Conference Session B2
Paper # 2192
THE USE OF NEURAL IMPLANTS IN THE TREATMENT OF PARKINSON’S
DISEASE
Hailee Kulich (hrk6@pitt.edu), Rebecca Miller (rlm80@pitt.edu)
Abstract—Diseases of the nervous system, such as
Parkinson’s disease, epilepsy, Alzheimer’s and clinic
depression, often have crippling effects on the human body.
Patients diagnosed with these disorders frequently
experience confusion, memory loss, muscle weakness,
fatigue, headaches, changes in vision, loss of balance,
seizures, and ultimately death. Sadly, there are few effective
treatments for such ailments, causing patients to greatly
suffer. Fortunately, a new biomedical technology is being
developed with the potential to effectively treat and possibly
cure some of these progressive and devastating
neurodegenerative diseases. Neural, or brain, implants are
essentially small chips inserted into a portion of the brain.
These chips send out electrical impulses that communicate
with surrounding neurons. In theory, neural implants can be
integrated into the patient’s degenerating nervous system to
provide symptom relief.
This paper will discuss the design, mechanics, and function
of neural implants, and how they allow for effective
treatment of neurological disorders. Specifically, this paper
will focus on the prospective benefits that neural implants
can provide to patients with Parkinson’s disease. It will
examine the effectiveness of neural implants in the treatment
of Parkinson’s disease in the past and their implementation
in the future. Finally, the ethical concerns surrounding this
technology will be analyzed.
welfare of patients is the neural implant. This small device
uses electrical signals to communicate with surrounding
neurons, stopping or even reversing the damage done by
disorders of the nervous system. While this is a relatively
new technology, neural implants, in theory, may be able to
cure a number of degenerative neurological disorders,
providing relief to thousands of patients.
To be functional, neural implants must have a very
specific design. Because each disease affects the brain
differently, neural implants must be modeled differently as
well. Mechanical design as well as placement with in the
nervous system varies greatly between diseases. This
presents challenges in the treatment of neurological
disorders with neural implants due to the specificity needed
for each disease.
Perhaps the disease with the most successful history
of neural implantation is Parkinson’s disease. Parkinson’s
disease is a hypokinetic disorder, making it hard to initiate
movement, or even move at all. When a portion of the brain
known as the substansia nigra fails to produce dopamine, a
neurotransmitter responsible for movement, patients lose
their ability to control their own bodies [3]. Neural implants
have been implemented in the treatment of Parkinson’s, but
their use has not been completely successful. However, this
treatment provides one of the best examples of the potential
neural implants have in the treatment of disease.
Although neural implants show much promise,
there are many ethical concerns associated with their use. In
the field of bioengineering, those researching new
technology must fully comply with all legal and ethical,
research guidelines, while respecting the rights of all test
subjects [4]. There is much risk associated with the use of
neural implants due to their electrical properties and the
fragile nature of the nervous system. However, their
potential to treat and even reverse some of the most deadly
and painful diseases would be incredibly beneficial to
patients worldwide who suffer from a neurological disorder.
Because of them promise they show in one day being able to
treat many neurological disorders, neural implants are a
technology that is worth researching.
Key Words—Key Words- bioengineering, bioelectrical
engineering, brain implant, nervous system, neural implant,
Parkinson’s disease
NEURAL IMPLANTS
One of the main goals of bioengineering is to provide
improved or expanded treatment for commonly encountered
medical disorders [1]. Neurological disorders, such as
Parkinson’s disease, are examples of situations where the
application of bioengineering may lead to an improvement
in treatment options. Diseases of the nervous system are
common medical conditions that currently have limited
remedies. They often have crippling effects on the human
body, causing headaches, impaired metal ability, loss of
coordination, and eventually death [2]. Despite the severity
of these symptoms, most neurological disorders have few, if
any effective treatment options, causing patients to suffer
greatly.
Because of the demand for more viable options,
much research is being done to relieve and hopefully cure
patients suffering from neurological disorders. One option
that has been developed in the hopes of improving the
WHAT ARE NEURAL IMPLANTS?
