Representation of Cultures in Textbooks
International Journal of Research in Linguistics and Social & Applied Sciences
Volume 2: 2013
Representation of Cultures in English Textbook Discourses in Pakistan: A Critique
Dr. Muhammad Tahir & Muhammad Badr Iqbal
Assistant Professors, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Sahiwal, Pakistan
Abstract
This paper is part of a doctoral research project titled ‘Ideology and Worldview in
Textbooks: A Study of Cultural Aspects in ELT in Pakistan’. It carries out an analysis
of the Punjab Textbook Board (PTB) and Oxford University Press (OUP) English
language textbooks. These books are being taught at secondary level in different types
of schools in Pakistan. The present research examines the textbooks discourse to
explore ideological themes related to Pakistani and Western cultures – including
nationalistic and religious values – at the sentence level. The findings of the present
research show that the PTB textbooks represent indigenous culture as compared to OUP
textbooks that represent the Western one. This could be attributed to dissemination of
different learning and production of different types of students in different schools;
hence, different worldviews. Difference in learning English and its worldview helps
them gain access to power in different degrees which further distance these types of
products from one another. I hope that the findings of this research will help the policy
makers, textbook authors and ELT practitioners to realize the politics of textbooks and
take steps to eliminate or at least reduce them.
Key words: Ideology, worldview, discourse, culture, Pakistan, West
Introduction
Textbooks are mostly about world and social life and social practices (Santos: n.d.). Unfortunately, most of the
learners do not take such information seriously in spite of the fact that influence of textbooks contents on their
perception is a must. Quite effectively, textbooks also function to slot the members of a society into different
social classes. This paper examines the English textbooks being taught in the lower, middle and elite-class schools
at the secondary level in the city of Multan in Pakistan. It discovers the ideological themes embedded in their
discourse about indigenous and Western cultures.
Mostly the members of the lower, middle and elite classes choose government Urdu-medium schools, (private)
non-elite English-medium schools and (private and state-sponsored) elite English-medium schools respectively
for their children’s schooling. Different factors such as financial, social and cultural are the reasons for this
choice. Elite class mostly selects a school which charges high fee to provide high standard education and Western
atmosphere. Not surprisingly, the same standards exclude completely the working class and mostly the members
of the middle class from the elite educational circles (Yaqoob and Zubair, 2008a: 1 & 2008b).
It is important to mention that all Urdu-medium and non-elite English-medium schools teach the same English
textbooks i.e. Punjab Textbook Board (PTB) textbooks whereas an elite school teaches Oxford University Press
(OUP) English textbooks in Multan – a city in the province of Punjab in Pakistan. Culture represented in the PTB
textbooks is different from the one portrayed in the OUP textbooks. it is important to mention here that culture
has been used as an umbrella term. Other themes subsumed under this term are nationalistic and religious values.
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Representation of Cultures in Textbooks
The former textbooks come up with the indigenous culture, values, traditions, beliefs etc. Conversely, the OUP
textbooks being replete more with the instances of Western values and less with the indigenous ones portray a
different social world for its young readers. Importantly, this all indicates learning of different cultural values by
elite, middle and lower classes in Pakistan. This, in return, is likely to impart such value and power to a class
which is associated with its culture in the society.
Theoretical Perspectives
Ideology may be defined as a set of explicit and implicit themes embedded in textbook discourses and are created
through linguistic devices in the text (Fairclough: 2003). The young learners, unfortunately, cannot realize the
underlying ideologies of texts. This inability allows ideological themes reshape their knowledge. Ironically
enough, ELT practitioners and academics so far have not paid much attention to exploration of such ideological
themes in school texts.
In Pakistan, Tariq Rahman (2002) has examined language textbooks of different schools to see how ideology and
worldview are connected with language teaching. His work also provides answers into the way language teaching
is related to ideology, worldview and, in the final analysis, to power. According to him, the role of educational
system in Pakistan is troublesome. The educational institutions such as Urdu-medium schools and elite Englishmedium schools are producing two different products. these products are different in terms of worldviews.
