Maragon Media
Geography
GRADE 9
MEMO
D. Kotze
1
Contents
Module 1 ................................................................................................................................................. 6
Page 10................................................................................................................................................ 6
Page 11................................................................................................................................................ 6
Page 17................................................................................................................................................ 6
Page 18................................................................................................................................................ 7
Page 27................................................................................................................................................ 7
Page 28................................................................................................................................................ 7
Page 30:............................................................................................................................................... 8
Page 31................................................................................................................................................ 8
Page 32................................................................................................................................................ 9
Page 33................................................................................................................................................ 9
Page 36................................................................................................................................................ 9
Page 38.............................................................................................................................................. 10
Page 39.............................................................................................................................................. 10
Page 40.............................................................................................................................................. 10
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Page 44.............................................................................................................................................. 10
Page 45.............................................................................................................................................. 11
Page 46.............................................................................................................................................. 11
Page 47.............................................................................................................................................. 11
Page 49.............................................................................................................................................. 13
Page 51.............................................................................................................................................. 13
Page 54.............................................................................................................................................. 14
Page 56.............................................................................................................................................. 15
Page 57.............................................................................................................................................. 16
Page 58.............................................................................................................................................. 16
Page 62.............................................................................................................................................. 16
Module 2 ............................................................................................................................................... 17
Page 65.............................................................................................................................................. 17
Page 66.............................................................................................................................................. 17
Page 67.............................................................................................................................................. 19
Page 71.............................................................................................................................................. 19
Page 74.............................................................................................................................................. 20
2
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Page 97.............................................................................................................................................. 28
Page 100............................................................................................................................................ 29
Page 101............................................................................................................................................ 29
Page 102............................................................................................................................................ 30
Page 103............................................................................................................................................ 30
Module 3 ............................................................................................................................................... 31
Page 112............................................................................................................................................ 31
Page 114............................................................................................................................................ 33
Page 117............................................................................................................................................ 33
Page 120............................................................................................................................................ 35
Page 122............................................................................................................................................ 36
Page 125............................................................................................................................................ 39
Page 129............................................................................................................................................ 41
Page 131............................................................................................................................................ 41
Page 133............................................................................................................................................ 42
Page 137............................................................................................................................................ 42
Page 139............................................................................................................................................ 47
Page 141............................................................................................................................................ 47
Page 146............................................................................................................................................ 47
Module 4 ............................................................................................................................................... 48
Page 150............................................................................................................................................ 48
3
Page 152............................................................................................................................................ 51
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Page 156............................................................................................................................................ 53
Page 159............................................................................................................................................ 54
Page 162............................................................................................................................................ 55
Page 164............................................................................................................................................ 55
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Page 168............................................................................................................................................ 56
Page 170............................................................................................................................................ 56
Page 171............................................................................................................................................ 60
Page 173............................................................................................................................................ 60
Page 174............................................................................................................................................ 65
Page 176............................................................................................................................................ 65
Page 179............................................................................................................................................ 68
4
5
Module 1
Page 10
PHOTO =
29 31 CC 6
29 = Lattitude
31 = Longitude
CC = Grid reference - (45’ and 15 ‘ )
Page 11
4.
City
Johannesburg
Pietermaritzburg
Tshwane
Polokwane
Cape Town
5.
4
6.
Tugela River
7.
Easy access to roads
Coordinates
26°12′S
29°37′S
25°45′S
23°54′S
33°55′S
28°2′E
30°23′E
28°11′E
29°27′E
18°25′E
Orthophoto Refence
2628AA
2930CB
2528CD
2329CD
3318CD
Close to CBD
Close to airports
Open land – close to other sport centres
8.
Urban
9.
Indian ocean
10.
"The Windy City" has a subtropical climate with light rain throughout the year. Under the
Koppen climate classification, Port Elizabeth has an oceanic climate. The area lies between
the winter rainfall, Mediterranean climate zones of the Western Cape and the summer
rainfall regions of eastern South Africa. Winters are cool but mild and summers are warm
but considerably less humid and hot than more northerly parts of South Africa's east coast.
Page 17
1.
2.
3.
4.
140 m
SE
12 km
C
6
Page 18
1.
2.
3.
Water mass – dams
Perennial streams
20m
Page 27
1.1
1.2
118m
40m
2.
Cliff
3.
EF dist on map = 60mm
Real distance
= 60 × 50 000 mm
= 3 000 000 mm
= 3 km
Page 28
Accurate profile drawing
Pay special attention to scale used on y axis (height above sea-level)
Attention to contour intervals on x axis very important.
Profile should “look” realistic.
No sharp edges / vertices – points to be connected freehand.
7
Page 30:
Photo
Feature shown
Map symbol
Church
Cemetery
Dam
Freeway
Post office
Vineyard
Excavation
Page 31
Landscape Photo
Feature Identification
Map Symbol
Perennial river
Cliff
Saddle
Marsh / vlei
Coastal rock
Woodland
Sand
Valley
8
Page 32
North
NW
000˚
315°
270°
NE
045°
East
Bearing
SE
SW
225˚
090˚
135°
South
180°
Page 33
Points of reference
Off A from B
Off B from C
Off C from D
Off A from D
A
B
C
D
Direction
Bearing
SSE
NW
S
SW
160°
315°
180°
225°
Perennial stream or river
Marsh or vlei
Border of camp / property
Woodland
Page 36
1. How far is it from Anne to Betty?
9 cm × 50 000 = 450 000 cm = 4,5 km
2. What is the distance between Delia and Felicia?
10,5 cm × 50 000 = 525 000 cm = 5,25 km
3. How far is it from Elena to Betty (shortest route)?
15 cm × 50 000 = 750 000 cm = 7,5 km
4. Calculate the shortest distance between Chris and Felicia?
(9 – 5,8) cm × 50 000 = 160 000 cm
= 1,6 km
9
Page 38
1. 13 cm × 50 000 = 650 000 cm = 6,5 km
2. 5,3 cm × 50 000 = 265 000 cm = 2,65 km
3. 6,2 cm × 50 000 = 310 000 cm = 3,1 km
4. Area
1
= 2 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 × ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
= 0,5 × (3,8 × 50 000) × (2,1 × 50 000)
= 0,5 × 190 000 cm × 105 000 cm
= 0,5 × 1,9 km × 1,05 km
= 0,9975 km2
Page 39
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
500 m
610 m
Southwest
Northeast
(2)
Page 40
1. SW
2. 580 m
3. SE
Page 41
600
580
560
540
520
500
480
5.
6.
260°
Scale factor: 1: 3,8
X-Y:
7,6 km ÷ 3,8 = 2 km
7.
𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 =
𝑅𝑖𝑠𝑒
𝑅𝑢𝑛
=
580−480
2 000
= 0,05
nb: SAME UNITS!
Page 44
1. Route one: From Ferndale, cross over William Moffat Road along Cape Road (R102) till you
get to the M4.
The harbour is at the crossing of R102 and M4
Route two: Turn right into William Moffat and turn left into Hough Street (M(). Hough Street
becomes Walmer Road. Turn left into Settlers way. The harbour will be on your right hand
side.
10
2. Major Roads – M4; M9; M7 etc.
Harbour – shipping
PE Airport – flights
3. The sandbank protects the harbour entrance
Calmer harbour as opposed to surrounding sea
This makes entrance and exit to and from harbour much easier and safer
4. Reservoirs for oil / fuel
Easy access to ships in harbour
Page 45
1. Nucleated
Urban
Follows coastline
2. 33°58’45”S and 25°39’30”E
3. Bakensrivier
4. Cemetery
5. Papkuilsrivier
Symbol
Meaning
National road
1
2
Recreation ground
3
Perennial river
4
Excavation
5
Secondary road
Page 46
1. Map distance
Actual
2. Sandbank
Lighthouse
3. SW
4. 045° - 060°
= 16,5 cm
= 16,5 × 10 000
= 165 000 cm
= 1,65 km
- protects harbour mouth
- guides ships
Page 47
Topo-cadastral
Shows topographical detail with additional names, numbers and boundaries of original farms and
magisterial districts.
11
Type of map
1: 50 000 Topographical
Maps
1: 500 000 Topo-Admin
Maps
1: 250 000 Topo-Cadastral
Maps
Ortho-Photo Maps
Aerial Photography
Aeronautical Maps
Hydrographical Maps
Planimetric Maps
Used for:
include contour lines to show the shape and elevation of an area. Lines
that are close together indicate steep terrain, and lines that are far
apart indicate flat terrain.
The 1:500 000 topo-admin maps depict similar information as the
1:250 000 maps but more generalised, and without the cadastral
information. Magisterial districts are shown.
The 1:250 000 topo-cadastral maps show topographical detail with the
addition of names, numbers and boundaries of original farms, the
boundaries of magisterial districts, and provincial and international
boundaries. Elevation is depicted by means of contours. This is further
enhanced by hypsometric tints, i.e. shades of brown becoming
progressively darker as elevation increases. This series is a firm
favourite for regional planning and administrative purposes.
An orthophoto, orthophotograph or orthoimage is an aerial
photograph geometrically corrected such that the scale is uniform: the
photo has the same lack of distortion as a map. Unlike an uncorrected
aerial photograph, an orthophotograph can be used to measure true
distances, because it is an accurate representation of the Earth's
surface, having been adjusted for topographic relief, lens distortion,
and camera tilt. Orthophotographs are commonly used in the creation
of a Geographic Information System (GIS).
Aerial photography is used in cartography (particularly in
photogrammetric surveys, which are often the basis for topographic
maps), land-use planning, archaeology, movie production,
environmental studies, surveillance, commercial advertising,
conveyancing, and artistic projects.
An aeronautical chart is a map designed to assist in navigation of
aircraft, much as nautical charts do for watercraft, or a roadmap for
drivers. Using these charts and other tools, pilots are able to
determine their position, safe altitude, best route to a destination,
navigation aids along the way, alternative landing areas in case of an
in-flight emergency, and other useful information such as radio
frequencies and airspace boundaries. There are charts for all land
masses on Earth, and long-distance charts for trans-oceanic travel.
A hydrographic survey map is a type of topographic map, which is used
to reveal the slopes and contours of land. Hydrographic maps are
specially made to survey underwater land terrain. Such maps can be
used to help in investigations, oceanography studies and naval
services.
A planimetric map consists of both manmade (cultural) and natural
features. These features are represented 3-dimensionally as lines
(vectors) and points. The features can include street and water
centrelines; sidewalks; culverts; utility lines; building footprints; and
vegetation —anything visible in the imagery can be digitized. Thanks to
their wealth of information, these maps play an important role in
mapping a community. Utility companies can use them to catalogue
their infrastructures; assessors can use them for property assessment
and taxing purposes; and engineers can use them to aid in planning
upcoming projects.
12
Choropleth Maps
Paleomaps
Cartographers utilize colour on a map to represent certain features.
Colour use is often consistent across different types of maps by
different cartographers or publishers. Map colours are (or should be,
for a professional looking map) always consistent on a single map.
Paleomaps are maps of continents and mountain ranges in the distant
past or future. Until the 1960s, paleomaps were not very satisfactory
as it was difficult to understand many quite distinctive features.
Page 49
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Prieska, Koega, Kuruman, Pietersburg, Sishen
Kimberley
Okiep
Richards Bay
In relatively close proximity of Fe, Mn and Cu mines
Gauteng and Northwest Province
Page 51
Country
South Africa
Population max on map
10 010
Namibia
11 999
Zimbabwe
Mozambique
Malawi
81 855
14 900
2 337
33 084
Zambia
Population in 2020
65
10 010 − (
× 10 010)
100
=3503,5
This will be rounded off to 3504 as
we cannot have 0,5 of an
elephant!
65
11999 − (
× 11999)
100
=4199,65
This will be rounded off to 4200 as
we cannot have 0,65 of an
elephant!
65
81855 − (
× 81855)
100
=28 649,25
This will be rounded off to 28649
as we cannot have 0,25 of an
elephant!
