Science And Technology Dimension In
Constitution Making
By Prof. J. O. Malo, Physics Department, University Of Nairobi
01-01-2002
I. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
I.I Development of Science
The question of the True nature of the concept of objectivity and Reality
plays the same fundamental role in modern Science today as it did in the
Ancient Greek Philosophy. In the interplay between Science and Philosophy,
there have always been enormous difficulties in understanding each other
depending on the use of words, definitions, concepts and general terminology.
Thus much as we are fully aware of these difficulties, regrettably as
scientists we usually fall back on our strongest tool - Mathematics, since we
otherwise fear that we cannot be understood. In these lecture we will make a
few introductory remarks about historical developments of the Natural
sciences and their neighboring fields of Mathematics, Geometry, Logic and
indeed human thinking in general. Outstanding contributions in these areas
were made by the old Greeks from 600BC to about AD200 and the development is
briefly characterized by such names as Thales, Pythagoras, Socrates, Plato,
Aristotle. Euclid, Archimedes, Ptolemy and many others.
1.2. Greek Philosophers
Now in their study of objectivity, the Greek philosophers were fond of The
idea of Deductive thinking. And the Art of strict reasoning was systematized
into logic by Aristotle. An outstanding example of deductive theory is the
Geometry gathered and developed by Euclid in his book Elementa in which all
theorems are derived from some basic definition, postulates and Axioms by
logical reasoning.
Aristotle's logic and Euclid's geometry became fundamental for these fields
for more than 20UO years. Similarly, Aristotle's book about Science and the
Ptolemaic Astronomy, also dominated these areas for a long time.
In their studies of reality many of the Greek philosophers put the human
being in The center of everything, such that the outside world was in this
picture essentially experienced is a projection of the human mind through his
senses. Thus the difficulties in finding the properties of The outside
universe from this projection is clearly illustrated in Plato's study of the
Observers in The cave in one of his famous dialogue.
The dominance of the Greek philosophy in Astronomy and Science was finally
challenged by some Scientists in Western Europe at the beginning of the
Sixteenth Century almost simultaneously with the climax of renaissance of the
antique ideals in Art and Architecture.
Thus a new Epoch in Astronomy was started by Copenicus, Tycho, Brahe, Kepler,
and Gaiileo; who all emphasized the fundamental importance of Observations in
describing the properties of the solar system. In Science the authority of
Aristotle was finally challenged by Gaiileo who claimed that only theories in
agreement with the best possible observation were worth considering and the
philosophy for this new approach was developed by Sir Francis Bacon.
1.3 Modern Science
The next step in development of modern science and Astronomy was taken by
Newton in his book Principa. For this purpose, he had to create a new
Mathematical Tool in the form of differential calculus to formulate and solve
The basic problem in the theory of motion of various bodies. Newton's new
dynamics was a purely deductive theory in which the motion of Ordinary and
Celestial bodies was derived from a few fundamental laws including the law of
gravitation in such a way that the result could be compared with Experimental
Observations. This so called Classical Mechanics gave a new picture of the
outside world. That is, the universe consists of a system of particles moving
in well-defined orbits such that if one knows the position and momenta of all
these particles at a given time, one can predict everything in the future as
well as history of the past. Thus in this mechanistic view of the Universe,
The Human being would no longer play any fundamental role. And in such a
strictly deterministic scheme, there would be little space for any human
free-will. This Mechanical Model of the Universe dominated science until the
end of the nineteenth century.
Einstein's Theory of special relativity (1905) with the law E = MC2 or his
general theory of relativity (1913) did not change this picture but
introduced new coupling between space and time and described gravitation as a
curvature of the space itself. However, it was still a completely
deterministic Scheme.
The first sign of change from classical to quantum theory came through when
Planck in I900 introduced his Quantum postulate basically to unify the
results for the infrared and ultraviolet parts of the so called Black-body
Radiation. Planck assumed that the energy of the Harmonic Oscillators
emitting the radiation must be in the form of integer multiplies. In 1905
Einstein successfully explained the Photoelectric effect by assuming that the
Electromagnetic Radiation itself is quantized and consists of wavepackets later to be called photons.
After the development of Rutherford's Atomic Model in 1911 in which each atom
is a .solar system consisting of negative particles (Electrons) moving around
a positively charged nucleus that carries more than 99.9% of the atomic mass,
Niels Bohr in 1913 constructed the first model of the Hydrogen Atom.
II. SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH AND MODERN TECHNOLOGY
It is no secret today that the application of the various results of research
in an attempt to answer some fundamental questions in science has led to the
present state of technology in the industrialized world and will inevitably
lead to High-tech of the future for example high temperature superconductors
leading to Supercomputers and Supercolliders. Africa should not be left
behind in this race.
Through some historic as well as recent examples, we shall now illustrate how
scientific research impinges on modern technology. Electricity and Magnetism:
Faradays unified electricity and magnetism two centuries ago. Before him
electric and magnetic forces were thought of as two distinct forces with no
interrelation between them. Electricity was typified by phenomena of
thunderstorm and magnets were bar-magnets deflected by earth's magnetism.
Faraday experimenting in his basic science laboratory discovered an amazing
interrelation between the two disparate forces. Move on an electrically
charged object in the vicinity of a magnet, and the magnet will suffer
deflection. The conclusion of this and similar experiments was inescapable
and indeed sensational. The magnetic force is not an independent force,
electrically charged objects produce electric forces when they are stationary
BUT give rise to magnetic forces when moved. Electricity and magnetism had
been united and indeed unified. This was one of the greatest discoveries in
Physics of all times. And when Faraday did his experiments, no one could have
imagined that this simple physics discovery in a Laboratory would lead to the
entire corpus of electrical power generation (Dynamo Theory).
The story of unification of electricity and magnetism continued with Maxwell
who asked what would happen if electric charges were accelerated rather than
moved with uniform velocity? Maxwell then pondered theoretically on this
question and found that Faraday's equations were inconsistent such that they
had to be modified if electric charges were accelerated. Thus by one of the
greatest acts of intuition in intellectual history, he supplied the correct
modification and discovered, to his amazement, that an accelerated
electrically charged object must emit electromagnetic radiation. Maxwell
could then compute velocity of radiation which to his surprise turned out to
be identical to the velocity of light that was then known with fail-precision
from experiments. The questions are:
1. Could light be electromagnetic radiation produced hv accelerating
electrical charges embedded inside incandescent matter?
2. Could we accelerate electrically charged particles in the laboratory and
produce light
Hertz carried out experiments and confirmed Maxwell's predictions. The
spectrum of Maxwell predicted radiation consisting of not only light waves
but also waves of longer wave length, radio wave, as well as waves of shorter
wavelength - x-rays. Thus from a single theoretical calculation flowed the
marvels of radio, television and the modern communication systems on the one
hand as well as the medical facility to see through a human body with X-rays
and Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) for industry. These discoveries we in the
African continent employ in our service along with the rest of mankind and
hardly acknowledging the debt humanity owes to that modest physicist and his
solitary calculation.
Fission; The breaking apart of a heavy overweight nucleus like Uranium into
two pails or more fragments when impacted upon by a slow-moving projectile
like a thermal neutron. This was achieved by an Italian physicist Enrico
Fermi working in a dingy laboratory of the University of Rome. He was not
looking for it even suspecting it. But he could have found the fragments in
the debris deposited in his test tube if he had looked for them. However lie
was not looking for such fragments and missed them.
The phenomenon was rediscovered in Germany at the Kaiser Wilheim Institute
for Basic Sciences in I 938 not by physicists but by Chemist HANS and
STRASSMAN. They remarked "As nuclear chemists who are close to physicists, we
are reluctant to take this step that contradicts all previous experiences of
nuclear physics". The fact of the matter is that the equipment used was so
simple that even a humble laboratory in a poor developing country could have
afforded it. Now with this humble Announcement began the age of nuclear
energy for Peace and for War.
Biotechnology: The modern advances in genetics started with the unraveling of
the genetic code by Watson and Crick. In the synthesis, it has provided the
basis for all known life and has indeed been one of the most synthesizing
discoveries of the 20"'century and possibly of all times. The great discover
was made by two scientists, one American (Watson) and the other British
(Crick) working at the Cavendish Laboratory for Basic Physics.