The use of electrical impulses to cure disease has been in
practice for thousands of years. One prominent example of
this in history can be seen by the Romans, who used applied
current by electrical fish to alleviate pain caused by common
disorders such as gout and rheumatism. While the Romans
did not have a scientific understanding of why this treatment
was effective, scientist today are able to use this bioelectric
University of Pittsburgh
Swanson School of Engineering
February 10, 2012
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Hailee Kulich
Rebecca Miller
phenomena to provide relief to thousands of patients who
suffer from various diseases [5]. Neural implants are one
type of technology that makes use of electrical properties to
treat disease. By definition, a neural implant is an artificial
extension of the body used to restore or enhance functions of
the nervous system lost due to disease or injury [6]. They
interact with various parts of the brain to enhance electrical
communication between neurons. In doing this, neural
implants seek to stop and in some cases reverse damage
done by neurological disorders.
coordination, back pain, and impaired mental ability. These
symptoms are brought on by various reasons, including
trauma, infection, blood flow disruption, tumors, and
autoimmune disorders. However, perhaps the most common
cause for neurological disorders has to do with neuron
dysfunction or degeneration [2]. The electrical impulses
given off by neural implants can improve or even replace the
signaling between these defective neurons. In theory, this
technology holds the potential to treat or even cure patients
suffering from neurological disorders, greatly improving the
quality of life for those impaired by diseases of the nervous
system.
The Function
The nervous system is a complex network of organs that
coordinates bodily activities while maintaining homeostasis.
It is comprised of two different parts: the central nervous
system, consisting of the brain and spinal cord, and the
peripheral nervous system, containing all other neural
elements [2]. The main functional unit of the nervous system
is the neuron, which receives information from other parts of
the nervous system, processes it, and then outputs it to
surrounding neurons. Each neuron is connected to about
5,000 to 200,000 surrounding neurons, meaning the
magnitude of information processed by the nervous system
at one time is colossal [7].
There are three regions in a neuron that allow it to
communicate with surrounding cells: the dendrites, axon,
and axon terminal. Neurological signals are received by the
dendrites, travel along the axon, and are sent to surrounding
neurons through the axon terminal. Neurons can
communicate either chemically or electrically through a
process better known as neurotransmission. Chemical
neurotransmission occurs at chemical synapse between an
axon and a dendrite. This process is controlled by
neurotransmitters, which act as chemical messengers
between cells. Electrical neurotransmission occurs at
electrical synapse, located between two dendrites. The
neurons are physically connected to each other at a location
known as a gap junction. This allows electrical signals to
flow freely between neurons [7].
Neural implants simulate the process of electrical
neurotransmission. In people who suffer from neurological
disorders, the electrical communication between neurons
may be damaged or inefficient [2]. Neural implants
modulate electrical activity of neurons, mimicking the
process that patients with damaged neurons cannot perform
[6].
DESIGN OF NEURAL IMPLANTS
The design of a neural implant depends upon the specific
intended function of that implant. Neural implants have the
potential to treat many different neurological diseases. For
each disease, the mechanical designs, placement in the brain,
and processes to improve symptoms are very dissimilar. This
is because neurological disorders target various parts of the
brain, requiring electrical stimulation in a location specific to
each disease. The corresponding neural implant used to treat
a specific neurological disorder has its own mechanical
design and compositional materials. These should mimic the
biological structure of the targeted tissue [5]. For example, a
neural implant known as a deep brain stimulator is used
specifically in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease.
Mechanical Designs
There are many basic units common among neural implants
that are independent of the disease being treated. The main
electronic components in every neural implant are the
battery, receiver, amplifier, and current source, which are
usually placed in a hermetically sealed titanium or ceramic
housing. The electrical connections lead to electrodes or a
coil placed outside the housing for continuous data transfer
and energy supply. There are measures put into place that
prevent failure of neural implants and facilitate surgical
procedures for implantation and replacement [5].
Neural implants specific to the treatment of
Parkinson’s disease involve deep brain stimulation. The
bilateral implantation of a needle-like electrode in the areas
of the brain containing the basal ganglia, thalamic nuclei, or
subthalamic nuclei helps to suppress dyskinesia, or lack of
muscle control. This needle-like implant is connected to a
titanium housed stimulator and battery which is located in
the chest area. The electrodes of the power supply in the
chest are connected to the implant in the brain via
intravenous cables and plugs [5]. This effective design
allows for successful improvements in those patients with
Parkinson’s disease.