65
14 900 − (
× 14 900)
100
=5215
65
2 337 − (
× 2 337)
100
=817,95
This will be rounded off to 818 as
we cannot have 0,95 of an
elephant!
65
33 084 − (
× 33 084)
100
=11 579,4
This will be rounded off to 11579
as we cannot have 0,4 of an
elephant!
13
Creation of conservation belts.
Strict punishment and laws against tusk trade.
Creation of more transfrontier parks.
Improved protection and breeding programmes. Etc etc.
Page 54
14
Province
Capital
Eastern Cape
Bhisho
Free State
Bloemfontein
Gauteng
Johannesburg
KwaZulu-Natal Pietermaritzburg
Limpopo
Polokwane
Mpumalanga
Nelspruit
North West
Mafikeng
Northern Cape Kimberley
Western Cape Cape Town
Page 56
2.
Three cities act as South Africa capital. The Republic of South Africa vests its executive,
legislative and judicial authorities in three separate cities. Pretoria functions as the executive
capital, Bloemfontein as the judicial, while the legislative powers are vested in Cape Town.
3.
Botswana
(Gabarone)
Lesotho
(Maseru),
Mozambique
(Maputo),
Namibia
(Windhoek),
Swaziland
(Mbabane),
Zimbabwe
(Harare)
4.
Limpopo river; Olifantsriver
5.
Drakensberg range
6.
Map distance Mussina to Cape Town
Map scale (page 55):
Actual distance
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 =
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
= 14,8 cm
2,6 cm = 300 km
=
=
1707,7
200
14,8
×
2,6
300 = 1707,7 𝑘𝑚
= 8,538 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 = 8 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 32,3 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠
15
Page 57
1. Kwazulu Natal
Page 58
2. The western coasts lies adjacent to the Atlantic ocean fed by the cold Benguela sea current
as it flows from Antarctica, while the east coast lies adjacent to warmer Indian Ocean due to
the Agulhas/Mosambique warmer ocean current. Evaporation rates higher off Indian Ocean,
hence higher rainfall along east coast.
3.
City / Town
Cape Town
Durban
Johannesburg / Gauteng
Kimberley
Middelburg
Nelspruit
Port Elizabeth
Pretoria (Tswane)
Upington
4. Lowest:
M.A.P.
800 - 950 mm
150 - 1100 mm
650 – 850 mm
350 – 500 mm
500 – 650 mm
950 – 1100 mm
650 – 800 mm
650 – 850 mm
<350 mm
Beaufort West
Kimberley
Mmabatho
Highest:
Umtata & Richards Bay
5. No. Very low mean annual precipitation ( <350 mm )
Page 62
Longitude;
Gradient;
Declination;
Choropleth;
Orthophoto;
Meridian;
Coordinates;
Relief;
Cartographer;
Satelite;
Topographical;
Elevation;
Latitude;
Topocadastral;
Distortion;
Magnetic;
Compass
16
Module 2
Page 65
<
>
>
Page 66
1. While South Africa's authorities admit that much that needs to be done to increase women's
representation in top management positions in the country, there has been progress made
on legislative reforms since 1994 to facilitate gender equality and improved representation
of women in decision-making positions. Women's representation in Parliament jumped to
45 % following the country's recent elections, moving South Africa up to third place in the
global women in parliament rankings behind Rwanda and Sweden, who have 56% and 47%
women's representation in their respective parliaments. The number of women ministers
and deputy ministers increased from 18 % in 1994 to 40 % after last year's poll. Women are
also in charge of powerful portfolios in Defence, International Relations and Cooperation,
Energy, Correctional Services and Home Affairs. Zuma said the country had also done well at
provincial government level, with five women having emerged as Premiers, pushing the
representation of women at this sphere of government to 55 %.
At the same time, he said, "a lot of work needs to be done to increase the representation of
women at senior levels of the public service. At the moment, women make up an average 36
% of senior management”.
Minister for Women, Children and Persons with Disabilities Noluthando Mayende-Sibiya
wants to change these statistics with a new Gender Equity Bill which will enforce gender
parity measures across all sectors.
2. South Africa has one of the largest income inequalities in the world. The average income of
the richest 20% of South African households, largely white, is 45 times more than the
average income of the poorest 20% of households, largely black and mostly African.
The majority of the nation's poor are women. Of these, rural African women, whose incomes are
mainly from pensions and remittances from relatives, are the majority of the poorest of the poor,
defined as those belonging to households which fall in the poorest 20% of South African households
with an income of between R400 and R700 per month. According to Statistics SA (SSA), which has
compared the incomes of households headed by women with those of households headed by men,
over 37% of women-headed households in non-urban areas fall in the category of the poorest 20%
of households in the country, as compared with 23% of male-headed households in non-urban
areas. In urban areas, 15% of women-headed households are among the poorest 20% of households,
as compared with 5% of male-headed households there.
Apart from inequalities in income, there are other racial and gender inequalities. In SA there is
glaring unequal access to social resources like land, healthcare, credit, information, education and
decision-making power between the races and between the sexes. It is African women who make
17
up the majority of those suffering the experiences of being poor; it is rural African women who make
up the majority of the poorest of the poor, those who do not have enough to eat.
Male domination arising from such inequalities is reflected in the rapes, femicides and other sexual
violence affecting mostly poor women that have today reached such crisis proportions. One in every
three women in SA is in an abusive relationship, a woman is killed by her partner every six days and
there is a rape every 35 seconds.
3. In July 2001, South Africa’s Medical Research Council estimated that the deaths of 40% of all
South Africans aged between 15 and 49 in 2000 were due to HIV/AIDS. AIDS is expected to
have a significant impact on South Africa’s population in the future. UNDP reports that life
expectancy in South Africa for the year 2000 was 52.1 years. This compares with its
indication of an overall increase in life-expectancy in both the developing countries (65
years) generally, and the industrialized countries (77 years). (The World Bank reports that
life-expectancy has dropped to 47.8 years in South Africa (World Bank 2002)). UNAIDS
reported that during 2001 approximately 360,000 South Africans had died of AIDS (UNAIDS
2002). Previously, the Government had predicted that by 2008 the annual number of
fatalities attributable to HIV/AIDS would be more than half a million (Department of Health
1999). Even more serious has been the rapid spread of HIV (estimated at approximately 20%
of the adult population), even though this is not – as yet –reflected in reported AIDS cases.
The cost of HIV education, the cost of the medical burden of HIV treatment as well as the
insecurity around the health of workers all impact negatively on SA’s HDI.
The South African Reserve Bank operates autonomously as the central bank. The bank
pursues a stability-oriented policy. Its restrictive interest rate and monetary policy has
markedly curbed inflation, which now fluctuates in the single-digit range. The South
African rand has run a turbulent course; in 2001 alone, its value dropped by more than
20 % relative to the US dollar. Triggering factors included a massive outflow of capital
(reflecting a crisis of confidence in response to low growth rates, the muddled AIDS
policy and the regional crisis in Zimbabwe) and a huge wave of speculation. During the
general uncertainty in financial markets after September 2001, the price of gold rose
and the South African rand gained in value relative to the US dollar.
4. Housing;
Electricity supply;
Infrastructure development;
Education
Medical and Health care;
Water and sanitation supply:
Curbing unemployment;
18
Page 67
National wealth has the potential to expand people's choices. However, it may not. The manner in
which countries spend their wealth, not the wealth itself, is decisive. Moreover, an excessive
obsession with the creation of material wealth can obscure the ultimate objective of enriching
human lives. In many instances, countries with higher average incomes have higher average life
expectancies, lower rates of infant and child mortality and higher educational attainment and school
enrollment, and consequently a higher human development index (HDI). But these associations are
far from perfect. In inter-country comparisons, income variations tend to explain not much more
than half the variation in life expectancy, or in infant and child mortality. And they explain an even
smaller part of the differences in adult educational attainment.
Page 71
South Africa is the economic powerhouse of the African continent, with a gross domestic product of
R1.9 trillion – four times that of its southern African neighbours, and comprising 30% of the entire
GDP of Africa, said Sidwell Medupe, media spokesperson for the Department of Trade and Industry .
The World Economic Forum’s “Global Competitiveness Report 2008–09” ranked South Africa 45th
out of 134 global nations. South Africa’s GDP grew at a healthy 5.2% in 2007, and a lower 3.1% in
2008 due to the impact of the global economic crisis. It is one of the most sophisticated and
promising emerging markets, offering a unique combination of highly developed first-world
economic infrastructure, with a vibrant emerging market economy.
Furthermore, South Africa is one of the highest ranking developing economies and surpasses
countries such as Hungary, Italy, Brazil and Thailand. The country leads the continent in industrial
output (40% of Africa’s total output) and mineral production (45% of total mineral production) and
generates most of Africa’s electricity (over 50%), according to the dti.
The cost of doing business in South Africa compares favourably to other emerging world markets.
According to an annual World Bank study, “The Ease of Doing Business Index”, South Africa ranks
32nd out of 181 of the economies surveyed in 2009 for ease of doing business. The country boasts
the lowest electricity prices in the world and, despite looming challenges in this sector, doubling its
electricity price will still place it as the cheapest provider, said the dti. South Africa boasts one of the
most modern and extensive transport infrastructures in Africa. This plays a crucial role in the
country’s economy and is depended on by many neighbouring states.
The national airline carrier, South African Airways, is an incorporated public company owned by the
South African government. The airline serves more than 700 destinations globally and carries more
than seven million passengers a year. Today, South Africa is not only self-sufficient in virtually all
major agricultural products, but in a normal year, it is a net food exporter. Over the past five years,
agricultural exports have contributed on average about 8% of the total South African exports.
USE RUBRIC ON PAGE 72 TO MARK LEARNER ESSAYS – consider valid / motivated statements: both
PRO or ANTI. Treat as source-based essay!
19
Page 74
1.
2.
1
2
3
Palm oil
Rubber
Cocoa
Local populations were sparsely settled
South Africa located too far south – easier slave trade further up north in Africa
3.
To provide fresh food for their ships that rounded the Cape of Storms on their way to East
Africa and Asia.
4.
Diamond (1869) and Gold (1886)
5.
Trade and financial sanctions and internal political opposition to the apartheid government
had contributed to the poorest ten year growth performance (1984 – 1993) since the Second
World War.
Page 76
Imported articles
Agricultural products
South Africa supplements local agricultural
production with imports, key among these being
consumer-oriented products, forestry products
and intermediate products.
Pharmaceuticals
More than US$1-billion worth of pharmaceuticals
are sold in SA annually, and the market is expected
to grow substantially. Dispensing occurs via private
channels, dispensing doctors, pharmacies, retail
chains, clinics and hospitals.
Computer software and services
One of the main areas of growth is the demand
from small and medium-sized companies for highend computer systems. S A imports 80% of its
software from the USA, with the balance from
Israel, Germany, the UK and France.
Giftware
SA has an expanding consumer base and a growing
disposable income, and SA consumers are
prepared to pay more for int. brand products.
Security and safety equipment
CCTV and digital surveillance equipment,
sophisticated access control systems (smart card
technology), and IT systems.
Locally manufactured articles
South Africa remains a net a food exporter,
selling 30% more agricultural goods abroad
than it imported in 2010.
The South African Rooibos Council is
participating in an international project to
improve the export competitiveness of
rooibos, one of the country's best-known
products and, as a tea, a sought-after local and
international beverage.
Ford Motor Company of Southern Africa is now
manufacturing a new line of diesel engines at
Struandale outside Port Elizabeth, as part of
the carmaker's R3.4-billion export investment
programme, turning its plant into a global hub
for its diesel engines.
US consumers will soon be able to serve hake
caught off the southern African coastline on
their tables, following a deal between SA
fishing company Oceanfresh and Walmart.
South Africa's popular cream and marula spirit,
Amarula, debuted in sixth place in a recent poll
of the world's hottest bar brands by respected
global publication Drinks International.