English-school boys feel good at expressing themselves in English whereas the boys in the former type can’t do
so. The body language of English-school boys also is different from that of the other students. Then he cites a
number of body expressions such as hand shaking, hugging, sitting down for eating to prove his stance.
This is somewhat close to what John Gray calls ELT course books as cultural ambassadors (Gray 2000: 274).
Phillipson (1992: 60) sees course books as carrier of ideological agendas that function to make economy and
disseminate culture. In this regard, he gives the example of British course books and argues that they are developed
to boost centre’s commerce and ideas through language. Phillipson’s argument in context of British books can be
successfully applied to other textbooks which are locally developed and revised. Modiano (2001: 340) observes
that institutional formal education provides more exposure to English and its values than any other language
particularly in the peripheral countries.
Methodological Perspectives
In this paper, data comes from the English textbooks published by Oxford University Press (OUP) and Punjab
Textbook Board (PTB). The OUP textbooks are being taught in an elite English-medium school at the secondary
level i.e. O level, in the city of Multan in Pakistan. The PTB textbooks are being taught in the government Urdumedium schools and private non-elite English-medium schools at the same level i.e. 9th and 10th (Matric) classes.
The students in these classes are normally 15 to 18 years old.
This paper being a sociolinguistic research deals only with the contents related to cultural/social events, values
and practices. It focuses on how individual contents create minor themes within sentences. These sentences then
further contribute to the over-all theme of a lesson / lessons. However, this paper deals only with the themes at the
sentence level.
a)
b)
c)
d)
Do school English textbooks disseminate cultural ideologies?
Do different school textbooks represent different cultures?
Do these different cultures empower and disempower social classes in society?
Does the ideology of difference regarding cultures has a link with the centre i.e. West?
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Representation of Cultures in Textbooks
Analysis of PTB English Textbooks
The PTB textbooks are a clear reflection of the Pakistani society. It includes various religious, national and
cultural events and practices to inculcate the learners with nationalistic, cultural, moral and religious fervour. For
instance, the discourse in the following poem entitled ‘My Mother’ not only describes the typical role of a woman
as mother but also the expected role of a child towards mother in future purely in the Pakistani context.
Who sat and watched my infant head,
When sleeping on my cradle bed
And tears of sweet affection shed?
My Mother.
And can I ever cease to be
Affectionate and kind to thee,
Who was so very kind to me,
My Mother. (PTB English 9, 2006: 27)
The first stanza is a generalized association of attributes of a mother regarding sitting, watching, lying and loving
her child. The reply of the child in the second stanza, however, may be regarded as culture specific. In Pakistani
context, male and female children mostly develop the traits of a typical father and mother respectively from their
early age. They are also supposed to act motherly and fatherly after being grown ups. In this regard, Islamic
teachings have also a certain influence which directs them to be obedient, kind and affectionate before their
parents especially mothers. The underlying message for the young learners is to be devoted as once their mothers
were.
Somewhat same sense of sacrifice and altruism may also be observed in the following extracts from the lesson
‘The Festivals of Pakistan’. However, before analysis, it needs to be clear that the parentheses given below are not
a part of the texts rather they have been used to illuminate some words and the related concepts specific to
Pakistani culture.
The Muslims (on Shab-e-barat) illuminate their houses and masajid (mosques). (PTB English 10, 2006: 6-7)
The use of ‘The Muslims’ instead of ‘most of the Muslims’, ‘the Muslims in Pakistan’ or ‘the Pakistani Muslims’
indicates that there is not any sort of polarization in the Islamic world towards the celebration of Shab-e-barat.