The Purpose
The main objective of a neural implant is to stimulate,
record, or block electrical signals from surrounding groups
of neurons [6]. By doing this, communication within the
nervous system improves greatly. Patients with diseases of
the nervous system experience many crippling symptoms,
including chronic headaches, loss of sensation, muscle
fatigue and weakness, tremors, seizures, lack of
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Many tests have been done with polymers, analyzing the
best layout for the neural implant with these specified
materials, and research has shown that it is possible to
maximize flexibility and minimize instability [9]. Many
different types of polymers have been tested such as,
Polymide, Parylene C, PDMS, SU-8, and LCP. Although
they all may behave slightly different, they have all been
found to be successful in neural implants. Polymers have
been enabling neural implants to develop and produce the
vast majority of neural-technical interfaces that exist today.
The ability of certain polymers to adapt to the conditions of
the surrounding tissue is vital to manufacture stable
interfaces that can work dependably over countless years
without harming the body. The success stories of any neural
implants in clinical practice show that polymers can fulfill
the surface, structural, and stability requirements need for an
effective technology [8].
Compositional Materials
It is very important that a neural implant creates an effective
interface between the nervous tissue of the brain and the
technical material of the device. This interface determines
the success or failure of the implant, as the recording of
nerve signals and stimulation of nerve cells take place there.
The mechanical properties of the biological tissue and the
physical limitations of the implant site such as space and
movement of the nerves versus muscles, skin, and bones
need to be taken into account when choosing materials for
implant manufacture. The initial reaction of the immune
system to a foreign species is to attack it. The
biocompatibility of certain polymers is much greater than
other materials, and thus makes polymers one of the best
materials to choose to develop the most successful interface
[8].
Any implant is intended to have minimal
anatomical impact on the body. However, any type of
surgical intervention to initially embed the implant will
cause a swelling response. In the presence of a foreign body,
such as the implant, this response tends to be heightened and
extended. Also, the initial immune response to rid the body
of the foreign species will occur. By analyzing surface
biocompatibility, one can choose a material that deals with
all viewpoints of chemical and biological interaction with
the implant. The materials and coatings must be chosen so
that the reaction after implantation is minimized and that
reactive cells are transferred into their inactivated state after
the healing reaction is terminated. The material must not
cause large inflammation after surgical intervention and cell
behavior must not be altered by toxic products diffusing
from the material itself. If these specifications are met, a
material can be considered a reasonable biomaterial [8].
Structural biocompatibilty is another aspect of
choosing the proper material for an implant. This refers to
the mechanical interaction of the tissue with the implant,
including weight, shape, and flexibility. Poor structural
biocompatibility will lead to a greater immune response to
the implant, decreasing its efficiency. Also, it will lead to
chronic inflammation that causes glial scars to form around
electrodes, causing eventual electrode failure [8].
Biostability is the third and final aspect that must be
considered when choosing materials for neural implants.
Most of the implants stay within the human body for years.
The battery powered electronics often get replaced after five
to 10 years; however, the neuro-technical interface remains
intact for decades. Biostability refers to the different
chemical aspects with respect to material stability and
system integrity. Metals should not corrode, and substrate
and insulation layers should not delaminate or degrade [8].
Perhap the best materials currently being developed
for use in neural implants are polymers. Polymers are shown
to have high surface biocompatibility, insulation which is
good for mounting electronic devices, and structural
biocompatibility, having ideal weight, shape and flexibility.
PARKINSON’S DISEASE
Parkinson’s disease is a hypokinetic movement disorder,
meaning that the ability to start movement and move
smoothly is affected. It is the most common hypokinetic
movement disorder, affecting over 1.2 million Americans.
Parkinson’s disease affects a portion of the brain known as
the basal ganglia. The cells of the basal ganglia maintain
muscle tone as well as allow for smooth, controlled
movement. A portion of the basal ganglia, known as the
substantia nigra is responsible for the production of a
neurotransmitter known as dopamine. While dopamine
serves several purposes, one of its main functions is to
control voluntary movement. As the cells in the substantia
nigra begin to die, the production of dopamine decreases.
When dopamine levels in the brain reach too low of a level,
the ability to control movement is greatly hindered [3].
Signs and Symptoms
There are four main signs that make Parkinson’s disease
easily identifiable: tremor, rigidity, bradykinesia, and
difficulties with balance [3]. A tremor is a rhythmic,
involuntary shaking of part of the body, most commonly
affecting the hands and feet. However, tremors can affect
almost any part of the body, including the lips, chin, and
jaw. About 75 percent of patients with Parkinson’s disease
experience tremors at some point during their illness [10].
Rigidity occurs when the natural contracting and
relaxing of opposing muscles fails to occur. Muscles are
almost always found in pairs. In order for normal motion to
occur, one muscle contracts while the other relaxes. When
this fails to occur, patients experience difficulty with
movement and often complain of stiffness [3].