20
Country
United Kingdom
Germany
Italy
Belgium
United States
China
Japan
Products we import
Cosmetics, eg. Rimhel
Cars, eg. Mercedes; BMW; VW
Clothing, eg. Carducci;
Chocolates
Boeing; Nike
Toys; Cars; Clothing; Fabric
Cars; Toys; Furniture; Clothing
Page 77
Product
Clothing
Caviar
Green Tea
Light bulbs
Car parts
Perfume
Insulin
Diesel generators
Tools
Farming implements
Consumable
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
Capital
√
√
√
Page 78
a. Pratley
b. The Pratley brand has been fixed in the minds of South African DIY enthusiasts and industrial
users as the leading manufacturer of ultra-high performance adhesives (one of which,
Pratley Putty®, is the only South African product to have gone to the moon!) The range
includes: DIY Epoxies, Acrylic Adhesives, Anaerobic Adhesives, Cyanoacrylates, Sealants,
Hybrid systems, Special Performance industrial adhesives and decoupage craft products.
The South African market leader in electrical terminations, Pratley manufactures SABS mark bearing
Electrical Cable Glands and Electrical Junction Boxes. Those variants for use in hazardous locations
comply with the international IEC standards for Ex n, Ex e and Ex d explosion protected electrical
equipment. Most also comply with the European ATEX directive.
Pratley Cable Glands and Junction Boxes can be found in almost all South African petrochemical
plants and collieries including SASOL, CALTEX, NATREF, MOSGAS OFFSHORE, AECI and Amcoal
collieries. Pratley electrical products are also installed in many plants around the world.
21
Page 80
Allow for variety of technology related products used, eg:
Time slot
Technology being used
Matrass; Textile (bedding);
00:00 – 06:00
Burglar alarm; Alarm clock; Electricity, etc.
Food tech – breakfast; Clothing
06:00 – 08:00
Transport
Books; Computers; Calculators
08:00 – 14:00
Stationery; Photocopiers;
Sports equipment; Cellular phones;
14:00 – 17:00
Buildings; Tracks; Music; Sports clothing;
Dinner and food processing; Refrigeration; Radio; Television;
17:00 – 19:00
Transport; etc.
Television; Movie industry;
19:00 – 24:00
Electricity; Gym equipment;
If you were able to provide only one essential piece of technology to ALL South Africans, what would
this be and why?
Water and sanitation – basic requirement for living – influences peoples standard of living and
health.
Page 81
Unions: Amalgamated Union of Building Trade Workers of South Africa
Transport & Omnibus Workers Union (TOWU)
South African Typographical Union (SATU)
SASBO: The Finance Union
Hospitality Industry & Allied Workers Union (HIAWU)
National Union of Leather and Allied Workers (NULAW)
Motor Transport Workers' Union (South Africa)
Insurance and Banking Staff Association (IBSA)
Jewellers and Goldsmiths Union (J & GU)
South African Municipal Workers Union (SAMWU)
PE, Durban and Cape Town are all HARBOUR cities.
22
Page 82
HIV
AIDS
Human immunodeficiency virus
acquired immune deficiency syndrome
Page 84
Full name(s):
Christiaan Neethling Barnard
Date of birth:
8 November 1922
Place of birth:
Beaufort West
Place of study:
University of Cape Town
Internship and
residency at:
Postgraduate training
in:
University of postgraduate study:
First human heart
transplant patient:
First heart donor:
Right-hand man:
Date and place of
death:
Cause of death:
Grootte Schuur Hospital
cardiothoracic surgery
University of Minnesota, Minneapolis in Minnesota
Louis Washkansky
Denise Darvall
Marius Barnard
2 September 2001 while vacationing in Cyprus
an asthma attack.
23
Page 85
1. Promote the way the teaching profession is viewed:
There has been a devaluation of the professional status of teachers. In many countries there is a
notion that anyone can teach anything. Prescriptive teaching methods that come into education
systems are part of the problem; they communicate to teachers that they are generalists rather than
specialists, and can be deployed anywhere. This undermines the professionalism and confidence of
teachers. • A clear distinction can be made between the professionalisation and professionalism of
teaching. Professionalisation is the social and political project involving aspirations for recognition of
teaching as a profession. Professionalism comprises: the focus on teachers’ work; becoming
professional in one’s outlook, knowledgeable and committed; developing professional judgement
(which some researchers believe are counter to processes going on at the moment in the
development of these prescriptive materials); professional ethics and ethos that pervades schools;
and teacher identity. Professionalism also addresses how teachers are able to work and develop
within a system as professionals. • The transnational comparison of qualifications is difficult and also
reflects biases rather than a rational process. There is currently a lack of technologies that are
capable of capturing the complex processes of teaching that can attest to quality that is beyond the
epistemological limits of an outcome statement.
2. The government should have an added focus on teacher training, the development of
schools and the development of auxiliary learning programmes.
The government should also investigate special needs – a special focus on special needs
learners is vital. Remedial education and school based support is vital.
Investment in proper educational material available free to all school learners essential.
Education in mother tongue by qualified teachers
Upgrading and building of school facilities
Encourage greater community involvement at schools through ABET programmes. Etc.
Globalization and international trade requires countries and their economies to compete with each
other. Countries that are economically successful will hold competitive and comparative strengths
compared to other economies, though a single country rarely specializes in a particular industry. This
means that the country's economy will be made of various industries that will have different
advantages and disadvantages in the global marketplace. The education and training of a country's
workers is a major factor in determining just how well the country's economy will do. The study of
the economics of training and education involves an analysis of the economy as a whole, of
employers and of workers. Two major concepts that influence the wage rate are training and
education. In general, better trained and better educated workers earn more money than other
workers with poorer training and education. This is because both training and education tend to
improve the a worker's productivity. Differences in training levels have been cited as a significant
factor that separates rich and poor countries. Although other factors are certainly in play, such as
geography and available resources, having better-trained workers creates spillovers and
externalities. For example, similar businesses may cluster in the same geographic region because of
an availability of skilled workers. Many countries have placed greater emphasis on developing an
education system that can produce workers able to function in new industries, such as those in
technology and science fields. This is partly because older industries in developed economies were
becoming less competitive, and thus were less likely to be able to continue dominating the industrial
24
landscape. In addition, a movement to improve the basic education of the population emerged, with
some believing that people had a right to an education.
When economists speak of "education," the focus is not strictly on workers obtaining college
degrees. Education is often broken into specific levels:
Primary ; Secondary ; Tertiary (universities, community colleges and vocational schools )
A country's economy becomes more productive as the proportion of educated workers increases,
since educated workers are able to more efficiently carry out tasks that require literacy and critical
thinking. Better-educated workers tend to be more productive than less educated ones; however,
obtaining a higher level of education also carries a cost. A country doesn't have to provide an
extensive network of colleges or universities in order to benefit from education; it can provide basic
literacy programs and still see economic improvements.
Countries with a greater portion of their population attending and graduating from schools see
faster economic growth than countries with less-educated workers. Because of this, many countries
provide funding for primary and secondary education in order to improve economic performance. In
this sense, education is an investment in human capital, similar to investment in better equipment.
According to UNESCO and the United Nations Human Development Programme, the ratio of the
number of children of official secondary school age enrolled in school to the number of children of
official secondary school age in the population (referred to as the enrollment ratio) is higher in
developed nations than it is in developing ones.
Page 87
Role players as selected by class to be filled in in appropriate spaces - Use the rubric on
page 88 to assess the activity.
Page 91
Fairtrade is an alternative approach to conventional trade and a global movement that stands
for sustainability and development through trade.
In South Africa we currently have more than 60 Fairtrade certified producer organisations, and
thousands of beneficiaries - including farm workers, their families and their communities. In Africa
there are more than 230...and more than 900 in the world! Reading their stories is key to
understanding the mission of Fairtrade: to promote fairer trading conditions and empower
producers and farm workers to combat poverty, strengthen their position and take more control
over their lives.
Vuki Farming Located in: Elgin, Western Cape, South Africa
Fairtrade certified for: apples, pears, apple juice concentrate
Heiveld Cooperative Located in: Nieuwoudtville, Northen Cape, South Africa
Fairtrade certified for: rooibos tea
Also: Sun Orange Farm, Zebediela Citrus, Stellar Organics and Eksteenskuil Agricultural
Cooperative.
SLOGAN:
Fairtrade simply because it’s fair!
(LOOK FOR CREATIVE, CATCHY SLOGANS)
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Page 92
1. Naledi Pandor
2. Corruption;
Unemployment;
Wage moderation
Page 93
3. 1994
4. Establishment of worker’s unions; Democracy; Equal opportunity employment
5. Sasol - Chemicals and fuel; De Beers – Diamonds; Anglo-American – Mining eg. Gold
6.1
Continuous Linked Settlement (CLS)
6.2
The economy of South Africa is ranked as a upper-middle income economy by the World
Bank, which makes the country one of only four countries in Africa represented in this
category, (the others being Botswana, Gabon and Mauritius. The South African rand is
the most actively traded emerging market currency in the world. It has joined an elite
club of fifteen currencies, the Continuous linked settlement (CLS), where forex
transactions are settled immediately, lowering the risks of transacting across time zones.
The rand was the best-performing currency against the United States dollar (USD)
between 2002 and 2005, according to the Bloomberg Currency Scorecard.
7. Clean energy; Engineering; Aviation; Military contracting; Mining
8. Corruption; Unemployment; Illegal immigration; Crime; Income inequality
Page 94
Furniture:
Resources:
Chemicals & Fuels:
Finance;
Steinhoff International
Anglo-American;
Impala Platinum;
De Beers;
Sasol
Standard Bank;
Investec
26
Page 96
Charities & Non Profit Organizations In Johannesburg South Africa
Youth With Diabetes ,
Johannesburg
www.youthwithdiabetes.com: Youth With Diabetes (YWD) is a non profit organisation,
registered with the south african department of social welfare.
The Smile Foundation
Johannesburg
www.smilefoundationsa.org: The primary focus of the Smile Foundation is to address the
medical backlog in the public healthcare system in dealing with children who suffer from
treatable facial abnormalities such as Cleft Lip and Palate, burn victims, Moebius
syndrome
C.h.a.n.c.e
Johannesburg
www.chancechildrenshome.co.za: WE are a children's home Dunnottar,South-Africa we
cater for children how are abesed , battered , abondoned babies and HIV/AIDS children
Zenex Foundation
Johannesburg
http://www.zenexfoundation.org.za: The Zenex Founation is independent,South African ,nonprofit donor agency dedicated on mathematics,science and language education.
Youth For Christ South Africa Yfc Sa
Johannesburg
http://www.yfc.org.za; YFC is a non-profit, non-denominational, Christian youth development
agency directly addressing problems and needs of the young people of South Africa.
Children should investigate organisations in their own area – not just the usual.
Create interest!! Foster community involvement.
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Page 97
Indelible:
(of ink or a pen) Making marks that cannot be removed.
Not able to be forgotten or removed: "his story made an
indelible impression on me".
Democracy:
government by the people; a form of government in which the supreme
power is vested in the people and exercised directly by them or by their
elected agents under a free electoral system.
a state having such a form of government: The United States and Canada are
democracies.
a state of society characterized by formal equality of rights and privileges.
political or social equality; democratic spirit.
the common people of a community as distinguished from any privileged
class; the common people with respect to their political power.
Governance:
government; exercise of authority; control.
a method or system of government or management.
Decentralization:
to distribute the administrative powers or functions of (a central authority)
over a less concentrated area: to decentralize the national government.
to disperse (something) from an area of concentration: to decentralize the
nation's industry.
Alleviation:
the act of to making something easier to endure; lessen; mitigate: to
alleviate sorrow; to alleviate pain.
Responsibility:
To be answerable or accountable for something within one's power, control,
or management. Chargeable with being the author, cause, or occasion of
something (usually followed by for ): Termites were responsible for the
damage.