Rather all the Muslims take equal part in celebrating this event. Importantly, this sentence is likely to appear as a
code of conduct for the young learners for they lack in understanding the underlying ideologies of texts. That is,
this sentence is likely to be perceived by the young learners as ‘The Muslims should illuminate their houses and
masajid.’ Or ‘Islam expects the Muslims to illuminate their houses and masajid’.
Moreover, the word ‘illuminate’ or ‘illuminated’ tells us more about what Islam is for the Muslims in Pakistan. It
indicates that the Muslims regard their religious events very sacred and, therefore, celebrate them with full zeal
and zest. They do not suppress and hide their emotions, feelings and sensations on such occasions. They rather
like to expose them or give them a language through illumination of houses, buildings and bazaars. Hence
illuminating the buildings is one way of authenticating the internal feelings and emotions.
In the following instance, we can see that Pakistanis celebrate and regard their national days equally important.
According to Nayyar (2003), the nation equates Pakistan with Islam and Pakistanis with Muslims.
The day of the Pakistan resolution (23rd of March 1940) and Independence Day (14th of August 1947) are
the most remarkable days in the history of Pakistan.
The nation as a whole celebrates these occasions every year to refresh the greatness of these events.
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Representation of Cultures in Textbooks
They also give us the knowledge and information related to freedom movement of Pakistan and the
sacrifices made by the leaders in getting a separate homeland for the Muslims of South Asia. (PTB English
10, 2006: 7)
The textbooks introduce the Pakistan resolution and the Independence Day as ‘the most remarkable days in the
history of Pakistan’ to the learners; hence, the celebration of these events by the whole nation in the second
sentence has been justified by presenting them as V.V.I.P (very very important). It indirectly asks the learners to
keep alive this tradition when they are grown ups. In the last line, there are three pieces of information: firstly, a
freedom movement was carried out to achieve Pakistan; secondly, sacrifices were laid down for its achievement
and, lastly, it is more than a country – a homeland – for them. Needless to say, the concept of ‘homeland’ is
sweeter than that of ‘country’.
Ideologically, the phrase ‘a separate homeland’ seems to create the concept of othering i.e. the piece of land we
Muslims have gained is ours and the remaining part of land which is of course ‘India’ is theirs. In effect, the
discursive strategy of self glorification is present in these sentences in terms of van Dijk (2005) analytical
framework. Moreover, these lines are likely to arouse nationalistic feelings in the learners.
The inculcation of nationalistic and religious passion is made possible not only through certain events and
practices we have discussed above. It is also done by describing us and them – in-group and out-group
representation – as follows:
In all these things our outlook is not only fundamentally different but it is opposed to the Hindus. (PTB
English 10, 2006: 95)
‘Outlook’ may be defined as ‘a general attitude towards life and the world’ (Longman 1995). Not surprisingly, the
Muslims and the Hindus look at life and the world differently like all other social communities of the world.
However what catches our immediate attention are the use of ‘fundamentally’ and ‘opposed’ in the sentence;
hence, what becomes now is ‘(the Hindus are) fundamentally different and opposed (to us)’. It indicates not only
the intensity of distance and difference but also the element of enmity between (only) these two nations – other
nations are excluded from this realm of relationship.
Analysis of OUP English Textbooks
In the following sentences randomly selected from different lessons in the OUP English textbooks, the researcher
focuses on certain representations of the Western world in form of practices, values and conceptions of life to
learn what social themes or messages these instances impart to young learners from the elite class.
The stooping figure of my mother…was the last I saw of my country home as I left it to discover the world.
(OUP 1, 2002: 3)
It was a bright Sunday morning in early June, the right time to be leaving home. My three sisters and a
brother had already gone before me; two other brothers had yet to make up their minds. (OUP 1, 2002: 3)
The lines reflect the Western culture where leaving home is an adventure. There are some underlying assumptions
in the sentence: People live as they wish in that part of the world; they have not to take much care of their parents
and they have an adventures world after being adult. Importantly, these social practices are different from those in
Pakistan. In the second sentence, noun phrases ‘bright Sunday morning’ and ‘early June’ as ‘the right time’ gives
a religious touch to this adventure – it is good to leave for adventure on Sundays.