Bradykinesia describes slowness in movement with
initiation and repetition of movement [Parkinson’s disease].
It is often characterized with slow speed, irregularity of
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movement, and pauses in ongoing movement [3]. Fatigue
and reduction in amplitude during repeated activity are also
common in patients experiencing bradykinesia [10]. This
causes difficulty in many everyday tasks, including walking.
Instability, or a loss of balance, is caused by the
loss of postural reflexes. Postural reflexes refer to the brain’s
ability to keep the body upright. Patients with Parkinson’s
often do not lean far enough forward due to loss of muscle
control. This causes the center of gravity to fall behind the
feet, putting the patient at high risk of falling [3].
The four main signs are responsible for a variety of
symptoms characteristic to those with Parkinson’s disease.
Most patients complain of muscle soreness, muscle
weakness, and fatigue due to loss of muscle function. As the
disease progresses, everyday tasks become increasingly
difficult, and mobility decreases. Patients may begin to
experience soft, slurred, or slow speech due to loss of
muscle control in the face. This can also affect the ability of
patients to swallow, leading to excessive drooling. The
muscles of the gastrointestinal tract are affected later in the
disease, causing bloating and constipation. Finally, many
mental health issues have been linked to Parkinson’s disease,
such as anxiety and depression [3].
the basal ganglia. However, these surgeries have not yet
proven to be effective. Perhaps the most well known
surgeries for patients are the pallidotomy and the
thalamotomy. Both surgeries seek to destroy a portion of the
basal ganglia that is known to cause Parkinson’s. For
example, a pallidotomy targets a portion of the brain known
as the globus pallidus, which is responsible for collecting
information, processing it, and sending it to other parts of
the brain. If successful, this process decreases tremors,
rigidity, and bradykinesia. A thalamotomy creates a lesion in
the thalamus, a part of the brain responsible for muscle and
limb control. Patients who experience severe tremors are
normally good candidates for this process. While both of
these processes significantly decrease symptoms, they are
risky procedures that may cause the patient to have
permanent brain damage [3].
Neural Implants to Treat Parkinson’s
Neural implants that specifically treat Parkinson’s disease
make use of deep brain stimulation. Deep brain stimulation
occurs when an electric current is applied to one of several
locations in the basal ganglia [11]. The electric impulses are
thought to block the signals of crippling motor symptoms in
those suffering from Parkinson’s disease [3]. Compared to
other surgical procedures, deep brain stimulation leads to
little, if any, tissue damage to the brain [11]. The size of the
lesion can easily be controlled, causing less risk of
permanent brain damage [3].
While this treatment is effective, it is not
recommended for everyone due to the risk involved with
implantation. Patients with extreme tremors are often good
candidates for deep brain stimulation. However, patients
who do not respond well to medication, such as levodopa,
are discouraged from deep brain stimulation. Most patients
who do not respond well to this treatment also do not
respond well to the neural implant. Other qualities that
would make a patient a poor choice for deep brains
stimulation is being over 75 years of age, chronic
autoimmune suppression, distinct brain atrophy, and having
a severe psychiatric disorder [11].
If a patient with Parkinson’s disease qualifies for a
neural implant, they must undergo a long, complicated
surgery. First, electrodes are implanted in the brain. During
this procedure, patients are given anesthetic and sedation,
but are mostly awake due to the need for patient cooperation.
When the battery is implanted under the collarbone, patients
are but under general anesthesia. Several weeks after the
surgical procedure is completed, the patient must return to a
neurologist to have the stimulator turned on. The strength
and magnetic field of the machine must be modified for
optimal treatment. One the machine is turned on after
surgery, symptoms from Parkinson’s disease are expected to
decrease significantly [3].
Current Treatment Options
Although there has been much speculation, the cause of
Parkinson’s disease is currently unknown. This makes it
difficult to cure the disease. However, many treatment
options are currently in place for those suffering from
Parkinson’s. The first effective treatment for Parkinson’s
disease was levodopa, a natural precursor to dopamine [3].
Developed in the 1960s, levodopa provided a form of
dopamine replacement therapy, providing effective relief of
symptoms in the early stage of the disease. However, the
natural progression of the disease makes the drug less
effective, and the treatment eventually becomes ineffective
[11]. There are a variety of drugs available to stimulate the
production of dopamine as well as block receptors that allow
for muscle tremor. However, there are no available
medications to stop the progression of Parkinson’s disease
[3].