Having a capacity for moral decisions and therefore accountable; capable of
rational thought or action and able to discharge obligations or pay debts.
Conservation:
The act of conserving; prevention of injury, decay, waste, or loss;
preservation. The official supervision of rivers, forests, and other natural
resources in order to preserve and protect them through prudent
management - the careful utilization of a natural resource in order to
prevent depletion.
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Page 100
Song title:
Artist:
Phrase from
song
Earth Song
Michael Jackson
What about sunrise
What about rain
What about all the things
That you said we were to gain.. .
What about killing fields
Is there a time
What about all the things
That you said was yours and mine...
Did you ever stop to notice
All the blood we've shed before
Did you ever stop to notice
The crying Earth the weeping shores?
What have we done to the world
Look what we've done
What about all the peace
That you pledge your only son...
What about flowering fields
Is there a time
What about all the dreams
That you said was yours and mine...
Did you ever stop to notice
All the children dead from war
Did you ever stop to notice
The crying Earth the weeping shores
I used to dream
I used to glance beyond the stars
Now I don't know where we are
Although I know we've drifted far
Hey, what about yesterday
What about the seas
The heavens are falling down
I can't even breathe
What about the bleeding Earth
Can't we feel its wounds
What about nature's worth
It's our planet's womb
What about animals
We've turned kingdoms to dust
What about elephants
Have we lost their trust
What about crying whales
We're ravaging the seas
What about forest trails
Burnt despite our pleas
Why did we It addresses so many of the current conservation issues (and is nice to listen to!)
choose this
particular
song?
Any song with a “conservation” theme may be used – check facts / lyrics.
Page 101
eg: Jason – Poetryinnature.com:
See the leaves that fall from trees
Watch them fall to ground with
grace
Carried by the winds of nature
They never stay in just one place
See the leaves that fall from trees
They grow from branches nice and
quick
A season’s when they live their life
Full and short poisoned sick
See the leaves that fall from trees
The venom that we always share
We eradicate our mother nature
And the life that flows through air
See the leaves that fall from trees
They now shrivel up and fall
Don’t even let them their last
breath
Grounded, lifeless no beauty at all
Now see the future of our kind
Our greed has brought us to our
knees
We have condemned all forms of
life
And drank the water of the seas
We have no second earth to hide
We had the cure to our disease
We need not much but open eyes
To see the leaves that fall from
trees
Use rubric on page 101 to assess.
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Page 102
Poster to be assessed using rubric on page 102
Page 103
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LEDC: Least Economically Developed Countries
MEDC: More Economically Developed Countries
GDP:
Gross Domestic Product
JSE:
Johannesburg Stock Exchange
HDI:
Human Development Index
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Module 3
Page 112
Term
Hydrolysis
Leaching
Oxidation
Dehydration
Complete dissolution
Description
H+ or OH- replaces an ion in the mineral.
ions are removed by suspension into water.
Since free oxygen (O2) is more common near the Earth's
surface, it may react with minerals to change the oxidation
state of an ion.
removal of H2O or OH- ion from a mineral.
all of the mineral is completely dissolved by the water.
Chemical weathering involves the alteration of the chemical and mineralogical composition of the
weathered material. A number of different processes can result in chemical weathering. The most
common chemical weathering processes are hydrolysis, oxidation, reduction, hydration,
carbonation, and solution.
Hydrolysis is the weathering reaction that occurs when the two surfaces of water and compound
meet. It involves the reaction between mineral ions and the ions of water (OH- and H+), and results
in the decomposition of the rock surface by forming new compounds, and by increasing the pH of
the solution involved through the release of the hydroxide ions. Hydrolysis is especially effective in
the weathering of common silicate and alumino-silicate minerals because of their electrically
charged crystal surfaces.
Oxidation is the reaction that occurs between compounds and oxygen. The net result of this
reaction is the removal of one or more electrons from a compound, which causes the structure to be
less rigid and increasingly unstable. The most common oxides are those of iron and aluminum, and
their respective red and yellow staining of soils is quite common in tropical regions which have high
temperatures and precipitation. Reduction is simply the reverse of oxidation, and is thus caused by
the addition of one or more electrons producing a more stable compound.
Hydration involves the rigid attachment of H+ and OH- ions to a reacted compound. In many
situations the H and OH ions become a structural part of the crystal lattice of the mineral. Hydration
also allows for the acceleration of other decompositional reactions by expanding the crystal lattice
offering more surface area for reaction.
Carbonation is the reaction of carbonate and bicarbonate ions with minerals. The formation of
carbonates usually takes place as a result of other chemical processes. Carbonation is especially
active when the reaction environment is abundant with carbon dioxide. The formation of carbonic
acid, a product of carbon dioxide and water, is important in the solution of carbonates and the
decomposition of mineral surfaces because of its acidic nature.
Water and the ions it carries as it moves through and around rocks and minerals can further the
weathering process. Geomorphologists call this phenomena solution. The effects of dissolved carbon
dioxide and hydrogen ions in water have already been mentioned, but solution also entails the
effects of a number of other dissolved compounds on a mineral or rock surface. Molecules can mix
in solution to form a great variety of basic and acidic decompositional compounds. The extent,
31
however, of rock being subjected to solution is determined primarily by climatic conditions. Solution
tends to be most effective in areas that have humid and hot climates.
The most important factor affecting all of the above mentioned chemical weathering processes is
climate. Climatic conditions control the rate of weathering that takes place by regulating the
catalysts of moisture and temperature. Experimentation has discovered that tropical weathering
rates, where temperature and moisture are at their maximum, are three and a half times higher
than rates in temperate environments.
EXTENSION : The rock cycle
The processes in the rock cycle are shown in this diagram.

Sedimentation creates layers or rock particles

Compaction and cementation presses the layers and sticks the particles together. This
creates sedimentary rock.

Rocks underground that get heated and put under pressure are changed into
metamorphic rock.

Rocks underground that get heated so much they melt turn into magma. Magma is
liquid rock. Magma also comes from deeper inside the Earth, from an region called the
mantle.

Pressure can force magma out of the ground. This creates a volcano. When the magma
cools it turns into solid rock, called extrusive igneous rock.

Magma that cools underground forms solid rock called intrusive igneous rock.

Areas of rock can move slowly upwards, pushed up by pressure of the rocks forming
underneath. This is called uplift.
32

Weathering breaks down rocks on the surface of the Earth. There are three types of
weathering - physical, chemical and biological.

Wind and water move the broken rock particles away. This is called erosion.

Rivers and streams transport rock particles to other places.

Rock particles are deposited in lakes and seas, where they build up to form layers. This
starts the process of sedimentation which will create sedimentary rock.
Page 114
Strangler fig:
Bivalve mollusc (Piddock):
Page 117
1. Mechanical (physical) weathering
Mechanical weathering is a cause of the disintegration of rocks or wood. Most of the times it
produces smaller angular fragments (like scree), as compared to chemical weathering. However,
chemical and physical weathering often go hand in hand. For example, cracks exploited by
mechanical weathering will increase the surface area exposed to chemical action. Furthermore, the
chemical action at minerals in cracks can aid the disintegration process.
2. Chemical weathering
Chemical weathering involves the change in the composition of rock, often leading to a 'break down'
in its form.
33
3. Biological
A number of plants and animals may create chemical weathering through release of acidic
compounds. Also through mechanical action.
4. Human activities
Human activities generate sulphur dioxide and nitrous oxide which dissolve in rainwater to create
acid rain: Rocks are much more soluble and break down more readily in acid water. Also, we often
create new surfaces which can weather by our activities, in road cuts, quarries etc.
Term
Pioneer species
Humus
Succession
Bio-diversity
Deposition
Fossil fuels
Definition
Pioneer species are species which colonize previously uncolonised land, usually
leading to ecological succession. They are the first organisms to start the chain of
events leading to a liveable biosphere or ecosystem. Since uncolonised land may
have thin, poor quality soils with few nutrients, pioneer species are often hearty
plants with adaptations such as long roots, root nodes containing nitrogen-fixing
bacteria, and leaves that employ transpiration. Pioneer species will die creating
plant litter, and break down as 'leaf mould' after some time, making new soil for
secondary succession (see below), and nutrients for small fish and aquatic plants
in adjacent bodies of water.
In soil science, humus refers to any organic matter that has reached a point of
stability, where it will break down no further and might, if conditions do not
change, remain as it is for centuries, if not millennia
Ecological succession, is the phenomenon or process by which an ecological
community undergoes more or less orderly and predictable changes following
disturbance or initial colonization of new habitat. Succession was among the first
theories advanced in ecology and the study of succession remains at the core of
ecological science. Succession may be initiated either by formation of new,
unoccupied habitat (e.g., a lava flow or a severe landslide) or by some form of
disturbance (e.g. fire, severe wind-throw, logging) of an existing community.
Succession that begins in new habitats, uninfluenced by pre-existing communities
is called primary succession, whereas succession that follows disruption of a preexisting community is called secondary succession.
Biodiversity is the degree of variation of life forms within a given ecosystem,
biome, or an entire planet. Biodiversity is a measure of the health of ecosystems.
Biodiversity is in part a function of climate. In terrestrial habitats, tropical regions
are typically rich whereas polar regions support fewer species.
Deposition is the geological process by which material is added to a landform or
land mass. Fluids such as wind and water, as well as sediment flowing via gravity,
transport previously eroded sediment, which, at the loss of enough kinetic energy
in the fluid, is deposited, building up layers of sediment.
Deposition occurs when the forces responsible for sediment transportation are no
longer sufficient to overcome the forces of particle weight and friction, creating a
resistance to motion. Deposition can also refer to the build-up of sediment from
organically derived matter or chemical processes.
Fossil fuels are fuels formed by natural processes such as anaerobic
decomposition of buried dead organisms. Fossil fuels contain high percentages of
carbon and include coal, petroleum, and natural gas. Fossil fuels formed from the
fossilized remains of dead plants by exposure to heat and pressure in the Earth's
crust over millions of years.
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Page 120
Weathering is the breaking down of rocks, soils and minerals as well as artificial materials through
contact with the Earth's atmosphere, biota and waters. Weathering occurs in situ, or "with no
movement", and thus should not be confused with erosion, which involves the movement of rocks
and minerals by agents such as water, ice, snow, wind and gravity.
Two important classifications of weathering processes exist – physical and chemical weathering.
Mechanical or physical weathering involves the breakdown of rocks and soils through direct contact
with atmospheric conditions, such as heat, water, ice and pressure. The second classification,
chemical weathering, involves the direct effect of atmospheric chemicals or biologically produced
chemicals (also known as biological weathering) in the breakdown of rocks, soils and minerals. As
with many other geological processes the distinction between weathering and related processes is
diffuse.
The materials left over after the rock breaks down combined with organic material creates soil. The
mineral content of the soil is determined by the parent material, thus a soil derived from a single
rock type can often be deficient in one or more minerals for good fertility, while a soil weathered
from a mix of rock types (as in glacial, aeolian or alluvial sediments) often makes more fertile soil. In
addition many of Earth's landforms and landscapes are the result of weathering processes combined
with erosion and re-deposition.
Erosion is the process by which materials are removed from the surface and changed into something
else. It works by hydraulic or aeolian actions and transport of solids (sediment, soil, rock and other
particles) in the natural environment, and leads to the deposition of these materials elsewhere. It
usually occurs due to transport by wind, water, or ice; by down-slope creep of soil and other
material under the force of gravity; or by living organisms, such as burrowing animals, in the case of
bio-erosion.
Although erosion is a natural process, human land use policies also have had an effect on erosion,
especially industrial agriculture, deforestation, and urban sprawl. Land that is used for industrial
agriculture generally experiences a significantly greater rate of erosion than that of land under
natural vegetation, or land used for sustainable agricultural practices. This is particularly true if
tillage is used, which reduces vegetation cover on the surface of the soil and disturbs both soil
structure and plant roots that would otherwise hold the soil in place. However, improved land use
practices can limit erosion, using techniques such as terrace-building, no-till, and tree planting.
