ANCIENT MESOPOTAMIA/EGYPT
Sargon – king of the Akkadians, led his people to conquer Sumerians. Unified Mesopotamia. Dynasty
ruled for 200 yrs, overthrown by 3rd dynasty of Ur
Hammurabi – greatest king of Amorites (Old Babylonian). Famous for Hammurabi’s code: “eye for an
eye, tooth for a tooth.”
Ahmose – nobleman who drove Hyksos out of Egypt and ruled New Kingdom
Amenhotep IV/Akhenaton. Egyptian Pharaoh who singled out Aton as the only God worthy of worship –
first attempt at monotheism. Took power from priests who worshipped several gods. Focused more on
inner spirit and personal enrichment.
Nebuchadnezzar II – deported Hebrews from Judah, held them captive in Babylon as slaves, e.g.
“Babylonian Captivity.” Also built huge temple for his wife, “hanging gardens” ancient wonder of the world.
*Cyrus the Great:
o founded Persian empire.
o Appreciation for diversity.
o Did not tax heavily
o practiced religious tolerance
o allowed limited local autonomy
o allowed hebrews to return to Jerusalem (“diaspora”).
Alexander the Great – Macedonian king who defeated Persian empire.
Zoroaster – Persian prophet. Monetheism: Good (ahura mazda) vs. evil (ahriman)
Saul  David  Solomon – line of jewish kings. Their dynasty continued in south, in Judah. Northern
half split up into 10 tribes.
ANCIENT GREECE
Lycurgus – Lycurgan code. Sparta.
ATHENS
Draco- Spartan tyrant. Curbed noble power but didn’t address agrarian crisis. Makes everyone punishable
by same law regardless of class.
*Solon- elected archon. addressed agrarian crisis but didn’t appease radicals.
o Constitution.
o cancelled debts, restored slaves freedom, but did NOT redistribute land.
o Council of 400, ekklesia (assembly), public courts.
o People divided by wealth, depending on “units” of land. Calvary (rich) infantry  rowers
(poor).
*Pesistratus- tyrant. Benevolent, peaceful. “Party pesistratus.”
o funded public works
o encouraged festivals
o enlarged marketplace/agora
o Exiled enemies, staffed self with supporters.
*Cleisthenes- big democratic reforms.
o “township”/”demes” replaces “brotherhoods”
o 4 major aristocratic tribes  10 tribes that include everyone.
o Council of 500 replaces 400, made up of reps from every deme.
o All power given to assembly/ekklesia (all male citizens).
o OSTRACISM.
*Pericles - Recognized that poorest thetes/rowers basically won the war against Persia (the “Salami
trick”). Pericles – think power of the people, payable, Parthenon, plague:
o Shifted more power to them, less from aeropagus.
o Made office-holding a PAYABLE job. Now poor people could do it.
o *construx of Parthenon (temple to Athena on acropolis)
o Died inside walls of Athena thanks to plague
Philip of Macedon – Invades Greece after Pelo. war, unifies them again. Aliiance is “League of Corinth.”
Alexander the Great – Same guy from Mesopotamia. Philip’s son.
o Overthrew persians, unified eastern med/near east, created largest empire yet.
o Eventually King of Persia.
o Tired men mutinied on borders of India.
o
Died suddenly of unk causes at age 33.
CLASSICAL POETS (still Greek)
Homer – ILIAD (myceneanen siege of troy). ODYSSEY (king of ithace odysseus travels home after Trojan
war).
Hesiod – most important greek poet. Wrote works and days, theogony.
Archilochus – greek lyricist who pioneered new poetic form. Think “lochus/locomotive, moved poetry.”
Sappho of Lesbos – wrote about her sexual attraction to other women
Pindar – wrote odes of victory at athletic events. Think “Pindar for the winnars.”
TRAGEDY
Aeschylus – moral and religious. Prometheus bound, the persians, orestesia trilogy.
Sophocles – religious and moral. Oedipus, antigone
Euripides – less popular. Less moral/religious, greater psychological sophistication. Medea. Good guy
doesn’t always win.