Physical, occupational, and speech therapy are also
common forms of treatment for the symptoms of
Parkinson’s. Continued physical therapy may prevent falls
during the early stages of the disease, but is often futile in
the later stages. Occupational therapy focuses on allowing
patients to continue daily activities. However, like physical
therapy, occupational therapy loses its effectiveness as the
disease progresses. Speech therapists are able to work with
patients to strengthen the muscles used for speech and
swallowing. This therapy can delay dangers that occur in the
later disease, such as difficulty eating and breathing [3].
Finally, surgical options are available to patients
suffering from Parkinson’s. Many forms of surgery are
experimental and involve the implantation of stem cells into
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Over 20,000 neural implants have been placed into
patients since their development [5]. Many studies have been
done to prove or disprove their effectiveness. In a study
conducted in 2001, scientists found that on average,
common symptoms of Parkinson’s disease were reduced by
60 percent after the implantation of a deep brain stimulator.
Also, side effects caused by taking the medication levodopa
were reduced by 80 percent. This study also focused on
long-term improvement after implantation. After one year of
treatment with deep brain stimulation, 66 percent reported a
better quality of life. However, after five years, the number
of patients who reported a better quality of life dropped to 54
percent [11].
While much success has been reported from the use
of neural implants to treat Parkinson’s disease, this
procedure can have harmful side effects. During surgery,
there is always a high risk due to the complexity of the
procedure. The risk of infection during the procedure is high,
especially if the body recognizes the neural implant as a
foreign object. Perhaps the worst risk associated with this
surgery is intracerebral hemorrhaging. If this occurs during
the procedure and the patient survives, he or she is often left
with persistent neurological defects [11].
Other complications can arise post surgery that
effect the way the patient behaves. Because the brain is a
sensitive area, many patients have reported personality
changes, brought on by depression, mania, and aggression. It
can also lead to a deficit in language if not successful [5].
There also may be an increase risk of suicide due to the
psychiatric damage that may occur. Because of these
possibilities, it is important for a patient to receive
postoperative follow up to give a reliable psychiatric
screening [11].
Stimulation side effects might also occur if the electrode
placement causes neighboring structures to be stimulated as
well. Typical symptoms associated with this problem
include muscle contractions, nausea, dizziness, problems
with vision, and speech defects. Weight gain and mood
swings are also problems associated with implant placement.
Because these symptoms can be devastating to and may
cause patients to have trouble readjusting to everyday life,
both preoperative and postoperative preparation and care and
encouraged and allow for the most successful cases of neural
implantation [11].
Ethics, as defined in the National Society of
Professional Engineers Code of Ethics, are the expectations
to exhibit the highest standards of morality and truthfulness
in all provided services while keeping the health, safety, and
welfare of the public protected [12]. The question at stake
concerning neural implants is ‘Do all aspects of the research,
development, and implementation of neural implants
correspond with the parameters in the code of ethics’?
The Concerns
One of the many concerns relating to neural
implants is the physical dependence a patient will develop to
the technology. Is living a life with technological
enhancements even worth living? Is a life dependent on
technology less dignified than an independent, unassisted,
more “natural” life? The mental state a patient may have to
attain to live with these enhancements is very different than
the mental state of someone without them [13]. The patient
may begin to question whether they are actually cured, or
just enhanced.
Another ethical concern of neural implants is the
permissibility of enhancing human capabilities. The brain is
considered the “center of control” of the body, so its
technological enhancement can have far reaching
consequences for human interaction. This social concern is
based on the idea that if a human’s faculties are heightened
beyond the normal level, equal opportunity and “justice of
fairness” are no longer held in society. It is very difficult to
determine who can receive neural enhancements based on
normality. If a “normal” human being obtains these
implants, their radically improved brain capabilities will
place them above the rest of society. This will challenge the
widely accepted principles of equality, independence, and
non-violence [14]. It is understood, however, that this is a
long-term perspective, and could only result from the misuse
of this medical technology.
A third ethical concern of neural implants is the
possible medical side effects. Clinical practice of deep brain
stimulation neural implants (used to treat Parkinson’s) has
been shown to cause depression, mania, aggression, and
deficits in language [5]. Sometimes, these implants can
completely affect psychic functions that are the foundations
of personality, altering personality altogether. It is
concerning that neural implants can change mental functions
and personal identity. Is the pre-implant patient really that
damaged by a neurological disorder that they would risk
modifications in their entire personality [6]?