It is of interest to note that one of the American Ph.D student in
Theoretical Physics on Dispersion Phenomenon. Walter Gilbert was heavily
influenced by the above discovery and perhaps seduced by genetics. Why
because he soon discovered an elegant technique for Deciphering the Genetic
Code and received the Nobel Price in Chemistry in 1980. He soon left his
Chair at Harvard and found a company called BIOGEN which he registered in
Switzerland. The Company exploits, among others, techniques of genetic
manipulation to manufacture human insulin.
The above examples clearly illustrate the Mutuality of Science and
Technology. We note that the greatest discovery in Molecular Biology is made
in a laboratory for Physics by people trained in the use of x-ray with fairly
modest equipment. We further see Gilbert's transition from research in
Theoretical Physics to Fundamental Genetics and then to Practical Genetic
Engineering.
From time immemorial we know that scientists when studying highly disparate
phenomenon, have endeavored to Find some simple fundamental principle to
explain The variety from a basic unity. The Chemist discovered that matter
consists of molecules which in turn are built from atoms. Today we know of
millions of different types of molecules while the number of atoms seems to
be limited to about one hundred. In Rutherford's model, The atom consists of
a very small atomic nucleus that is positively charged and contains almost
all the mass of the atom where Z is called the atomic number. It was later
discovered that the atomic nucleus consists of positively charged particles
called proton and a number of neutral particles called neutrons. Though the
rough internal structure of the atom was being unraveled in the planetary
model, the nature and origin of the atomic spectra remained a great mystery.
We know that the description of the electric and magnetic phenomena had been
unified through the works of Faraday, Maxwell, Hertz and others. And it had
become clear that light consists of electromagnetic waves. Planck in his
study of black body radiation, introduced the quantum postulate with energy
of a harmonic oscillator emitting the radiation to occur only in integer
multiple of E= h. Hydrogen being the lightest of all the elements, has atomic
number Z = 1 and consists of a proton and an electron that moves around
proton in a circle of specific radius in this simple model.
Bohr in his study of this system extended all quantum hypothesis to the
interior of the atom by assuming that the angular momentum of the electron
had to be an integer multiple of the Planck's constant. Thus assuming further
that each circle represented stationary states, Bohr could finally explain
the atomic spectra characteristic of Hydrogen atom and Hydrogen like ions,
Bohr model therefore started the development of atomic physics which
culminated in the formulation of modern quantum theory around 1926 by
Schroedinger, Heisenberg and Dirac.
Chemists have always been interested in the physicists description of the
interior of the atoms which are the basic building blocks of chemical
elements. Now starting from the atomic number of the rare gases, Lewis was
able to divide the electronic cloud over an atom into two parts. That is, a
rather inert "rare gas shell" and chemically active "valence electron"
outside the shell. He could then show that all The oxidation-reduction
reactions in chemistry could simply be described as an electron transfer
process. In his study of ammonia, he learned that the nitrogen atom contains
an electron lone pair which tries to get hold of hydrogen proton. Thus by
studying such processes, Lewis got an idea that the electron lone pair
corresponds to the site of chemical base and that one has a general reaction
which underlies the Lewis base-acid concept. It then became quite clear that
the base acid reactions in chemistry could simply be described as a proton
transfer process.
III. SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
The key problem Africa is facing today is under-development that manifests
itself in terms of poverty, diseases, ignorance and many other forms. It is
regrettable to recognize and note that due to the severe but an apparent lack
of funds and other resources, many African countries have remained
impoverished over the years. The weak fiscal status and the dim prospects for
drastic economic improvement coupled with mismanagement, corrupt and despotic
regimes in the continent also militate against any significant local support
to alleviate the problems of under-development in the near future. From the
experience of the industrialized countries, it has become abundantly clear
that for Africa to develop and survive this century, science and technology
must take root in the continent to serve the people and improve their
standards of living by increasing productivity.
It is also well understood and recognized that for science and technology to
benefit the continent, human resources development i.e. capacity building in
general is paramount and basic. There are a number of prerequisites for
capacity building and this involve issues and questions which must be
addressed and put in place.
Such prerequisites include inter alia (a) schools, colleges, universities,
polytechnics, research centres and institutes for both biological and
physical sciences for teaching, training and to address specific and
interdisciplinary mission oriented development problems (b) Forums such as
societies, associations and academies to provide opportunities for exchange,
debate, imparting knowledge in terms of seminars, training workshops,
scientific conferences and also to promote utilization and popularization of
science and technology by organisation of science fares and congresses (c)
Physical facilities and equipment (d) highly trained technicians including
repair and maintenance (e) an enabling environment.