COMEDY
Aristophanes – wrore about stupidity of pelopenesian war. Poked fun at Euripides, wrote about Socrates
as absent minded in The Clouds. Think Aristophanes/cellophane (bubble wrap) funny.
PROSE
Herodotus – “father of history” historian wrote about Persian wars.first to divide civilization east/west.
Think Herodotus = Hero of History. Dot = dotted line divides East/West.
Thucydides – historian wrote about pelopenesian war. Ex-general in war, went on to interview both
sides. Documented funeral oration of pericles to honor Athenian soldiers who died. Think “Thucydides,
both sides”
PRE-SOCRATICS
Heraclitus – prime substance is fire. Change/permanence. “cannot step in same river twice.” Think
Cleatus/Cleat in the river
Empedocles – theory of 4 elements, earth water air fire
Democritus – things are made up of atoms. Think demo=group, groups of atoms
Pythagoras – everything can be described thru math. Rememeber the Pythagorean theorem from
algebra!
MEDICINE
Hippocrates of Cos – “father of medicine.” Hippocratic oath.
Socrates  Plato  Aristotle.
Plato: Socrates’ most dedicated student.
o founded The Academy.
o Theory of Ideas/forms.
o TIMAEUS: describes creation of universe.
o Not a believer in democracy – wrongfully put Socrates to death.
o Ideal city is 3 classes: philosopher kings – guardians - workers
Aristotle – plato’s most gifted pupil.
o Founded Lyceum.
o Also disagrees with democracy.
o Monarchy vs. tyranny
o Aristrocracy vs. oligarchy
o Polity vs. democracy
GREEK SCIENTISTS
Eratosthenes – accurately calc circumference of earth. Erat = earth.
Aristarchus – heliocentric theory, earth revolves around sun. Starchus=star kiss.
Archimedes – “give me a level long enough and a place to stand and I will move the world.”
Euclid – math book “Elements”
Hipparchus – developed astrolabe
ANCIENT ROME
Cato the elder: “Carthage must be destroyed,” 2nd punic war. Also wrote “On agriculture.”
Scipio the elder: won 2nd punic war for rome.
Scipio the younger: eventually wins 3rd punic war, destroys carthage.
Justininan - launched war against ostrogoths and reclaimed italy. Justinian’s code. Theodora.
Marcus Aurelius – stoic, wrote “meditations.” Established dangerous foederati with germans.
**Constantine the great – Edict of Milan. 3 councils. Est capital of Constantinople in Byzantium
(abandons rome).
Gracchi Bros. – Tiberius and Gaius. both executed for being reformists. Big contribution is state subsidy
to buy bread.
Marius – major breech of precedent as he is elected consul for several years in a row. Paid troops and
provided them with land. Dangerous, as they are now loyal to him and not the nation.
1st triumverate Julius Caesar (Pompey, Crassus)
2nd triumverate Augustus Caesar (Ledipus, Marc Antony)
Diocletian – despot.
Hates christians for not worshipping emperor.
Saved rome with tetrarchy, dioceses, vicars etc.
Makes farmers tied to land (early serfdom)
Makes sons follow fathers trade (early guild).
St. Augustine of Hippo – N. African bishop who refutes pagans blame of Christianity for disaster in
Rome. Wrote theological interpretation “The City of God” about world history. LINEAR concept of time.
Autobiography: The Confessions.
St. Jerome - translates bible Hebrew/Greek into Latin (“vulgate”)
St. Ambrose of Milan – forced Theodosius to do public penance under excommunication. Showed people
whats up with Christianity.
LITERATURE
Ennius – earliest poet. Hx of rome in “Annales.” eNNius aNNales
Catallus - Love lyrics about unfaithful mistress. CataLLus: LL= love lyrics
Lucretius - on the nature of things. Epicurean views.
Plautus, Terence - comedies (terence was ex-slave). Plautus = Platypus, Terrence = Terrence & Philip.
Funny.
PROSE
Cato the elder – “On Agriculture.” (Don’t forget, Carthage must also be destroyed!)
