CHAPTER NINE
ASSESSING AND TEACHING SPELLING
Phases of Spelling Development
According to Gentry (1982, 2004, 2006), students move through two
distinct phases of spelling development.
Phase 1 - Learning to Spell
Level I: precommunicative spelling—child uses scribbles, letters, and
letterlike forms and shows a preference for uppercase letters. No
understanding of phonemegrapheme correspondence, and the
child’s writing shows a lack of understanding of conventions of
print such as spaces between words and the left-to-right
progression of writing. This level is typical of preschoolers, age 3 to
5.
Level II: Semiphonetic spelling—the child has some awareness that
letters are used to represent sounds and may use abbreviated one-,
two-, or three-letter spellings to represent an entire word. Child
uses incomplete but reasonsable phonetic representations of
words. Child demonstrates awareness of left-to-right progression
but tends to run letters together with little or no sense of separate
words. (include 5 and 6 years old)
Level III: phonetic spelling—the child represents all essential sound
features in spelling a word and chooses letters on the basis of
sound. The child is aware not only of sounds but also of mouth
positions used to make sounds. 6 years-old children
Level IV: transitional spelling—child begins to use conventional
alternatives for representing sounds and includes a vowel in every
syllable. Child becomes more aware of letter patterns in words.
Many words are spelled correctly, but words with irregular spellings
continue to be misspelled. The child’s spelling may become a
mixture of phonemic components and salient visual features in
words. 7 to 8years old
Phase 2 - Correct and Automatic Spelling: child spells many words
correctly and applies the basic rules of the English
orthographic system. The child recognizes when words look
incorrect and can consider alternative spellings. 8 or 9 years
and develop this phase over several years.
Developmental Sequence of Spelling Instruction
2nd Grade: Formal spelling instruction introduced
9- to 11-year olds: Learn to break words into syllables, add inflectional endings (e.g., es, ed, and
ing), and differentiate between homophones (e.g., your and you’re)
11- to 14-year olds: Focus on morphemes, learn Greek and Latin root words and affixes, and
learn that words with related meanings often are related in spelling despite changes in
vowel and consonant sounds (e.g., sign/signal, and nation/national)
Assessment of Spelling Skills
Formal Spelling Assessment
Achievement Tests
Iowa Tests of Basic Skills (Hoover, Dunbar, & Frisbie, 2006). Assesses ability to choose
the correctly spelled word from four words or to indicate “no mistakes.”
Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement—II (Kaufman & Kaufman, 2004). Assesses
ability to spell 50 increasingly difficult words, each of which is said by the examiner
and used in a sentence.
Peabody Individual Achievement Test—Revised (Markwardt, 1998). Assesses ability to
identify the correct spelling of a word after hearing the word pronounced.
Wide Range Achievement Test—4 (Wilkinson & Robertson, 2006). Assesses skill in writing
one’s name and writing letters and single words from dictation.
Assessment of Spelling Skills
Formal Spelling Assessment
Diagnostic Tests
Test of Orthographic Competence (Mather, Roberts, Hammill, & Allen, 2008)
Test of Written Spelling—4 (Larsen, Hammill, & Moats, 1999)
Word Identification and Spelling Test (Wilson & Felton, 2005)
Assessment of Spelling Skills
Formal Spelling Assessment
Criterion-Referenced Tests (drivers’s test)
Brigance Comprehensive Inventory of Basic Skills—II (Brigance, 2010a)
Assessment of Spelling Skills
Informal Spelling Assessment
Dictated Spelling Test: is a commonly used procedure for assessing
various skills in spelling and determining spelling grade level.
On dictated word lists of increasing difficulty, the
instructional level is determined when the student achieves
70 to 90 percent accuracy.
ake
Informal Spelling Inventory: used to determine the student’s
approximate grade level in spelling achievement.
Constructed of selecting a sample of words from spelling
books in a basal spelling series.
Curriculum-Based Measurement: rate samples on words from a given
spelling curriculum are used to measure the student’s
spelling skills
Spelling Error Analysis: chart can be used to provide a profile a
spelling strengths and weaknesses. Each time the student
makes a specific error, it is recorded on the chart
Cloze Procedure: a visual means of testing spelling. The student
may be required to complete a sentence by writing the
correct response in the blank
Probes: spelling skills can be assessed through the use of probe
sheets. Students work on probe sheet for 1 minute
Teaching Spelling Skills:
Rule-Based Instruction
Spelling instruction can be based on teaching rules and generalizations. After learning a general
spelling rule, the student is able to use it with unfamiliar words. These rules can apply to
instruction using both linguistics and phonics.
Darch, Kim, and Johnson (2000) examined the effects of a rule-based approach compared to
traditional spelling instruction and found that students receiving rule-based instruction outperformed students who received traditional spelling instruction.
Rule-Based Instruction (cont’d)
The linguistic approach to teaching spelling is based on the idea that there is
regularity in phoneme-grapheme correspondence.
The phonics approach to teaching spelling stresses phoneme-grapheme
relationships within parts of words.
In rule-based instruction (in both linguistics and phonics), only spelling rules and
generalizations that apply to a large number of words and have few
exceptions should be taught.
Teaching Spelling Skills:
Multilinguistic Approach
Spelling instruction can utilize a multilinguistic approach that focuses on phonemic, orthographic,
and morphological knowledge (Berninger et al., 2008; Kelman & Apel, 2004).
Utilizes prescriptive assessment and matches the instruction to the specific weaknesses of the
student. For example, if the misspellings of a student are primarily phonological, which is
often the case for students with learning disabilities (Berninger et al., 2008), the spelling
intervention would focus heavily on phonological aspects of language (i.e., phonemic
awareness combined with the alphabetic principle).