It is today generally accepted that technology is "the engine of economic
growth" and technological innovation is indeed the principal currency of
international competition. Thus technology play a key role in attaining major
goals in invigorating a countries competitiveness in the global market place.
For example the secondary applications of aerospace technology - spin-offs span so broad a range of public needs and conveniences that it is almost
impossible to find an area of everyday life they have not improved and thus
collectively represent a substantial dividend on the national investment in
technology research.
A science and technology policy should therefore aim at improving the
effectiveness of a national system of innovation, supporting public research
and education, and sustaining the competitiveness of the business sector. So
a major policy area should therefore focus on the promotion of innovation and
investment, the diffusion of advanced technologies and creation of new firms.
Thus a mechanism must be put in place for funding technological innovation by
providing grants, low-interest loans and risk capital for supporting
individuals and cooperative research projects including downstream innovation
projects in sectors such as electronics and material science leading to
specific technologies such as Pharmaceutical, textile, Cardiology, microelectronics, biotechnology, Chemical, Food and Agriculture.
African decision makers have failed to link Science and Technology with
development objective such as enhancing quality of life of citizens. Thus
lack of nations' commitment to systematically translate such policy into
operational program that will certainly transform the society, is most
unfortunate. In general, there is an absence of realistic or implementable
Science and Technology policy that can be used as an instrument to effect
Social changes, and no government commitment to inculcate Science and
Technology culture in the youth and populace beyond what is available in the
formal setting of classroom, and research laboratories. It is therefore not
surprising that sub-saharan Africa has a new name (Baptized) - Technological
Desert in today's space age where Information and Digital Technology have
reduced the world into a Global Village. Thus policy statement of any kind is
therefore an articulation of the desired Goal on that specific issue
including delineation of means or strategies for achieving such a goal.
In many African countries, there is a crisis in Science Education leave alone
Research. Motivation to study Science at school is often very low especially
among girls. Thus there is a need to predispose very young children
especially girls to Science through the provision of practical experiences
that involves the use of appropriate toys and games. It is vital to note here
that the trend towards the economic "globalization" carries the technological
innovation to directions which are not always compatible with Culture, Social
behavior and Environmental conditions of different countries. For example,
the European model differs from the American one since different attention is
paid to problems of the environmental values, preservation and to the
compatibility of the "NEW" with cultural and social history of each country.
These data have percussions most of all on the methods and forms of the
technological innovation , and not many researchers give them appropriate
evaluation and so can only be interpreted implicitly. Further the lack of
industrial base to absorb science graduates i.e. job opportunity, apart from
being a school teacher, has a negative contribution in the career decision
making process right back at school level.
I do therefore, believe that our current level of development already
warrants the appointment of Parliamentary Science Fellows to provide public
service by making individuals with scientific knowledge and skills
availability to members of Parliament few of whom have technical background.
This is important because public policy is increasingly being determined by
economical consideration and science, in this millennium, is a major
component of many issues which Parliament must grapple with such as energy
policy, defense, security, global warming etc. Such a programme in turn will
enable scientists to broaden their experience through direct involvement with
legislative and political process, which ideally will enhance not only their
own careers but also the Science community's ability to communicate more
effectively with its representative in Parliament.
It is also very important for the public and the legislators to understand
the significance and indeed excitement of the scientific discoveries they
fund and to feel a part of the team. Further, scientists need to understand
and articulate their role as being of public service, whether through
practical solution of problems such as new drugs, or simply enlightening
people about The wonders of the universe. There is no doubt that a better
communication in both direction including open dialogue that heeds public
concerns of how and why scientific research is done can bridge The gap in
perceptions mat sometimes exists between scientists and the general public.
We are indeed interested in many different kinds of broader issues of
particular public concern such as science education, alleviating poverty,
adequate funding for responsible science, injustice, disease, security and
indeed governance in general and environmental protection.
Africa and its people must accept the fact that Science and Technology drives
the economic world-order and thus all visions of development emanate from the
promotion of Technology. Thus recognition of the power of Science and
Technology as the economic engine of a nation has persuaded countries in
Latin America and Asia including industrialized countries to give priority to
the establishment of infrastructures such as planetarium, science museums and
parks or mechanisms for nurturing of a science culture particularly among the
youth and for educating the public in general and even declare YEAR of
Science and Technology. These structures would act as business incubators and
local centres for spreading the use and acquisition of technology.