ETHICS
Research and development of neurological technologies
have almost become a moral obligation. The potential
benefits that neural implants could have are numerous, not
only for patients with Parkinson’s disease, but also many
other diseases of the nervous system. Of course, however,
the study and development of brain implants stretches a lot
of social, legal, and ethical boundaries. But, one must
determine whether the potential benefits of neural implants
outweigh the ethical concerns.
The Answer
To determine if neural implants are ethical, one must ask the
question, ‘Do the potential benefits of neural implants
outweigh the ethical concerns?’ Well, not everybody will
have the same answer to this question; the response is a
matter of opinion. Some people may feel that the ethical
concerns are greater, while others may think that the
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Rebecca Miller
advantages from neural implants are worth the ethical risks.
The real answer is that much more research and testing
needs to be done to determine the true ethical, social, and
moral effects of neural implants. For now, the only
stipulation that must be maintained is corresponding with the
engineering code of ethics. The research, development, and
implementation of neural implants must exhibit the highest
standards of honesty and integrity while protecting the
health, welfare, and safety of the public [12].
The potential for neural implants to treat and even
cure neurological disorders is remarkable. This seemingly
minute piece of technology holds the power to improve
lifestyles of millions of people worldwide. If given the
proper amount of research, neural implants have the ability
to be the most effective treatment for any neurological
disorder.
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SUMMARY: A NEW TECHNOLOGY
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Neural implants are one of the most promising new
technologies of the near future. They have the potential to
treat, and hopefully cure some of the most awful and
progressive diseases affecting people in the world. Over
20,000 patients suffering from Parkinson’s disease have
been equipped with a neural implant [5]. While the success
rate of neural implants varies among patients, constant
improvements are being made to make these devices more
effective. Continued research and development of this
technology is imperative as the number of patients around
the world diagnosed with Parkinson’s disease is increasing
rapidly [3]. The other current treatment options for
Parkinson’s disease are not as effective long-term as neural
implants could be. Because they target the specific areas of
the brain known to cause Parkinson’s while inflicting
minimal tissue damage, neural implants provide a more
direct treatment proven to be the most effective.
The ultimate goal of a bioengineer is to ethically
improve public welfare worldwide through the development
of better medicine. The application of engineering to biology
and medicine creates a profession that will improve the
quality of life for many people universally. If the proper
research is conducted, neural implants will be more than fit
to achieve this goal. By electrical stimulation of surrounding
cells, neural implants seek to treat and even cure disease of
the nervous system caused by damaged neurons. This will
significantly impact the lives of patients who suffer from
these diseases, leading to an overall improvement of health.
Although neural implants show great promise,
ethical concerns must be taken into account. As an engineer,
one must hold themselves to high moral standards, and place
value on all forms of life. They must keep all aspects of
public health, welfare, and safety completely protected [12].
As long as these conditions are met, forging ahead with
research on neural implants could benefit society greatly.
Despite impending physical dependence, increased mental
capacity, and possible medical side effects, the advantages to
neural implants may outweigh these ethical concerns. Under
the stipulation that the research, development, and
implementation of neural implants complies with the
parameters set by the National Society of Professional
Engineers Code of Ethics, the progress of neural implants
can continue without bound.
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
B. He. (2006), Neural engineering. University of Minnesota Minneapolis.
[Online].
Availabe:
http://www.springerlink.com/content/n53231/#section=538453&page=1
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Hailee Kulich
Rebecca Miller
Graham-Rowe, Duncan. "Brain implants that move: neural implants that
respond to changes in the brain could finally meet the needs of people with
paralysis." New Scientist 184.2473 (2004): 25. Academic OneFile. Web. 11
Jan. 2012.
Wang, M. Wang, B. Zou, J. Zhang, J.; Nakamura, M.; ,
(2011),"Effectiveness research of deep brain stimulation operation for
patients with Parkinson's disease based on polar coordination system with
varied origin," Biomedical Engineering and Informatics (BMEI)
[Online] http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=609838
6&isnumber=6098366
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We would like to thank our conference chair, Joseph
Lombardo, for his help in gaining a better understanding of
bioengineering and how it relates to this topic, We would
also like to thank our co-chair, Michael Randazzo, for his
assistance in the creation of this paper. We thank our writing
instructor, Barbara Edelman, for her helpful insight and
constructive criticism that made this paper possible. Finally,
we would like to thank the Benedum Library staff for their
instruction that lead to the sound research done for this topic.
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