Cicero – most accomplished. Senator, lawyer, orator. Big Stoic. Executed by Marc antony when he spoke
against him in Philippics.
GOLDEN AGE
Virgil – wrote Aenid, legendary foundation of rome.
Horace - lyricist
Ovid – Metamorphoses. On the Art of Love. Executed for affair with royal family member :-O
SILVER AGE
Tacitus – “Germania.” Praises barbarians.
Seneca – Stoic. Wrote tragedies, executed by Nero. SeNEca: S=stoic, NE=Nero Executed
Lucan – Pharsalia, about civil war between pompey/Caesar. Also executed by Nero.
SATIRISTS: Persius, Petronius, Juvenal
LATER
Apuleius – the golden ass, first latin novel.
Marcus Aurelius – Stoic. Wrote “Meditations.” Don’t forget, also responsible for Foederati.
Galen - systemic theory of medicine. Will be studied later in universities.
Ptolemy - Almagest, book of astronomy. Mathematical proof supports geocentric theory.
ENCYCLOPEDIAISTS: Macrobius, Martianus Capella. Think Macrobes & Martians.
NEOPLATONISTS: Plotinus, Porphry, Iamblichus, Proclus
MIDDLE AGES
POPES.
Gregory of Tours - historian
Gregory the Great:
o sent roman monks to convert Britain pagans.
o Negotiated with lombards and paid them with land.
o used wealth to feed poor, maintain public works, spiritual leadership.
o One of the Doctors of the Church.
o Commentary on the book of job known as Moralia
o Dialogues recount life of St Benedict of Nursia
Gregory VII – first pope elected by college of cardinals.
o Reformer; Gregorian Mvmt named after him.
o Enforce clerical celibacy, end sale of church offices, end lay interference in religious matters
o Butt heads with Henry IV over investiture contro. Pope eventually exiled by Henry.
Pope Gregory IX - Began inquisition to get rid of cathars who survived Albigensian crusade. Entrusted
this to Dominican monks. Also went after waldensians.
Leo I – told Atilla not to attack emperor
Leo III – around during the Iconoclasm. Banned paintings of saints.
Leo X- pretty much a jerk. Part of Medici family. “God has given us the papacy let us enjoy it.”
John XII – Pope at 18, infamously sinful. Crowned Otto I HR Emperor for help against enemies in Italy.
Then Otto replaces John with a better pope..good for him.
Pope Innocent III
o Greedy 4th crusades – at first was like “not good,” but then accepted it because new latin byzantine
empire were loyal people
o **4th Lateran Council – defined rules of membership to Catholicism.
o Pope during height of papal monarchy.
o Persecuted cathars, waldensians.
o Declared Albigensian crusade.
o Refused to let Philip Augustus divorce his wife, said no to invading England.
o Excommunicated King John and put England under inderict.
Pope Boniface marked decline of papal power. Tried to implement unam sanctam (papal supremacy over
ruler). Roughed up by Philip IV’s nobles, died soon after.
Pope Martin V – voted in cooperation (Avignon/roman churchmen), ending great schism.
Sylvester II. AKA Gebert of Aurillac.
o First Frenchman to have title of pope
o Appointed by Otto III because both were committed to reform.
o Invented pendulum clock.
o Often traveled to spain to meet with arab and jewish scholars to acquire learning in greek classical
lit.
o Acquired Arabic numerals and inspired subsequent trips to acquire astrolabes, translation of ancient
science texts.
Pope Urban II began crusades at council of Clermont because Byzantine empire asked him for help
pushing muslim turks out.
Pope Paul III First strong pope in a while.
o ***Council of Trent. His answer to protestants + also channeled new catholic initiatives of genuine
piety & faith. Council of trent, think ProtesTRENT.
o Approved Jesuits/society of jesus.
o Initiated roman inquisition & Index of prohibited books.
FRANKISH KINGS
-Merovingians-
Clovis – most important Merovingian king. Franks convert to Catholicism under his reign. Attacks arian
neighbors, est. large empire.