From time immemorial, (Aristotle) the relationship between Science and
Technology has been that Science probes knowledge to enable us appreciate and
understand why and how our environment works the way it does, while
Technology helps us to manipulate nature for our existence. Because of this,
Technology tends to be location specific and can therefore be termed
appropriate or relevant depending on the demands, intended application and
indeed expected results including impact on society it is to serve. My
understanding of Economics is to bring in not only human element but also
some measure of order in an otherwise totally disordered and chaotic system
in terms of priority, development, application, focus, priority and
utilization of Science and Technology in socio-economic development.
The link between Scientific Research, Technical Development and Production
has been firmly established and stressed and no doubt greatly exaggerated.
The link docs exist and it is important and true in certain areas. However,
generally Technology and Science are a part of two separate worlds, i.e. one
of Production and the second one of Knowledge. Scientific Research is
developed by probing Knowledge to create new Science whereas Technology is
the result of needs of Production to generate improved Production Capacity.
We can thus generally say that the two worlds are populated by two types of
people trained and educated in two traditions, the scientific and technical
traditions. One can therefore, depict this in schematic form as two separate
loops with a weak coupling between them, as in fig. 1 below.
The loop clearly indicates the relationship between Science, Technology and
the place of Economics, whereby Technology is the driving force of Economics
to increase Production capacity that leads to development of a nation. We
therefore must recognize and stress the role of Science and Technology as the
engine of economic growth. The inescapable conclusion from above is that all
modern Monetary Theories including Economic Planning will be rendered
untenable without heavy infusion of Science and Technology. Otherwise our
declared Poverty Eradication Campaign will be still born leave alone
industrialization by The year 2020.
III. INVESTMENT AND INDUSTRIALIZATION
Before foreigners can be drawn to invest. Governments must make in vestments
in basic infrastructure such as roads, electricity, communication and in
people through health and education. We know today that governments in
developing countries are faced with intractable socio-economic problems and
thus tends to put their money on turnkey projects in engineering and
technology and neglect basic science especially Physics. Such projects by
their very nature do not provide any intellectual stimulation and in most
cases inappropriate to solve the problem at hand. Yes applied science are
important but there must be science to apply. I do strongly feel that hightech promotion should be of particular interest for Kenya. I believe so
because research in these areas has the general advantage that leads and
require technological advancement in frontier fields that will produce
important spin-offs on the development of a country in which it is performed.
We have failed to alter our preoccupation with only WHAT a given technology
can do for economic up-liftment of our country and pay little or no attention
to gaining necessary knowledge, understanding and appreciation of WHY and HOW
a given technology works the way it does. To the extent that most technology
transfer to the continent have not worked or have done so only marginally.
Thus only a knowledge, based on local environment, can resolve the
appropriateness of an imported technology to the community, be it demand and
user driven, irrespective of whether conventional or hightech class, easily maintainable and affordable by the community in order to
bring further development.
Our economy must be vibrant and export oriented and Jua Kali in the current
form has no place in this crusade. We must move from muscle power producing
low class technology to high tech based on brain power. Much as we shall
still have small industry employing less Than 10 people but producing
specific and specialized components for various equipment and utilities like
radio, fridges, car, computer, microwave, etc. for a larger Industry for
Assembly. This is what NIC did. With the rapid development in material
science, very soon there will be no drums to make jikos, carriers etc. at the
various Jua Kali shades. PVC and the plastic materials even new materials
will be used. The question is how about if the supplier invents reusable
containers like gas. That will be the death nail to contemporary Jua Kali.
We also need to recognize that a lot of new technologies and industrial
development emanate from the physical sciences in terms of instrumentation,
equipment, machines etc. In the African region, there exist a number of
countries including Kenya that have established advanced Biosciences Research
Institutes in the fields of agriculture and medicine. However, most physical
sciences research at present is carried out exclusively at mostly illequipped university laboratories since there are no fully equipped and funded
Physical Science Research Institutions in the region for high level research
in the various fields. It can therefore be argued that the day we shall start
establishing and funding research institutions in the physical sciences will
be a turning point in the management of our modem economy. We will then
firmly be on the road to translating scientific knowledge into applied
research for prototype development for industrial production. Thus we are
currently building the gap between knowledge and science both basic and
applied but not much of prototype development leave alone industrial since
tills inevitably involve huge financial capital outlay. Figure 2. below.
