty.
In short, agenda-setting theory states that gatekeepers selectively determine an agenda for what’s
news. The news media influence their audiences to think about selected issues in a certain light.
The news media influence their audiences to think about selected issues in a certain light.
Cultivation Theory
Agenda-setting theory focuses on “news” however Cultivation theory focuses exclusively on TV.
Gerbner et al. argue that the inescapable violent content of current TV programming influences
audiences’ view of social reality. Cultivation theory predicts that viewers who watch lots of TV will
overestimate occurrence of real-life violence, thereby perceiving the world as a “mean and scary”
place.
Assumptions
1. TV has become central to American life and culture. Because of this ubiquity, Gerbner
believes that TV has become the principal source of stories and storytelling in the US. Thus
Gerbner maintains that TV has usurped personal conversation, books, religion and any other
medium as the primary source for storytelling and that the stories being told are not “from
anyone with anything relevant to tell. They come from a small group of distant
conglomerates with something to sell.
2. TV influences audience perceptions of social reality, thereby shaping American culture in
terms of how individuals reason and relate with others. Gerbner argues that the repetitive
representation of commercialized social life is what audiences come to expect and believe as
more or less normative.
3. TV’s effects are limited, it not the only factor that affects and individual’s view of social
reality.
Starting with violence
Violence is defined as the “overt expression of physical force compelling action against one’s will on
pain of being hurt and/or killed or threatened to be so victimized as part of the plot” This covers a lot
of violence however not verbal assaults, threats etc.
They found that there was symbolic double jeopardy because minority persons are significantly less
visible on TV than in real life, but these TV characters are much more likely to be portrayed as victims
of violence. (SEE page 174 for the entire research. Further irrelevant for the exam)
What Effects? For Whom?
So cultivation theory predicts that individuals’ social attitudes change as their TV viewing increases.
So when you watch a lot of TV you believe that the world outside is like on TV and this is proven.
Because heavy TV-viewers thought that their chances of being involved with violence were 1000
times greater than crime statistics suggest. SEE Figure 9.1
How does cultivation take place and with what effect?
Cultivation theory research suggests that viewers’ attitudes are cultivated in two ways:


Mainstreaming: implies that (heavy) viewers develop a common view of social reality based
on their frequent exposure to the repetitive and dominating images, stories, and messages
depicted on TV.
Resonance: involves congruency between viewers’ own violent experiences and that which
they see on TV. The TV violence reinforces, or resonated, with their personal experiences and
only serves to amplify their suspicion of a mean and scary world while rejecting the vision a
life without such aggression.
In short, the power of TV is ubiquitous, with its primary message not reflecting reality in any
consistent way. Moreover this content of TV programming negatively affect heavy viewers by
creating a distorted attitude about people and the world.
CH10 Explaining Theories of Culture
Understanding the dynamics of cross-cultural and intercultural communication is critical in today’s
multicultural society and global economy. Although the proliferation of cross-cultural and
intercultural communication is probably not new to you, the implications, difficulties with, and
strategies for improving of these exchanges is profound, particularly considering the high failure rate
of such interaction.
Culture defined
Collier defined culture as one’s identification with and acceptance into a group that shares symbols,
meanings, experiences, and behavior.
Cross-cultural communication is the comparison of two or more cultural communities.
Inter-cultural communication involves the actual interaction between members of different cultures.
Hofstede’s cultural dimensions
Hofstede states that there are five dimensions that can be used to differentiate and rank various
cultures. Each dimension is described in a continuum, with distinct cultures classified somewhere
along the continuum.
1. Individualism-Collectivism: This dimension addresses how people define themselves and
their relationships with others. Cultures that fall on the individualism side of the continuum
share four characteristics
a. The individual is the most important entity in any social setting
b. Individualistic cultures stress independence rather than dependence.
c. Individualistic cultures reward individual achievement
d. Individualistic cultures value each individual’s uniqueness.