Later merovingians = “do nothing kings”
-Carolingians- Charles  Pepin  Charlemagne
Charles Martel - originally held mayor of the palace during Merovingian rule. led Frankish defense
against muslims at battle of tours, prevented islam from spreading beyond spain
Pepin the Short - not happy as a mayor, wants to be king. Helps Pope Stephen II against Lombards,
pope crowns him king of Franks. Donation of Pepin = papal states
***Charlemagne - Pope Leo III crowns him king of the empire. He’s all about higher education!
o Used missi dominici to check up on bishops/counts
o Founded schools to train clergy
o encouraged Benedictine rule in monasteries
o gathered finest scholars in his court.
o Encouraged Latin to be used in entire empire.
o Wanted to make vulgate available – had it re written in Carolingian miniscule script.
ENGLISH KINGS
Alfred the Great – most important leader of Wessex (unifier of 7 anglo saxon kingdoms). Divided them
into shires.
William the Conqueror - previous duke of Normandy, beat out other 2 guys for control of anglo-saxon
kingdom/England.
Combined English shires with feudal system of Normandy.
Domesday book.
**Henry II – Angevin King of england but owns more of France than French monarchy. Think Henry TWO
countries.
o Promotion of common law.
o Example of how marriage/dynastic ties were used in Europe.
o Controlled more of france than the monarch did:
o Inhereited county of Anjou and Duchy of Normandy from dad
o Territories in southwestern france thru marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine
o Kingdom of England through his mom, Matilda
o Later invades Ireland
*Thomas A Becket - opposes Henry II’s attempt to try churchmen in legal courts. Becket
eventually murdered by Henry’s knights. Canterbury tales are about pilgrimage to Becket’s grave.
**Henry VIII requested annulment of marriage to Catherine of Aragon because she failed to produce
male heir – denied by Clement VII (a Medici).
Henry breaks away from rome, declares king more religiously powerful than pope
 Bad stuff:
o divorces Catherine + marries 5 more times (think “Henry EIGHT wives” ..almost)
o closes monasteries
o took possession of church property
o required subjects to take oath of supremacy recognizing his religious authority.
o Executes Thomas More.
 Good stuff:
o Used lands seized from church to build up new class of loyal nobles
o Boosted national sentiment by working closely with parliament
o Built up English fleet
o Fought limited wars on the continent
Richard I – Richard the Lion Hearted.
o 3rd Crusades (with Frederick and Philip).
o Massacred >2000 muslim POWs. Still didn’t win Jerusalem. Nice job.
o His brother John made concession called “magna carta,” which protected barons from royal
attempts to extend powers of monarchy
FRANCE
Phillip II Augustus - able to challenge most powerful vassals (such as Henry II)/Angevins.
Pope Innocent forbade him from invading England, forbade him from divorcing wife.
Louis IX – monarch’s authority over lands of vassals was strengthened; royal bureaucracy built up.
Participated in crusades. St. Louis.
**Philip IV the Fair - not really that fair? MONEY HUNGRY. St. Louis’ grandson.
 Calls first Estates-General (clergy, nobles, berghers).
 Clash with popes:
o Clement V: was persuaded to move papacy to Avignon. “self-imposed exile of papacy”
o Boniface: died after being “roughed up” by philips men (after unam sanctam attempt by
pope)
 Preoccupied with raising money:
o Destroyed knights templar (jealous of wealth, accused them of being devil worshipers)
o Expelled jews from france and seized posessions
o Debased currency
o Used lawyers to negotiate tax agreements/manipulate feudal law (more legitamate means)
EASTERN EUROPE
Genghis Khan - leader of mongols
Cyril, Methodius – monks who gave Cyrillic alphabet to pagan people. Easter Europe finally enters
written history! More to study yay thx guyz.
Jagiello & Jadqiga - Lithuanian ruler marries polish queen, Lithuania is finally catholic.
El Cid – legendary, non-religious reconquistador
Albrecht of Hohenzollern – grand master of Teutonic knights who converts to Lutheranism; His
dynasty united germany in 19th cent.