Teaching Spelling Skills:
Multisensory Approach
Spelling involves skills in the visual, auditory, and motor sensory
modalities. it.
Fernald’s (1988) multisensory approach involves 4 sensory modalities:
visual, auditory, kinesthetic, and tactile. Focuses on these
areas important for learning to spell: clear perception of word
form, development of a distinct visual image of the word, and
habit formation through repetition of writing until the motor
pattern is automatic. P. 327
Gillingham method uses an alphabetic system with repetition and
drill. Letter-sound correspondences are taught using a
multisensory approach—visual, auditory, and kinesthetic p.
327
Kearney and Drabman (1993) used a modified write-say spelling
intervention used a modified write-say spelling intervention
designed to provide immediate feedback to the visual and
auditory modalities of students with learning problems. P.
327
Cover-and-write method student is taught to spell words through
the following steps: student looks at the word and says it; the
student writes the word twice while looking at it; student
covers the word and writes it again; student checks the
spelling by looking at it.
Teaching Spelling Skills:
Test-Study-Test Technique
The student is given a pretest at the beginning of each unit of study.
The words the student misspells on the pretest become the
study list. After instruction, another test determines the degree
of mastery. A progress chart is kept, and words misspelled on
the second test are added to the list of words for the following
unit of study.
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2.
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4.
5.
6.
Spelling Study Strategies
Say the word.
Write and say the word.
Check the word by comparing it with a model.
Trace and say the word.
Write the word from memory and check.
Repeat the first five steps.
Spelling Study Strategies
The cover, copy, compare strategy also is effective in improving the spelling
performance of students with learning problems (Nies & Belfiore, 2006).
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Say the word.
Point to the word.
Repeat the word.
Cover the word.
Print the word.
Compare the word to the correct model.
Correct errors if necessary.
Spelling Study Strategies
Visual mnemonics can help students with learning problems remember spelling
words. With eyes closed, the student visualizes the word, attempts to see
the mnemonic aid presented in the word, and then writes the word from
memory. Moreover, the student can generate associations to facilitate recall
of correct spellings (e.g., principal is your pal, dessert is something sweet).
Self-Questioning Strategy
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Do I know this word?
How many syllables do I hear in this word?
I will write the word the way I think it is spelled.
Do I have the right number of syllables?
Is there any part of the word that I am not sure how to spell?
Does the word look right to me?
When I finish spelling, I will tell myself that I have worked hard.
Fixed and Flow Word Lists
FIXED word list:
A new list of words is assigned each week.
Words may be either somewhat unfamiliar or completely unknown to the students.
Students practice independently.
Students practice at their own rate.
FLOW word list:
Words are dropped from each student’s list when mastered (e.g., spelled correctly on two or three consecutive
days), and then a new, unpracticed word is added.
List is individualized, and the student does not spend time practicing known words.
Spelling for Students with Learning Problems
Spelling words taught to students with learning problems initially should be
limited to high-frequency words and misspelled words from their writing.
Recommend weekly spelling lists be limited to 6 to 12 (7 to 8) words, all of which
emphasize a common structural element, if possible
2 or 3 words from the list introduced daily and practiced until the entire set of
words is mastered
[Graham and Voth (1990) ]
Additional Considerations
Visual image should be emphasized.
Words the student misspells in written compositions may be included in his or
her spelling program.
Spelling also may be taught and reinforced throughout the language arts
curriculum.
Training in dictionary usage also should be included in the spelling program.
Secondary level:
Additional Considerations (cont’d)
Help the adolescent understand the social and practical significance of correct spelling.
The student’s own interests and various areas of study provide new words.
Vocational words also can be emphasized.
It may be best to teach spelling in conjunction with other activities rather than to use
class time solely for spelling instruction.
Spelling Activities
Ask the student to complete words in sentences by filling in omitted
letters.
Provide a worksheet showing various words and their configurations.
Use a hidden-word format to provide practice in letter sequence of
spelling words.
Spelling Activities (cont’d)
Have the student keep a file box of spelling words that have caused some
difficulty.
In compiling the weekly spelling word list, ask class members to volunteer words
Describe a current spelling word phonetically. For example, the word move may
be described as “a one-syllable word beginning with a consonant and
ending with a vowel.”
Spelling Activities (cont’d)
To focus on particular spelling patterns, have students sort a pack of word cards or the words on
their weekly spelling list into two or more categories (e.g., according to vowel patterns,
affixes, or root words).
Have the student count the phonemes in a spelling word and write the word in Elkonin boxes,
which also are called word boxes.
Have the student work with anagram activities, in which the student is given a word and must
rearrange all the letters to make a new word.
Instructional Games in Spelling
Find-a-word
Detective
Jaws
Spell It—Keep It card game
Spelling bingo
Golf game board
Connect the dots
Checkers
TV talent
Dictionary store hunt
Baseball spelling game
Football spelling game
Nym game
Bottle top scrabble
Self-Correcting Spelling Materials
Spelling word puzzles
Flip-sider spelling cards
Spelling spinner
Tape recorder spelling
Answer box
Fill in the letters
Spelling crossword puzzles
Scrambled letters
Poke box
Color magic
Commercial Spelling Programs
Instant Spelling Words for Writing
Spelling Mastery
Spelling Through Morphographs
Spellography
Stetson Spelling Program
Target Spelling
Computer Software Programs
Spelling Blaster – Ages 6-9
Spelling Rules
Stickybear Spelling
Word Zapper