Collectivism refers to a social system that is based on in-groups and out-groups. Identity is
understood solely through group membership also four characteristics.
a. Collectivistic cultures the views, needs, and goals of the group are more important
than any individual views, needs or goals.
b. Obligation to the group is the norm; behavior is guided by duty, not by individual
pleasure or rewards
c. The self is defined in relation to others, not as distinct from others.
d. People in collectivistic cultures focus on cooperation rather than competition
Communication is also different in both cultures. In collectivistic cultures there is a highcontext communication message which means that it privileges relational harmony over
clarity or directness (not offensive). A low-context communication message values direct,
explicit expression of ideas which belong to the individualistic style.
2
Uncertainty avoidance: refers to the extent to which “people within a culture are made
nervous by situations which they perceive as unstructured, unclear, or unpredictable.
Cultures that avoid ambiguity are known as high uncertainty avoidance cultures which are
typified by rules, precision, and punctuality. Cultures low in uncertainty avoidance tend to
accept ambiguity and lack of structure more easily. Individuals in low uncertainty avoidance
cultures are more inclined to take risks, innovate, and value.
3
Power Distance: refers to the extent to which people with little power in society consider
inequity normal and acceptable. High power distance cultures accept power as a scarce
resource; power differences are natural and inevitable as in a hierarchical system. Cultures
with low power distance value the minimization of power differences. Although hierarchy
exists people who are higher in the hierarchy are not assumed to be superior over others.
People in this culture believe that working hard can create a status and can gain power.
4
Masculinity – Femininity: Focuses on the relationship between biological sex and what is
considered sex-appropriate behavior. Masculine cultures are those that use the reality of
biological sex in the creation of distinct roles for men and women. So the men must be
assertive and decisive and the female is given instable jobs and lower salary.
Feminine cultures have fewer rigid roles for behavior based on biological sex. Men and
woman are equally assertive or deferent, competitive or nurturing. The focus tends to be on
interpersonal relationships and concern for the weak.
5
Because scholars thought that Hofstede was too much focused on the Western culture he
added the value of long-term and short-term orientation. A long-term orientation is
associated with thrift, savings, perseverance, and the willingness to subordinate one’s self to
achieve a goal. People in those cultures have a strong work ethic and keep their eyes towards
the achievement of the goal. Short-term orientation cultures want direct gratification and
prefer quick results for long-term gain. Employees seek immediate pay and benefits and are
less willing to sacrifice in the short run to achieve in the long run.
SEE TABLE 10.1
Gender and Communication: a two-culture perspective
Sex and Gender: What’s the Difference?
Sex is genetically determined; it is your biological makeup as ether a male or a female. Barring rare
genetic abnormalities, sex is dichotomous variable.
Gender is, however, something that we “do” – it is a way of behaving that categorized on a
continuum that varies from masculine to feminine. So gender is related to, but not equal to, sex.
Sex and Gender Differences in Communication
Research shows little support for the notion that men and women differ with regard to their
communication behavior simply because of their biological sex. We are even more alike than we
think we are. However there are gender differences in communication.
Theoretical examinations of gender
Three theories
SEE TABLE 10.2
Standpoint Theory
A standpoint is a position from which you view and understand the world; the point in time, the
location, and the experiences you bring to an observation influence your standpoint. The theory
argues that the differences in men and women’s lives stem from imbalances in social, economic, and
symbolic power. Many men and women come to an observation from different standpoints because
they both have different experiences because of the gender expectations. The problem with this
theory is that is has not taken into account that girls learn boys stuff and boys learn girls stuff
Tannen’s Gender styles
Tannen suggests that experiences shape our communication and understanding of the world, and
women and men have different experiences. Tannen identified two primary differences in
conversational patterns between men and women.
1. Men use conversation to maintain status or power, where women use it to build
connection
2. Women focus more on how a message is said (expressive communication) whereas men
stress the literal content of a message (instrumental communication)
Muted group theory
The theory argues that the English language is primarily a man-made means of communicating. As a
result, many experiences of women are left unarticulated, further serving to maintain an imbalance
of power between men and women. This theory assumes that men and women have different
experiences and it assumes that all language is bound by culture. Because men always had power
they also shaped the language, women have largely been excluded from creating meanings, leaving
them muted or without adequate means to express their unique experience.