John Wycliffe English reformer.
o Critical of church hierarchy & emphasized bible over clerical teachings.
o Rejected transubstantiation
o translated vulgate into English for one to interpret as he/she sees fit
o Followers = lollards
John Huss influenced by Wycliffe. bohemian/Czech reformer accused of heresy. Burned at stake after
council of constance  HUSSITE WARS, end in compromise between hussites and cath church
MIDDLE AGES – CULTURE
Peter Abelard assoc with rise of paris as center of theology. Wrote Sic et Non (Yes and No). used logic to
resolve contradiction in scripture and church fathers. **Affair w/ his student Heloise – they are caught, he
is castrated & becomes monk, she becomes nun. Awesome 
John of Salisbury – political thinker, described midevil society as human body (king is head). Think
society is a piece of meat, Salisbury steak.
Marsilius of Padua – wrote Defender of the Peace, argued all political authority is derived from the
people. Opposed papal political power or even religious power; favored laymen councils to govern church
William Ockham – Nominalist. Ockham’s razor- requires logical explanation for existence of any
presumed entity; reduces everything to smallest # of elements. Did not use against Catholicism, but
against schoalstics who tried to use reason to explain religion – eg rejects St Thomas aquina (Thomism)
Roger Bacon – scientists. Knew formula for gunpowder. worked to develop experimental science.
Robert Grosseteste also worked to develop experimental science
Albert the Great tradition of making careful observations in science
Jean buridan, Nicole oresme “thought experiments.” Challenge aristotles theory of motion with
“impetus” theory; almost correct in “momentum” theory
St Thomas Aquinas - Dominican friar.
o Wrote Summa theologiae.
o Reconcile faith and reason – Catholicism meets greek philosophy.
o Used aristotles “substance” and “accident” to explain transubstantiation. Become actual
substance without changing appearance, accidental quality.
Robert de Sorbon built one of the first colleges
Dante Alighieri Italian writer/politica figure from florence, wrote Divine Comedy while in exile. 3 parts –
inferno, purgatorio, paradiso - guide is virgil. Also wrote about woman, beatrice
***franceso Petrarch NOT a political figure even though his dad wanted him to be a lawyer. another
Florentine author. revived pure latin.
o Love sonnets about Laura.
Decameron: collection of bawdy stories told by people staying in countryside to escape
black death.
o The Secret: introspective work where he converses with St Augustine of Hippo.
o The africa: about punic wars
o “FATHER of resnaissance humanism.” advocated imitating latin style, especially Cicero.
Opposed scholastic theologians and canon lawyers and universties – too cold, abstract.
Medevial culture = “dark age” of barbarism. Divides western civ into ancient, Medieval and
modern phases. Named poet laureate by roman senate.
Boethius - devoted to plato, Aristotle (think BOTH/boethius). Wrote neoplatonic text Consolation of
Philosophy; translated Aristotle logical tool Organon.
Giotto – gothic fresco painter. Transformed 2D to 3D by adding illusion of depth, move toward naturalism
and emphasizing human rather than divine. Inspires Italian renaissance, but is not a part of it.
Martianus Capella, Cassiodorus, Isidore of Seville encylopeadists, preserve ancient learning
Averroes – muslim arab scholar. aristotles works often read alongside his commentary.
Alfarabi, Avicenna – other arab scholars
Maimonides – most influential jewish thinker. “guide for the perpelexed” attempted to harmonize
reason/revelation
o
RENAISSANCE/REFORMATION
**Charles V – King Ferdinand/Queen Isabella (Spanish inquis.)’s grandson. originally Charles I of Spain,
becomes V when he is HRE. Netherlands, sicily, southern italy. First king of unified spain. Pretty peaceful
rule. In old age, divided empire, giving spain and netherlands to son Philip II and brother Ferdinand I to
receive imperial title. Retires to monastery, dies there.
**Petrarch encourages Philology (study of historical linguistics); to recover ancient works in monasteries
and study them
Lorenzo Valla – inspired by Petrarch. proves forgery of donation of Constantine
Giovanni Boccaccio – also from Florence, also inspired by Petrarch
Colucci salutati, Leonardo bruni – inspired by Petrarch but with political spin “civic humanism”
Marsilio Ficino – translated complete works of plato for the first time ever (greek  latin). Also
translated neoplatonists such as Plotinus
Girolamo Savonarola – Dominican preacher, railed against luxury of medici age. Bonfire of the vanities.