We are indeed living in a period of reflection upon dramatic development or
Science itself and interaction with politics and human activities in the new
millennium. In developing countries like Kenya, there is a need to focus on
areas that are not only growing at rapid rates hut also influencing our
lifestyles at a faster rate. Such subjects are of particular interest to
developing nations if the technology is relatively simple and easy to adopt.
In other words, it needs comparatively little investment and capable of
delivering quick results.
Many wrong Science and Technology investments have drained most national
coffers. Thus if current trend of neglect to and lack of investment towards R
& D in Science and Technology persists, most African countries will not he
part of the Global economy that will he based on industrialization in the
next 20-30 years.
For now, failure of Government to fulfill the monetary obligation to Science
and Technology establishment leads to funding crisis resulting in daunting
level of usual array of infrastructure failure, compounded by our ethic "Do
Not Repair Until Broken" as opposed to "Preventative Maintenance".
Consequently the institution and society at large are beset by dry water
pipes, uncollected garbage, broken vehicles, highly unreliable communication
system, fluctuating and devastating power supply with its attendant damages
to research and other equipment, not to mention associated greater and
incalculable social and economic dislocation, wastage and destruction.
The question is, how can we justify allocation of less than 0.1% of GDP to R
& D in Science and Technology as a manifestation of our sincere and committed
investment in the future of a nation? One thing is clear, is that leadership
of Science and Technology institutions, should not be politicized and be
based only on academic merit and ability and not influence. To the extent
that African Science and Technology personnel have come to the conclusion
that their talent remain unrecognized therefore unutilized, unchallenged,
underutilized or misdirected and therefore misapplied.
Since colonial era till today, Africa continues to be denied the opportunity
through a collusion of internal and external forces to make headway with
Science and Technology in its development approach. The question is, why have
African countries invested in education of those that have subsequently
developed inquiring and innovating minds if the countries concerned are not
going to engage them in productive activities resulting into brain drain?
Need for an enabling environment. How does one judge the Science and
Technology appreciation of a Budget Officer that cannot understand the role
of biotechnology research in crop production as an insurance for Food
Security, Space Science research for communication, environmental and
resource management, and weather forecasting. This is so because the process
of decision making calls for the understanding of the linkages between
Science and Technology and development. It is needless to point out that a
nation that aspires to be the master of its own destiny must place a premium
on talents, abilities and creative capabilities of its own citizens to the
extent that talents must be rewarded by opportunities.
We need to evaluate the available options and assess capabilities and then
decide in which field we want to make a mark and resolutely commit ourselves
to its attainment as other people have done. Our countries could learn a lot
from Japan, that a dedicated nation, with a strong work ethic, can gain power
and status in the world without following the military route.
At The end of the last century, when the Meiji constitution was promulgated
in Japan, one of their five oaths was on Science, that is
"Knowledge will be sought and acquired from any source with all means at our
disposal for the greatness and security of Japan".
The motivating factor here is the establishment of Presidential Science and
Technology Commission that will provide enabling environment by creation of
Task Forces in key areas of national intent.
It is a well documented fact today that the industrialized countries together
with NIC made The availability of energy beyond the demand their top
priority. In other word, Economically the availability of Energy is the key
to Industrialization. Thus energy production, management and distribution
plus a range of other areas associated with this crucial field of scientific
and technical endeavor, must be fully recognized and supported. Needless to
point out here that from The time of the first steam engine the fortunes of
humanity have been very closely linked to advances in energy technology. Thus
wealth creation, which has a direct impact on Poverty Eradication and
Employment, is directly proportionate to Energy availability. It is therefore
incumbent on the Government of the day through the Power Generating and
Supply Companies to position themselves to meet the demands The
technologically advanced industries will require. This supply must also be
cheap, efficient and reliable.
Currently Kenya does not appear on the map of international investors. We
therefore must endeavor to get Kenya there by developing growth opportunities
and the omens is on the Government and the Power companies to provide The
energy for that growth. It is also generally believed that taking electricity
to more customers will improve the economy substantially and their living
standard.
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