A certain amount of erosion is natural and, in fact, healthy for the ecosystem. For example, gravels
continuously move downstream in watercourses. Excessive erosion, however, causes serious
problems, such as receiving water sedimentation, ecosystem damage and outright loss of soil.
Erosion is distinguished from weathering, which is the process of chemical or physical breakdown of
the minerals in the rocks. The two processes may occur concurrently, however.
Deposition is the geological process by which material is added to a landform or land mass. Fluids
such as wind and water, as well as sediment flowing via gravity, transport previously eroded
35
sediment, which, at the loss of enough kinetic energy in the fluid, is deposited, building up layers of
sediment.
Deposition occurs when the forces responsible for sediment transportation are no longer sufficient
to overcome the forces of particle weight and friction, creating a resistance to motion. Deposition
can also refer to the build-up of sediment from organically derived matter or chemical processes. For
example, chalk is made up partly of the microscopic calcium carbonate skeletons of marine plankton,
the deposition of which has induced chemical processes (diagenesis) to deposit further calcium
carbonate. Similarly, the formation of coal begins with deposition of organic material, mainly from
plants, in anaerobic conditions.
Page 122
Deposition at the river mouth – delta.
Deposition along the course of the river – wider river banks.
Many types of deposition are found along the course of a river.
Alluvial fans
These are found in semi-arid areas where mountain streams enter a main valley or plain at the foot
of the mountains. The sudden decrease in velocity causes the stream to deposit its load. Smaller fans
are common in glaciated areas at the edge of major glacial troughs, particularly at the base of a
hanging valley.
Riffles
These are small ridges of material deposited where the river velocity is reduced midstream. If there
are many riffles the river is said to be braided.
Levees and flood plain deposits
These are formed, over a long period of time, in places where a river regularly bursts its banks.
Water loses velocity quickly leading to the rapid deposition of coarse material near the river channel
edge to form embankments, called levees. Finer material is carried further away and deposited on
the flood plain.
IMPACT OF EROSION ON TOURISM:
Inland; Natural erosion attractions include Bourke's Luck Potholes, where Tom Bourke, a 19thcentury gold rush prospector, is said to have made his fortune. Water erosion over millennia has
carved cylindrical sculptures from the canyon's red and yellow rocks which are interspersed with
rock pools.
The 29 000 ha Blyde River Canyon Nature Reserve nearly 2 500 metres of red sandstone and is one
of South Africa's most remarkable geological features. Blyde River Canyon, is the third largest canyon
on Earth and is situated below the confluence of the Blyde (joy) and Treur (sorrow) rivers.
36
From the canyon look out eastwards to the Three Rondavels or Three Sisters, three massive spirals
of dolomite that rise from the far wall of the canyon. A single quartzite column - aptly named the
Pinnacle - rises from the wooded canyon, offering more spectacular vistas.
Coastal:
Next time you sit on a rocky promontory, mesmerised by the motion of the waves,
watch how the water from each wave runs away by following cracks and weaknesses in the rocks,
relentlessly wearing away the seemingly hard surface. Look at how the different types of rocks are
eroded. Table mountain sandstone, a sedimentary layered rock, erodes into pinnacles and blocks.
Granite weathers into rounded boulders of varying sizes. At places such as Arniston and northern
KwaZulu-Natal, the rocks are soft because they are formed from consolidated beach sand. At such
locations waves cut flat platforms, backed by steep cliffs. On flat rocky platforms pebbles constantly
tossed by the sea have acted as grinding stones carving out a myriad of pools where sea creatures
shelter. Caves and blowholes have been patiently worn in rocky cliffs by spurts of water. Half-heart
bays and breakwaters Half-heart bays are a common feature of southern African shores, and are
formed where a rocky headland deflects the long-shore currents, which are driven by prevailing
winds. As a result the beach is eroded away near to the headland and builds up on the opposite side
of the bay. A good example is Algoa Bay near Port Elizabeth. Artificial breakwaters projecting into
the sea have the same effect, so that the beach builds up on one side of the breakwater and is
eroded away on the other side. Breakwaters and piers across Durban beach deflect the long shore
current and also prevent the input of sediment so that in some areas the beaches have become built
up while in others they have been eroded away and have to be artificially replenished by sand
dredged offshore. At Monwabisi resort in False bay, in the Cape, a breakwater was built to protect
the beach but it has resulted in rip currents next to the break-water and a number of people have
drowned. On some beaches the sand is scoured out by longshore currents and is replaced by sand
blown in from the neighbouring dunes. At Arniston when the dunes were stabilized with vegetation,
the supply of sand to the beach was cut off and the beach was scoured away and turned into a
boulder beach. The problem has been solved by removing the artificial vegetation from the dunes.
These examples underline the need for impact assessments before building any structures that alter
the flow of the sea or the movement of sand.
Erosion in river catchments: One of the most serious problems in South Africa is erosion in river
catchments. Rainfall in many places is irregular and often falls as short sharp storms on parched
earth with the result that top-soil is washed away down erosion channels. Several agricultural
practices have contributed to severe erosion in the past: In KwaZulu-Natal the riverine vegetation
was cleared and sugar cane planted right to the banks of rivers and there was severe bank erosion
and loss of top-soil.
Where found, the indigenous fynbos vegetation on the other hand protects the soil and has a
spongy root system that traps and holds the water letting it seep away slowly over an extended
period. In estuaries reed beds act as silt traps and filters. In a large river with a gradual gradient, like
the Nile, the top-soil is deposited in a delta and overflow from the river in times of flood creates a
rich fertile agricultural area. The destruction of fynbos leads to exposed soil which is prone to
erosion, making it less likely to be stabilised by fynbos again. This vicious cycle endangers the very
existence of one of earth’s most unique biomes, threatening tourism in the process.
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SEDIMENTATION ALONG RIVERS AND THE INFLUENCE ON ARABLE FARMLAND:
In geography and agriculture, arable land is land that can be used for growing crops. Sediment
(sometimes called „silt‟ or „alluvium‟) is comprised of solid particles of mineral and organic material
that are transported by water. In river systems the amount of sediment transported is controlled by
both the transport capacity of the flow and the supply of sediment. The “suspended sediment load”
refers to the fine sediment that is carried in suspension and this can comprise material picked up
from the bed of the river (suspended bed material) and material washed into the river from the
surrounding land (wash load). The wash load is usually finer than the suspended bed material. In
contrast, the “bed load” comprises larger sediment particles that are transported on the bed of the
river by rolling, sliding or saltation. Most rivers will transport sediment in each of these „load‟ forms,
according to the flow conditions.
The social demands on water management, including water supply, flood control, sediment control,
navigation, environmental health and recreational use, are increasing with the growth of human
populations around the world. In arid areas where water is scarce, these issues take on an increased
significance. Food production and water management usually go hand - in- hand, with agricultural
water use accounting for approximately 70% of the total world water use. In the recent past the area
of land under agricultural production has increased sharply, reducing forest cover and increasing
water use and rates of soil loss. Since agriculture is the key sector of employment in most developing
countries, the allocation and management of water resources is crucial to their on-going
development. Sediment management is very important to agriculture, both in terms of minimizing
erosion from farmland and also in ensuring the efficient operation of irrigation infrastructure (which
may be disrupted by excess sediment in waterways).
Sediment transport, as a natural component of river geomorphology, is generally not in itself a
problem. Sediment plays an important role in maintaining fluvial environments such as channel
systems, floodplains, wetlands and estuaries, and equilibrium between erosion and deposition
usually occurs along a river’s course in natural, undisturbed, systems. Equally, soil erosion must be
seen as a natural process and in undisturbed landscapes, rates of soil loss or surface lowering are
generally balanced by rates of soil formation. However, natural equilibriums are readily disrupted by
extreme climatic events and human activities, such as land clearance which cause increased inputs
of both runoff and sediment to river systems. The resulting imbalances can have a range of
detrimental impacts on society, economies and the environment. Neglecting to manage sediment in
a sustainable way, through effective sediment management strategies or policies, could lead to a
higher operational costs and significant adverse impacts on society and the environment.
Sediments in areas with high human activity often contain chemical pollutants which may pose a risk
to human health and the health of surrounding ecosystems. Potable water supplies can be
compromised by the presence of excess sediment (whether contaminated by toxins or not) as
purification facilities may not be able to cope with the sediment in the water – leading to temporary
breakdowns and subsequent risks to the safety of the drinking water. Contaminated surface waters
also risk altering the metabolic processes of the aquatic species that they host. These alterations can
lead to fish kills or alter the balance of populations present. Other specific impacts are on animal
reproducing, spawning, egg and larvae viability, juvenile survival and plant productivity.
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Page 125
Beach drift is the drifting of sediments, especially marine sediments, in patterns parallel to the
contours of a beach, due to the action of waves and currents.
Longshore drift consists of the transportation of sediments (generally sand but may also consist of
coarser sediments such as gravels) along a coast at an angle to the shoreline, which is dependent on
prevailing wind direction, swash and backwash. The process is also known as longshore transport or
littoral drift.
Swash:
Swash, in geography, is a turbulent layer of water that washes up on the beach after
an incoming wave has broken. The swash action can move beach material up and down on the
beach, which results in the cross-shore sediment exchange.
Backwash:
Backwash refers to the water that rolls back down a beach after a wave has broken.
EROSIONAL LANDFORMS FORMED BY WAVE ACTION:
There are 3 main groups of coastal features which result from coastal erosion:
1. Headlands and Bays
Headlands are resistant outcrops of rock sticking out into the sea, whilst bays are indents in the
coastline between two headlands.
2. Caves, Arches, Stacks and Sumps
Once a headland has formed it is then exposed to the full force of destructive waves and it gradually
begins to erode.
- Firstly, the sea attacks the foot of the cliff and begins to erode areas of weakness such as joints and
cracks, through processes of erosion such as hydraulic action, wave pounding, abrasion and solution;
- Gradually these cracks get larger, developing into small caves;
- Further erosion widens the cave and where the fault lines runs through the headland, two caves
will eventually erode into the back of each other forming an arch, passing right through the
headland.
- A combination of wave attack at the base of the arch, and weathering of the roof of the arch (by
frost, wind and rain), weakens the structure until eventually the roof of the arch collapses inwards
leaving a stack, a stack is a column of rock which stands separate from the rest of the headland.
- The stack will continue to erode, eventually collapsing to form a stump which will be covered by
water at high tide.
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3. Cliffs and Wave-cut platforms
Cliffs are steep rock faces along the coastline - they tend form along concordant coastlines with
resistant rocks parallel to the coast.
- The erosion of a cliff is greatest at its base where large waves break - here hydraulic action,
scouring and wave pounding actively undercut the foot of the cliff forming an indent called a wavecut notch whilst the cliff face is also affected by abrasion as rock fragments are hurled against the
cliff by the breaking waves.
- This undercutting continues and eventually the overhanging cliff collapses downwards - this
process continues and the cliff gradually retreats and becomes steeper.
- As the cliff retreats, a gently-sloping rocky platform is left at the base, this is known as a wave-cut
platform which is exposed at low tide.
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Page 131
Rhyme that contains the definitions: Wind erodes the Earth's surface by deflation (the
removal of loose, fine-grained particles), by the turbulent eddy action of the wind and by
abrasion (the wearing down of surfaces by the grinding action and sandblasting of windborne
particles).
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Page 133
The Wave – Navajo:
Page 137
BEACH EROSION
Beach Erosion has become a household name around the world
as it continues as a growing problem.
Whether the shore is sheltered or exposed currents, waves, and
sea level change play a major role in the causes of this erosion
type.
One solution is "beach restoration (beach nourishment)". However, this is not only a temporary
solution, but it is also a controversial subject. Sand must be trucked in from other sources and
filtered for sediment. This sand, too, will eventually make its way into the air or the water, bringing it
back to its eroded state. The harvesting of restorative sand could have a negative impact on the
aquatic life, change currents, and ultimately create new erosion.