Eventually excommunicated and burned at stake when pope alex VI said he was a dangerous fanatic
Niccoli Machiavelli statesman who urged political unification of italy. wrote the prince as appeal to
medici to orovide leader that all italians could rally around – a despot who uses ANY means to attain ends;
flexible, ignore Christian teachings; most reliable troops are rhose who are defending homes and families
rather than for pay. However The Discourses (he also wrote) push for representative govt. Desperate
times, desperate measures. Wrote both works while in exile.
Tomas de Toruemada “dreaded” 1st inquisator in Spanish inq.
Mosaccio improves upon giotto’s 3d by adding a linear element to paintings.
Michelangelo st peter basilica dome, sistene chapel, Pieta (mother/Christ), 17 ft tall David statue. Poet.
Donatello bronze David is first nude statuee
Raphael master painter
Leonardo da vinci mona lisa, last supper. Designed canons, canal locks, imagined flight machines
Pico della Mirandola Oration on the Dignity of Man. Student of marsilio ficino. Cabbala + magic, but fell
under influence of Savonarola eventually.
Albrecht Durer – famous realism painter, also prominent in engraving with woodcuts
Desiderius Erasmus – greek edition of newtestament. Commentary, latin translation to correct Vulgate.
Praise of Folly. Wanted to reform church from within. Inspired Thomas more
More Inspired by Erasmus. Wrote Utopia (satirical essay criticizing English society). Executed by Henry
VIII.
Johannes Reuchilin encouraged study of languages for better understanding of scripture. Mastered
greek to read new testament, then Hebrew to read old testament. Published Hebrew grammar, comvinced
HRi maximilian to reject inquisition’s call to burn Talmud.
***Erasmus, More, Reuclin & d’Etaples are loyal to catholic church but inspire people who are not
(eventually .. protestants)
Martin Luther theologian, Augustinian friar.
Rejects priesthood, mass, transubstantiation (replaced with consubstantiation).
Ninety Five Theses in response to sale of indulgences.
Refused to recant at Diet of Worms. “Scripture + self conscience are the only sources of
religious authority.”
o Protected by secular prince Frederick, Elector of Saxony.
o Printing press helped spread message.
o Wrote “on Christian liberty” and “small catechism” which outlines Lutheran creed.
o First german translation of bible.
o Tendency of tolerance of people til they don’t share his views (german peasants, jews) then
aids in their suppression.
Ulrich Zwingli inspired by Luther.
o Convinced council of Zurich to reject papal power and abolish many catholic practices
(fasting, monasticism, clerical celibacy, processions, use of music in services, iconism,
veneration of saint relics).
o Transubstantiation rejected.
o *disagreed with luther over eucharist – merely symbolic, no presence or
transformation at all.
o Killed in battle of Kappel while acting as chaplain
John Calvin after generation of Zwingle/Luther, dominates protestant movement.
o Est theocracy in Geneva.
o Supported execution of Michael Servetus for denying holy trinity.
o Wrote Institutes of Christian Religion.
o Stressed utter dependence on god, gods mercy.
o **double predestination. Calvinists in france = huguenots.
St Ignatius of Loyola Society of Jesus/Jesuits (approved by P Paul III). Wrote Spiritual Exercises.
o
o
o
**invention of the wheel – 3500-3000 BC
**first peace treaty – Hittites & Egyptians
Religion
Geography
Mespotamia
King=rep of God
Gods are
anthropomorphic, act like
humans
Afterlife is gloomy,
wandering
Tigris/Euphrates – flood
violently/unexpectedly,
affects agriculture
Wide open, vulnerable to
attack from multiple
angles
Egypt
Syncretism
Pharoah=God
Gods are more animalistic or hybrid
Afterlife is bright, happy (mummification)
Nile – floods gently and predictably,
better agriculture
Surrounded by desert, better protection