Generations and Communication: Workplace implications
Each generation is influenced by specific events. Parents and the parenting role have transformed
over time, the nature of the media, and popular culture has changed. So different generations have
different values, beliefs, ways of behaving and ways of communicating – in other words, different
cultures.
What are the Generations? SEE TABLE 10.3
Most authors define 4 different generations i.e. Veterans, Baby-boomers, Generation X and
Millennials. Johnson and Lopes argued that much of the literature identifying generational
characteristics is false, stating that “management consultants and journalists have filled the popular
literature with articles and books discussing the social, economic, and political influences
experienced by the generations in the workforce” and that such differences are more speculation
than confirmed truths.
However from other studies it is proven that the different generations deal in various ways with
organizational knowledge, satisfaction, and organizational commitment. Note that values change as
the worker ages.
A study from Twenge and Campbell’s shows that with the current generation (Millenials, generation
Y) there is a
1. Decreased need for social approval. They do not follow the rules just because they are the
rules.
2. Increase in self-esteem and narcissism which creates a situation where there are higher
expectations for the work-place as for the employers to meet employee needs.
3. External locus of control which refers to the tendency to explain the causes of events to
either one’s own effort (internal) or to the environment or outside forces (external)
4. Higher levels of anxiety and depression requiring organizations to provide more mental
health services than ever before.
Face Negotiation Theory (FNT)
Within the context of intercultural communication, the concept of face emerges again. Ting-Toomey
used face to explain and predict the cultural differences associated with conflict management. FNT
explains cultural differences in conflict as the result of combining differing face needs and conflict
styles.
Combining Face with Cultural Orientation
Face is the desired self-image that an individual wants to present to others. Central to FNT are the
dimensions of individualism-collectivism and power distance. FNT posits that members of
individualistic cultures primarily focus on negative face – i.e. they prefer to present themselves as
confident, self-directed and independent. Conversely, members of collectivistic cultures primarily
emphasize positive face presenting themselves as likable, cooperative, and interested in building
relationships.
Ting-Toomey predicts that these cultural differences affect face management, and differences in face
management lead to different communication patterns.
Toward a Global Understanding of Conflict Management
With regard to FNT conflict is defined as either the perceived or actual incompatibility of values,
expectations, processes, or outcomes between two or more individuals. Face conflict styles
commonly emerge (North-American approach because this excludes the collectivistic style).
According to Kilmann and Thomas these five conflict styles vary on two dimensions: assertiveness
(concern for self) and cooperation (concern for other)
1.
2.
3.
4.
Avoid conflict: lack assertiveness and cooperation
Accommodating style: cooperate with others but demonstrate little assertiveness
Compete in a conflict: highly assertive but lack cooperation
Compromising style: moderate concern for self and other. Moderate assertive and
cooperative
5. Collaborating style: very assertive and very cooperative.
Ting-Toomey states that these styles represent primarily a Western view of conflict. She proposed
that a global understanding of conflict management is remiss without examining issues of face. So
she sees conflict styles on dual dimensions i.e. self-face concern and other-face concern.
Self-face concern means that individuals must consider their own positive and negative face needs
where other-face concern are the positive and negative face needs of the partner. Mutual-face
concern is the recognition of both self- and other-face needs. After a global study eight responses to
conflict emerged with slight different terminology on the previous five:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Avoid
Oblige (accommodate)
Dominate (compete)
Compromise
Integrate (collaborate)
Emotionally expressive style refers to an affective response to conflict as opposed to
cognitive response i.e. emotional expression emphasizes a person’s desire to react to his or
her feelings.
7. Passive-aggressive style attempts to make his or her partner feel guilty
8. Third-party help means that the person is more comfortable asking a person outside of the
relationship to help manage the conflict.
SEE FIGURE 10.1
Ting-Toomey’s FNT offers a more holistic view of conflict, particularly within the context of cultural
communication. According to her causal model, one’s cultural orientation coupled with self-and
other-face concern predict one’s likely repertoire of conflict, responses. Importantly intercultural
conflict may arise as a direct result of these cultural differences.