Another popular solution is to build seawalls, revetments, and jetties along the shoreline. According
to Dr. Ken Ruben , assistant professor of Geology and Geophysics at the University of Hawaii, "these
have a negative effect on beaches because once sea water reaches them, it bounces off them with
more energy than a wave washing back off a normal sand beach."
Nothing beats beach erosion like natural vegetation. Natural fibres, like coir , can help propagate the
growth and provide stability to root systems. If a seawall must be built, the fabric underlay should be
a geotextile.
Coastal erosion occurs along beaches and shorelines. Both wind action and water action have
important parts in this process and constantly change the boundary between land and water.
Coastal erosion takes land away forever from one area to deposit it someplace else.
The beach is constantly pounded by waves which eventually break fragments of ground and rock
into sand. How hard a beach is hit by waves depends on lunar tides and differences in water density.
There is no continuous groundcover on the beach, so sand dunes form easily. Wind blows sand
particles from side to side. People sometimes build fences to keep sand from shifting so much.
Eventually, the sand is blown away and water takes its' place. The land is gone.
42
SOIL EROSION CAUSED BY POOR FARMING TECHNIQUES
Soil erosion is one form of soil degradation along with soil compaction, low organic matter, loss of
soil structure, poor internal drainage, salinisation, and soil acidity problems. These other forms of
soil degradation, serious in themselves, usually contribute to accelerated soil erosion.
Soil erosion is a naturally occurring process on all land. The agents of soil erosion are water and
wind, each contributing a significant amount of soil loss each year in Ontario.
Soil erosion may be a slow process that continues relatively unnoticed, or it may occur at an
alarming rate causing serious loss of topsoil. The loss of soil from farmland may be reflected in
reduced crop production potential, lower surface water quality and damaged drainage networks.
The rate and magnitude of soil erosion by water is controlled by the following factors:
Rainfall Intensity and Runoff
Both rainfall and runoff factors must be considered in assessing a water erosion problem. The impact
of raindrops on the soil surface can break down soil aggregates and disperse the aggregate material.
Lighter aggregate materials such as very fine sand, silt, clay and organic matter can be easily
removed by the raindrop splash and runoff water; greater raindrop energy or runoff amounts might
be required to move the larger sand and gravel particles.
Soil movement by rainfall (raindrop splash) is usually greatest and most noticeable during shortduration, high-intensity thunderstorms. Although the erosion caused by long-lasting and less-intense
storms is not as spectacular or noticeable as that produced during thunderstorms, the amount of soil
loss can be significant, especially when compounded over time. Runoff can occur whenever there is
excess water on a slope that cannot be absorbed into the soil or trapped on the surface. The amount
of runoff can be increased if infiltration is reduced due to soil compaction, crusting or freezing.
Runoff from the agricultural land may be greatest during spring months when the soils are usually
saturated, snow is melting and vegetative cover is minimal.
Soil erodibility is an estimate of the ability of soils to resist erosion, based on the physical
characteristics of each soil. Generally, soils with faster infiltration rates, higher levels of organic
matter and improved soil structure have a greater resistance to erosion. Sand, sandy loam and loam
textured soils tend to be less erodible than silt, very fine sand, and certain clay textured soils.
Tillage and cropping practices which lower soil organic matter levels, cause poor soil structure, and
result of compacted contribute to increases in soil erodibility. Decreased infiltration and increased
runoff can be a result of compacted subsurface soil layers. A decrease in infiltration can also be
caused by a formation of a soil crust, which tends to "seal" the surface. On some sites, a soil crust
might decrease the amount of soil loss from sheet or rain splash erosion, however, a corresponding
increase in the amount of runoff water can contribute to greater rill erosion problems.
Past erosion has an effect on a soils' erodibility for a number of reasons. Many exposed subsurface
soils on eroded sites tend to be more erodible than the original soils were, because of their poorer
structure and lower organic matter. The lower nutrient levels often associated with subsoils
43
contribute to lower crop yields and generally poorer crop cover, which in turn provides less crop
protection for the soil.
Naturally, the steeper the slope of a field, the greater the amount of soil loss from erosion by water.
Soil erosion by water also increases as the slope length increases due to the greater accumulation of
runoff. Consolidation of small fields into larger ones often results in longer slope lengths with
increased erosion potential, due to increased velocity of water which permits a greater degree of
scouring (carrying capacity for sediment).
Soil erosion potential is increased if the soil has no or very little vegetative cover of plants and/or
crop residues. Plant and residue cover protects the soil from raindrop impact and splash, tends to
slow down the movement of surface runoff and allows excess surface water to infiltrate.
The erosion-reducing effectiveness of plant and/or residue covers depends on the type, extent and
quantity of cover. Vegetation and residue combinations that completely cover the soil, and which
intercept all falling raindrops at and close to the surface and the most efficient in controlling soil
(e.g. forests, permanent grasses ). Partially incorporated residues and residual roots are also
important as these provide channels that allow surface water to move into the soil.
The effectiveness of any crop, management system or protective cover also depends on how much
protection is available at various periods during the year, relative to the amount of erosive rainfall
that falls during these periods. In this respect, crops which provide a food, protective cover for a
major portion of the year (for example, alfalfa or winter cover crops) can reduce erosion much more
than can crops which leave the soil bare for a longer period of time (e.g. row crops) and particularly
during periods of high erosive rainfall (spring and summer). However, most of the erosion on annual
row crop land can be reduced by leaving a residue cover greater than 30% after harvest and over the
winter months, or by inter-seeding a forage crop (e.g. red clover).
Soil erosion potential is affected by tillage operations, depending on the depth, direction and timing
of plowing, the type of tillage equipment and the number of passes. Generally, the less the
disturbance of vegetation or residue cover at or near the surface, the more effective the tillage
practice in reducing erosion.
Certain conservation measures can reduce soil erosion by both water and wind. Tillage and cropping
practices, as well a land management practices, directly affect the overall soil erosion problem and
solutions on a farm. When crop rotations or changing tillage practices are not enough to control
erosion on a field, a combination of approaches or more extreme measures might be necessary. For
example, contour plowing, strip cropping, or terracing may be considered.
Sheet erosion is soil movement from raindrop splash resulting in the breakdown of soil surface
structure and surface runoff; it occurs rather uniformly over the slope and may go unnoticed until
most of the productive topsoil has been lost. Rill erosion results when surface runoff concentrates
forming small yet well-defined channels. These channels are called rills when they are small enough
to not interfere with field machinery operations. The same eroded channels are known as gullies
when they become a nuisance factor in normal tillage.
Farms lose large quantities of topsoil and subsoil each year due to fully erosion. Surface runoff,
causing gull formation or the enlarging of existing gullies, is usually the result of improper outlet
44
design for local surface and subsurface drainage systems. The soil instability of fully banks, usually
associated with seepage of ground water, leads to sloughing and slumping (caving-in) of bank slopes.
Such failures usually occur during spring months when the soil water conditions are most conducive
to the problem. Gully formations can be difficult to control if remedial measures are not designed
and properly constructed. Control measures have to consider the cause of the increased flow of
water across the landscape. This is where the multitude of conservation measures come into play.
Operations with farm machinery adjacent to gullies can be quite hazardous when cropping or
attempting to reclaim lost land.
Poor construction, or inadequate maintenance, of surface drainage systems, uncontrolled livestock
access, and cropping too close to both stream banks has led to bank erosion problems. The direct
damages from bank erosion include:



The loss of productive farmland.
The undermining of structures such as bridges.
The washing out of lanes, roads and fence rows.
Poorly constructed tile outlets may also contribute to stream and ditch bank erosion. Some do not
function properly because they have no rigid outlet pipe, or have outlet pipes that have been
damaged by erosion, machinery, inadequate or no splash pads, and bank cave-ins.
On-Site Effects: The implications of soil erosion extend beyond the removal of valuable topsoil. Crop
emergence, growth and yield are directly affected through the loss of natural nutrients and applied
fertilizers with the soil. Seeds and plants can be disturbed or completely removed from the eroded
site. Organic matter from the soil, residues and any applied manure, is relatively light-weight and can
be readily transported off the field, particularly during spring thaw conditions. Pesticides may also be
carried off the site with the eroded soil.
Soil quality, structure, stability and texture can be affected by the loss of soil. The breakdown of
aggregates and the removal of smaller particles or entire layers of soil or organic matter can weaken
the structure and even change the texture. Textural changes can in turn affect the water-holding
capacity of the soil, making it more susceptible to extreme condition such a drought. Off-Site Effects:
Off-site impacts of soil erosion are not always as apparent as the on-site effects. Eroded soil,
deposited down slope can inhibit or delay the emergence of seeds, bury small seedling and
necessitate replanting in the affected areas. Sediment can be deposited on down slope properties
and can contribute to road damage.
Sediment which reaches streams or watercourses can accelerate ban erosion, clog drainage ditches
and stream channels, silt in reservoirs, cover fish spawning grounds and reduce downstream water
quality. Pesticides and fertilizers, frequently transported along with the eroding soil can contaminate
or pollute downstream water sources and recreational areas. Because of the potential seriousness of
some of the off-site impacts, the control of "non-point" pollution from agricultural land has become
of increasing importance.
Excess tillage can contribute to soil structure breakdown and increased erosion. The speed and
duration of the wind have a direct relationship to the extent of soil erosion. Soil moisture levels can
be very low at the surface of excessively drained soils or during periods of drought, thus releasing
45
the particles for transport by wind. This effect also occurs in freeze drying of the surface during
winter months. The lack of windbreaks (trees, shrubs, residue, etc.) allows the wind to put soil
particles into motion for greater distances thus increasing the abrasion and soil erosion. Knolls are
usually exposed and suffer the most.
The lack of permanent vegetation cover in certain locations has resulted in extensive erosion by
wind. Loose, dry, bare soil is the most susceptible, however, crops that produce low levels of residue
also may not provide enough resistance. As well, crops that produce a lot of residue also may not
protect the soil in severe cases. The most effective vegetative cover for protection should include an
adequate network of living windbreaks combined with good tillage, residue management, and crop
selection. Wind erosion may create adverse operating conditions in the field. Crops can be totally
ruined so that costly delay and reseeding is necessary - or the plants may be sandblasted and set
back with a resulting decrease in yield, loss of quality, and market value.
DEFORESTATION
Forests grow all over the world and serve an important function to keep the environment working
properly. The trees in the forest draw in carbon dioxide, a harmful air, and release oxygen into the
air that we breathe. In recent years, deforestation that is occurring all over the world has
interrupted the balance in this process. Deforestation is defined as "The cutting down and removal
of all or most of the trees in a forested area. Deforestation can erode soils, contribute to
desertification and the pollution of waterways, and decrease biodiversity through the destruction of
habitat."
The definition brings to light many of the problems of deforestation that are occurring, both in South
Africa and elsewhere. Another major problem that is occurring is the elimination of trees has
allowed less and less oxygen to be pumped into the environment. This reduction in oxygen is one of
the main causes of global warming. Deforestation occurs everywhere across the globe for a number
of reasons. In most situations, especially in developing countries like those in South Africa where
deforestation is occurring, trees are cut down to make way for people. The land that is cleared by
removing these trees is used for agricultural purposes to sustain the people. The wood is then used
for the building of homes and industry.
Although this may seem acceptable, deforestation continues to damage the environment in a
number of ways. Reduction in Oxygen: As mentioned in the introduction, trees remove carbon
dioxide from the air and release oxygen. As more and more trees disappear from any given area, the
amount of carbon dioxide in the air rises and less oxygen is produced. Since carbon monoxide is a
greenhouse gas, proponents of global warming cite deforestation as being one of the main causes of
global warming. Destruction of Habitat: The forests in areas like South America are home to a vast
number of wildlife species. As the forests are destroyed, the habitats of some animals are destroyed.
This can lead animals to behave in ways they would not normally and threaten their survival.