The underlying ideologies of these sentences can be understood well if we have a look at Pakistani social
practices. Unlike such practices as mentioned above, people in Pakistan prefer to live with parents. It is not wrong
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Representation of Cultures in Textbooks
to say that leaving parents for any adventure is a social taboo here. In this context, it is learnt that OUP textbooks
teach a thing which is not present in the indigenous culture of the students. But this does not mean, life is not
adventurous here. People do certain adventures being in their cultural boundaries.
OUP textbooks also contain a lot of instances related to a liberal world. A few ones are mentioned here.
Once a weak he and my grandmother would go into town for tea and afterwards to the cinema. (OUP 2,
2002: 50)
The car started. It was full of young white men. They were drinking. I watched the flask pass from mouth
to mouth. (OUP 1, 2002: 160)
It was a favourite place for lovers and on summer nights their long whisperings floated among the
branches and out over the currents. (OUP 2, 2002: 49)
In the lines above, the liberal themes such as going ‘into town for tea and afterwards to the cinema’, ‘they (the
young white men) were drinking’, ‘a favourite place for lovers’ and ‘their long whisperings’ on ‘summer nights’
create a much more romantic world than that rarely present in PTB Textbooks. Interestingly, what OUP books
represents is a pride in the west but taboo in Pakistan. In Pakistan, though people go for tea and cinema, they do
not go for drinking and dating openly and publically. In short, we can observe cultural differences present in both
the textbooks.
The OUP textbooks also carry positive-self and negative-other representation in the textbooks which is as under:
‘In fact, most of the students who are rich enough to go abroad and study don’t even return. They get fancy
jobs and say to themselves, ‘‘Oh, how can we return to Pakistan, that hell-hole, where we can’t go to cafes
and the cinema, where there are no bookshops and the streets aren’t paved.’’ (OUP 2, 2002: 60)
In these lines, a Pakistani mother – a member of the other group – draws a comparison between Pakistan and
England as mentioned in the lesson. Mostly the words used for Pakistan carry negative connotations. Negative
and positive representation of Pakistan and England has been made respectively by employing the discursive
moves of foregrounding and backgrounding. Negative implicit messages are: people wish to go abroad and do not
want to return Pakistan; they are able to get better jobs in England than they can have in Pakistan; and as
compared to Pakistan, they have more everyday-life facilities in England.
To crown all, a metaphorical representation ‘hell-hole’ of Pakistan is also given. On the other hand, the
underlying presupposition is that England is a heaven-hole. In a word, Pakistan is a damned and unbearable place
where people do not wish to live in and even those who do are living a painful life. Image of Pakistan portrayed
here is of a poor and developing country. It will not be wrong to point out that the instances reflect a social as well
as economic dominance of England or the West over Pakistan.
Conclusion
The PTB and OUP English textbooks, in fact, focus more on social representation than language. The Western
society in the OUP books does not match enough with the indigenous (Pakistani) one in the PTB books. The
readers of the later textbooks who are not exposed to English and its culture and values regard it as language of
non-muslims and its culture as contrary to Islamic as well as Pakistani values (Amin, 1998: 61). The case is not
different from the other side. Elite school students who are not exposed to indigenous values but to liberal and
secular world are likely to have a strong influence of Western concepts. For these students, English is not merely
a language. It is their identity and thus what comes along with it, is accepted and practised with pride. That is why
love, music, wine etc which are common among the Englishmen are something special here for the members of
the elite class – a token of status. This indicates the alienation of the elite class from the indigenous culture and its
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Representation of Cultures in Textbooks
respective values. In this regard, textbooks are being used as a means to block middle and lower classes access to
elaborated codes (Bernstein, 1964), and to official knowledge (Apple, 2004) which are a key to power.
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