Deforestation can also cause desertification to occur. This occurs because of the way the
environment changes. Once desertification occurs, it takes years to reverse the process.
The more trees removed off the face of this planet means the less healthy breathable air for us all.
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Page 139
D:
High Moisture and High Temperature
Physical Weathering
Mechanical or physical weathering involves the
breakdown of rocks and soils through direct
contact with atmospheric conditions, such as
heat, water, ice and pressure
Chemical Weathering
chemical weathering, involves the direct effect
of atmospheric chemicals or biologically
produced chemicals (also known as biological
weathering) in the breakdown of rocks, soils and
minerals
Causes of physical weathering: The action of weathering forces on landforms and structure. Eg
waves, water, glacier, wind, and gravity
Although Physical Weathering is the disintegration of rocks and minerals by a physical or mechanical
process and Chemical Weathering is the chemical alteration or decomposition of rocks and
minerals, both work together to break down rocks and minerals to smaller fragments or to minerals
more stable near the Earth's surface. Both types are a response to the low pressure, low
temperature, and water and oxygen rich nature of the earth’s surface. Since chemical weathering
occurs on the surface of minerals, the water and acids that control chemical weathering require
access to the surface. Physical weathering breaks the rock to provide that surface. Fracturing the
rocks, as occurs during jointing, increases the surface area that can be exposed to weathering and
also provides pathways for water to enter the rock.
As chemical weathering proceeds, new softer minerals, like oxides or clay minerals, will create zones
of weakness in rock that will allow for further physical weathering. Dissolution of minerals will
remove material that holds the rock together, thus making it weaker. When rock weathers, it
usually does so by working inward from a surface that is exposed to the weathering process. If joints
and fractures in rock beneath the surface form a 3-dimensional network, the rock will be broken into
cube like pieces separated by the fractures. Water can penetrate more easily along these fractures,
and each of the cube-like pieces will begin to weather inward. The rate of weathering will be
greatest along the corners of each cube, followed by the edges, and finally the faces of the cubes. As
a result the cube will weather into a spherical shape, with unweathered rock in the centre and
weathered rock toward the outside. Such progression of weathering is referred to as spheroid al
weathering.
Climate- High amounts of water and higher temperatures generally cause chemical reactions to run
faster. Thus warm humid climates generally have more highly weathered rock, and rates of
weathering are higher than in cold dry climates. Example: limestones in a dry desert climate are
very resistant to weathering, but limestones in a tropical climate weather very rapidly.
Page 141
Artwork assessed using rubric on page 141 – mark /25
Page 146
Earthquake towers project assessed using rubric on page 147 – mark/25
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Module 4
Page 150
Resource
Coal
Diamonds
Wildlife
Gold
Petroleum gas
Trees (depends on species)
Bamboo
Oil
Water
Renewable
√
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Non-renewable
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Some forests are renewable, that is, trees can be replanted and grown to maturity in place of those
that are cut down. Others are not renewable, like rain forests that have taken thousands of years to
grow. If you cut one tree down, you can plant one in its place. In forestry, this is called rotation.
Many forests are on a 35 year rotation. The timber will be selectively harvested up to 35 years of
age, then cut and replanted. This timber is a renewable resource, also called plantation forests,
which are planted and then cut down to make paper. It is sometimes called a sustainable resource,
so long as we keep planting and growing trees at the same rate or better as we cut them down.
Technically a tree is a renewable resource, as you can replace what you use in about 20 years
depending on the species of tree. However, when companies cut down entire forests of trees, much
biodiversity is lost and it is too hard to replace what was destroyed. Unfortunately, trees are often
consumed in a non-renewable fashion. History is filled with stories of trees being harvested in a nonrenewable fashion, leaving what was once a forest, permanently barren. A notable example of this is
Easter Island. If depletion exceeds a critical value, forests are permanently removed and hence
non-renewable. The key here lies in deciding which tree species to use for lumber as well as the
growth / rotation period allowed for.
Tree species can be grouped into hardwoods and softwoods. Hardwood trees typically lose their
leaves in the winter and softwood trees do not. Hardwood trees also have several wood
characteristics that make them ideal species for some paper and energy products. For example,
hardwoods are used for most writing papers, envelopes or whenever a smooth printing surface is
required. In addition, hardwoods have chemical properties that make them well suited for some
cellulosic ethanol conversion processes.
Hardwood forests occur naturally in many environments. Natural hardwood forests typically inhabit
low lying, wet sites not well suited to intensive management. In contrast, purpose grown hardwoods
are planted trees of a selected species and variety that provide desirable growth and wood
properties to the land owner. In addition, purpose grown hardwoods are planted on more upland
sites traditionally used for forest management or agriculture.
Selecting the perfect short rotation woody crop for purpose grown biomass and bioenergy requires
that a tree meet some specific criteria:
48
It must be able to adapt to a variety of sites
It must grow fast and be economically viable
It must yield an end product that minimizes waste in the production process
It needs to be resistant to freeze, drought, diseases and pests
Finding the perfect hardwood species that could be purpose grown at an economical rate, starts
with research and collaboration. This is why the pulp and paper industries, in cooperation with
government and universities, have spent millions of rands in research to identify economically viable
hardwood species, including Eucalyptus. Eucalyptus is among the fastest growing hardwood trees in
the world, is grown in more than 90 countries and represents 8 % of all planted forests.
Eucalyptus remains the top choice for wood, fibre and energy. The benefits of this biomass crop are
numerous:
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Eucalyptus is the world’s most widely planted hardwood species
Eucalyptus is prized globally for excellence in paper and energy production
Eucalyptus grows faster than other hardwood species
Eucalyptus will grow on upland landscapes, reducing pressure on environmentally sensitive
areas
Eucalyptus grows commercially with similar inputs to Pine
Eucalyptus produces feedstock for fibre and energy in short rotations
The U.S. Department of Energy has identified Eucalyptus as a potentially viable option for
biomass. In fact, this important species was singled out by the Department of Energy because of “its
implications for helping wean the nation’s dependence on fossil fuel”. As such, the Federal
government is currently spending millions of dollars to map the DNA sequence of the Eucalyptus.
The danger here lies in the fact that Eucalyptus is not indigenous to SA and great care thus needs to
be taken in protecting our endemic hardwood species for prosperity.
In order to slow climate change and reduce our country’s dependence on foreign oil by 30 % by
2030, we must learn how to use regional resources for bioenergy and biomass in a sustainable and
environmentally friendly way.
There is no single solution to meet our energy requirements. Solar, wind, nuclear, hydroelectric,
waste-to-energy, and ethanol are all part of the solution, as is a conscientious reduction of individual
use of energy and a dedication to doing the right thing for our environment.
Trees like Eucalyptus can be harvested year-round and provide a living inventory of available
biomass, which reduces storage and inventory holding costs along with minimal shrinkage and
degradation losses. Because much of the infrastructure already exists, trees will require fewer
capital investments to harvest and transport, and costs can be spread throughout the year rather
than concentrated in a short seasonal harvest period.
Harvesting trees will only happen every few years, reducing the environmental impact created by
disturbances at harvest and planting.
49
While a comparable total acreage may be needed, with trees only a fraction of that total would be
planted or harvested in any given year, compared to harvesting the same footprint each year for an
annual crop.
Trees offer the landowner flexibility relative to other energy crops, both in terms of choice of when
to harvest, and the multiple end use pathways including wood, fibre and energy.
Obviously, the solution actually lies in finding good alternatives to traditional lumber farming.
After designing through a sustainable lens, the next step is to insure the products you use are
environmentally friendly – and safe for you!
Certified Rapidly Renewable lumber: Fast-growing trees offer the general benefits of plants but also
offer a consistent supply of materials for construction. The Aspen is a rapidly renewable tree and is
used in engineered lumber products.
Engineered lumber: Engineered lumber is a type of man-made recycled lumber. It adds value to a
project because it's stronger than wood fibre, uses 50% less timber, is made from rapid growth
trees, uses environmentally friendly adhesives, and is easy to work with because it is exact in size. It
is more stable, doesn't shrink, warp or twist!
Composite lumber: This lumber is made from recycled materials and will outlast wood by two to
three times. It never requires paint or finishes, and will not burn or splinter bare feet in the summer.
It's perfect for decking!
Reclaimed/salvaged wood: Reclaimed wood is salvaged from buildings and structures that are being
remodelled or torn down. This wood is not associated with recent timber harvesting, it reuses
materials, and it can reduce the construction and demolition load on landfills.
When some talk about the lumber industry they portray companies that are eliminating the forests.
That is just not the case. Let's look at the nature life cycle of a forest if humans never stepped foot
inside. Trees grow and drop seeds and more trees grow. The forest continues overtime to thicken
and the large trees kill out the smaller trees creating dead down fall. Over years some of this down
fall decays and returns to the earth. This process continues to create overgrown forests and more
dry trees. Fire is eventually the remedy that cleanses the forest and starts the process all over.
Nature causes such as beetles can kill off a complete forest and again fire is the remedy to restore
the forest. A well-managed forest can be looked at similar the life cycle just described, cleaning out
the old to allow for the smaller new trees to flourish. Creating a continuing life cycle of usable
products that can be recycled that is not harmful or toxic in any way. Many claim that steel studs are
greener than wood studs. If the life cycle of a steel stud versus the life cycle of a wood stud is
compared, lumber is far greener than steel. It takes more energy to create a steel stud and the
renewable factors of wood are far better. Yes steel can be recycled but with the use of far more
energy. Ore comes from the ground and is not renewable like growing a tree. Not all lumber
companies manage the forests like they should. The same as all car companies don't produce fuel
efficient cars. So finding a certified green dealer is important if you want to make sure your wood
products are considered green. So from this is wood "Green and Sustainable"? You decide.
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Page 152
Hybrid cars carry with them a bundle of advantages.
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Hybrids combine clean energy of the electrical motor with the power of the gas-powered
engine which results into lower emissions and better mileage.
Thanks to the ever improving technology, hybrids perform at par with the normal gaspowered vehicles, if not better.
Hybrids are reliable and comfortable as any traditional car and they have a tax benefits (only
till 2006).
There are purchase incentives for Hybrid vehicle owners .
Hybrids are much cleaner cars than normal vehicles with lesser CO and other greenhouse
gas emissions.
Hybrids provide a better mileage.
The future for hybrids looks bright with rapid developments in hybrid technology to improve
engine efficiency.
Due to the Regenerative Braking technology, the batteries need not be charged by an
external source.
Special warranties are provided for the battery pack, the electric motor other costly items.
Hybrids help reduce the dependency on fossil fuels which directly affects fuel prices.
Hybrid cars are often referred to as the 'car of the era'. The unique advantages of the hybrid car will
be sole basis for such recognition in the market. The motor industry was always in the effort to
develop most beneficial model and the disadvantages of the conventional model might be the
triggering factor for the formation of advantageous models. Usually, anything to be considered as
advantageous will make benefit only to its owner, and to the maximum, the family of the owner. The
specialty of the hybrid car enhances in this situation since its advantages can attribute benefit to not
only the owner or his family, but to the entire society, nation and the mankind.
The advantages of the hybrid car start right from its difference in the basic pattern. Hybrid car is type
of car that utilizes two energy sources for its movement. The popular hybrid cars in the market are
manufactured in such a manner to combine the benefits of an internal combustion engine and
electrical motor. The shortening level of gasoline in the world as it is a non-renewable energy was
the major drawback of the conventional cars, which was rectified in the electrical cars, but it also
had its own disadvantages. The advantage of the hybrid car is that it can rectify the complaints in the
both systems and balances the use of electrical energy and gasoline engine, in their optimum levels.
In the hybrid car, the electrical energy is used while starting up of the car and its low speed ranges,
which will help to impart a check to the tail pipe emissions. As the automobiles is increasing, world is
at the threat of toxic pollutants and global warming, due to their exhaust ingredients. The decrease
in the tail pipe emission will be a great advantage for the environment as well as the society.
However, gasoline engine will take up the transmission, when the speed goes up since, it is essential
to attribute the pace for the drive. While the traffic stops and steep slopes the electrical energy will
be again activated, which will help to reduce the gasoline utilization. The aerodynamic design, lighter
materials and smoother tyre will help for better energy consumption. The striking technological
advantage of the hybrid car is that the energy loss, while braking is re-channelled for the electrical
51
battery charging, called as regenerative braking, and a separate energy for battery charging is not
required.
The advantages of the hybrid car are multifaceted since it attributes economical, technical and
economical benefits. Despite of the owner, the country as well as, is benefited from the gasoline
saving as the oil prices are steeping very high, and its effects the country's whole economy. This
advantage is also a benefit to the customer as government has decided to give reductions and tax
credits for the hybrid car buying. In addition to Federal exemption certain states also provide local
exemptions to promote the use of hybrid car.
Hybrid car is thus an advantageous car, which helps to overcome much of the crisis related to the
motor world.
Page 153
Sustainable transport (or green transport) refers to any means of transport with low impact on the
environment, and includes walking and cycling, transit oriented development, green vehicles,
CarSharing, and building or protecting urban transport systems that are fuel-efficient, space-saving
and promote healthy lifestyles.
Sustainable transport systems make a positive contribution to the environmental, social and
economic sustainability of the communities they serve. Transport systems exist to provide social and
economic connections, and people quickly take up the opportunities offered by increased mobility.
The advantages of increased mobility need to be weighed against the environmental, social and
economic costs that transport systems pose.
Our government should follow the example of the EU in creating some solutions to urban transport,
effectively promoting a greener transport system through-out South Africa:
Clean fuels and vehicles:
o
o
o
Tax incentives for buying a hybrid vehicle
Development of Bio-diesel
Research and development of electric vehicles
Collective passenger transport;
o
o
o
Improved public transportation systems
Better bus and railroad systems
Better intermodal transport systems – park and ride facilities
Creating Sustainable (green) transport infrastructure
o
o
Greenways
Bikeways
Passenger / traveller safety through introduction of transit police / security camera systems etc.
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Page 156
IUCN Category Animal discovered
Extinct
Quagga: half zebra, half horse
(extinct since 1883)
H
X
C
O
Image (photo or sketch)
Equus quagga
Extinct
Thylacine: the Tasmanian Tiger
(extinct since 1936)
X
The largest known carnivorous
marsupial of modern times.
Native to Australia and New
Guinea
Extinct
Irish Deer: the largest deer that
ever lived (extinct about 7,700
years ago). The Irish Elk or Giant
Deer lived in Eurasia, from
Ireland to east of Lake Baikal,
during the Late Pleistocene and
early Holocene. The Giant Deer
is famous for its formidable size
(about 2.1 meters tall at the
shoulders), and in particular for
having the largest antlers of any
known cervid (a max of 3.65
meters from tip to tip and
weighing up to 90 pounds).
Extinct
Caspian Tiger: the third largest
(extinct since 1970)
Of all the tigers known to the
world, the Caspian tiger was the
third largest.
Extinct
The Dodo (Raphus cucullatus)
was a flightless bird that lived
on the island of Mauritius.
Related to pigeons and doves, it
stood about a meter tall (three
feet), lived on fruit and nested
on the ground. The dodo has
been extinct since the mid-tolate 17th century.
X
X
X
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Page 159
Work to protect marine
biodiversity
Species extinctions in the marine environment are infrequent and local
extinctions are more common. It is easier to manage and control the use
of communities of species rather than individual species. So all
mangroves and seagrasses are protected by law. Large and obvious
species like sea turtles, dugong, whales and dolphins are protected by
law. Indigenous communities might have special traditional hunting
permits to take a limited catch of dugong and turtles every year.
Biodiversity is also the subject of a national strategy and is protected to
some extent under international laws which prevent, for example, the
dumping of oils or plastics into the sea. World Heritage conventions
require us to care for the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage area.
International conventions about bird migration and the preservation of
wetlands also require Australia and the states involved to take positive
action to preserve crucial habitats. We need to know more about our
species too. Research projects are continuing but take time and money.
That is why it is important to create marine reserves or parks to protect
all species.
New developments should attempt to maintain the volume of runoff
at predevelopment levels by using structural controls and pollution
prevention strategies. Plans for the management of runoff, sediment,
toxics, and nutrients can establish guidelines to help achieve both
goals. Management plans are designed to protect sensitive ecological
areas, minimize land disturbances, and retain natural drainage and
vegetation. Controlling runoff from existing urban areas tends to be
Control urban runoff
relatively expensive compared to managing runoff from new
developments. However, existing urban areas can target their urban
runoff control projects to make them more economical. Runoff
management plans for existing areas can first identify priority
pollutant reduction opportunities, then protect natural areas that help
control runoff, and finally begin ecological restoration and retrofit
activities to clean up degraded water bodies. Citizens can help
prioritize the clean-up strategies, volunteer to become involved with
restoration efforts, and help protect ecologically valuable areas.
Promote energy
efficiency
The world is facing rising oil and gas prices, threats to the security of
energy supply and energy poverty as well as the already noticeable
consequences of climate change. Energy efficiency is the quickest,
cheapest and most direct way to turn these challenges into real
opportunities. With existing technologies, energy savings of up to 30%
are already feasible. Improved application of energy efficiency could cut
around 20% of greenhouse gas emissions. Efficient energy use,
sometimes simply called energy efficiency, is the goal of efforts to
reduce the amount of energy required to provide products and services.
I allows a building to use less heating and cooling energy to achieve and
maintain a comfortable temperature. Installing fluorescent lights or
natural skylights reduces the amount of energy required to attain the
same level of illumination compared to using traditional incandescent
light bulbs. Compact fluorescent lights use two-thirds less energy and
may last 6 to 10 times longer than incandescent lights.
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Page 164
EFFECT OF AQUACULTURE:
The currently recorded marine biota of South Africa numbers at least 12,914 species, although many
taxa, particularly those of small body size, remain poorly documented. The coastal zone is relatively
well sampled with some 2,500 samples of benthic invertebrate communities have been taken by
grab, dredge, or trawl. Almost none of these samples, however, were collected after 1980, and over
99% of existing samples are from depths shallower than 1,000 m—indeed 83% are from less than
100 m. The abyssal zone thus remains almost completely unexplored.
South Africa has a fairly large industrial fishing industry, of which the largest fisheries are the pelagic
(pilchard and anchovy) and demersal (hake) sectors, both focused on the west and south coasts. The
east coast has fewer, smaller commercial fisheries, but a high coastal population density, resulting in
intense exploitation of inshore resources by recreational and subsistence fishers, and this has
resulted in the overexploitation of many coastal fish and invertebrate stocks. South Africa has a
small aquaculture industry rearing mussels, oysters, prawns, and abalone—the latter two in landbased facilities. Compared with many other developing countries, South Africa has a well-conserved
coastline, 23% of which is under formal protection, however deeper waters are almost entirely
excluded from conservation areas. Marine pollution is confined mainly to the densely populated
KwaZulu-Natal coast and the urban centres of Cape Town and Port Elizabeth. Over 120 introduced or
cryptogenic marine species have been recorded, but most of these are confined to the few harbours
and sheltered sites along the coast.
AQUACULTURE AND SA ECONOMY:
Marine aquaculture is one of the fastest growing food production systems in the world. Over the
past 15-20 years, aquaculture has developed into a global industry, with over 100 countries engaging
in the production of more than 250 different species of finfish, shellfish, crustaceans and aquatic
plants. According to the Food and Agriculture Organisation, global production (including aquatic
plants) in the year 2004 was 59.4 million tonnes with China by far the main aquaculture producing
country (41.3 million tonnes). In the same year, other Asian countries together produced an
estimated 13.0 million tonnes of aquaculture products which means that almost 75% of the world’s
aquaculture production was attributed to Asian countries. Africa’s countries accounted for less than
1% of global aquaculture production, with South Africa accounting for just less than 27% of the
African marine aquaculture production. Abalone farming was developed in the 1990’s and is now the
most valuable resource of the sector. In 2006, the total marine aquaculture production was
approximately 1 800 tonnes and valued at approximately R250 million. In terms of the volume of
production, abalone represented the largest of the sector, and accounted for (51%) of production,
followed by mussels (31%), oysters (12%) and seaweed (6%). From a modest beginning where total
production of farmed abalone was less than one hundred kilos in 1996, it had increased to about 900
tons in 2006, at an off farm export value in the magnitude of R200 million. The industry is still
expanding, and South Africa now features as the top producer country of farmed abalone.
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1. The Galjoen (Dichistius capensis).
2.
220 freshwater fishes occur in South Africa, of which 21 are threatened. There are more than 2 000
marine fish species, for which no information is available about threatened species.
The Great White Shark (Carcharodon carcharias) is a protected species Classified as Vulnerable on
the IUCN Red List
There are 33 species of endangered/threatened fish in South African inland waters. Herewith a list of
16 endangered species:
1. Berg River Redfin (Critically Endangered)
2. Maloti Minnow (Critically Endangered)
3. Twee River Redfin (Critically Endangered)
4. Border Barb (Critically Endangered)
5. Clanwilliam Sandfish (Critically Endangered)
6. Spotted Rock Catfish (Critically Endangered)
7. Cave Catfish (Critically Endangered)
8. Incomati Suckermouth (Critically Endangered)
9. Caprivi Killfish (Critically Endangered)
10. Otjikoto Tilapia (Critically Endangered)
11. Breed River Redfin (Endangered)
12. Fiery Redfin (Endangered)
13. Slender Redfin (Endangered)
14. Clanwilliam Redfin (Endangered)
15. Clanwilliam Sawfin (Endangered)
16. Eastern Cape Rocky (Endangered)
3. Hake / Haddock / Galjoen / Karp / Sole / Kingklip. Etc.
4. environment & tourism - Department: Environmental Affairs and Tourism, RSA
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Page 170
FAMILY – Carbon-footprint lowering:
Buy locally grown food.
Take a different vacation.
Tinned vegetables and processed meat involves costly processes that
include not only the farming of such foods, but also the processing and
transportation of such food. Buying fresh produce from a local farmer
cuts down on this. Eat less red meat. The production of red meat, pork
and beef , is incredibly energy-intensive. Vegetables and poultry are far
less energy-intensive.
Book for direct flights, if you can afford it. Most emissions are
produced by landing and take-off as then the largest amount of fuel is
used. Avoid first-class as you take up much more space your impact is
two to six times greater if you fly business or first class. Of course, the
56
Work right
Get a home that is more
energy efficient
Go higher-tech.
Unplug
Take a different ride.
Buy alternative energy.
Avoid the excess
Use less water.
plane flies anyway, but if enough consumers choose economy class,
airlines will eventually respond. Opt for a smaller rental car or hybrid,
and stay at resorts that embrace the principles of sustainable tourism.
Buy recycled paper and think twice before you print something. You
reduce carbon emissions by using less electricity while printing, plus
emissions related to making and processing the paper and print
cartridge.
Houses have been getting bigger and bigger as family size gets smaller
and smaller. That means more energy to heat, cool, light and clean.
And consider moving to a "greener" location. The choice about where
you live has probably the most profound carbon impact on a person's
life. Can you walk to a store? Can your kids walk or bike to school? Can
you walk to public transportation?"
Laptops use substantially less energy than desktop PCs. For your
desktop, buy a flat-panel monitor -- they use half the energy of an
average CRT. Even earlier forms of "high tech" are useful. A
microwave is definitely an energy saver: they use much less energy to
make a cup of tea or preparing a meal than using your kettle or stove.
About 5% of electricity used is sucked up by home-electronics products
that are off! If you're going on vacation, unplug all of your televisions,
stereos: they are sucking a little energy all the time. And, if you don't
want to install compact fluorescent bulbs, consider dimmer switches. If
you have it set at half-dim, it's using half the wattage.
Hybrids are the gold standard in terms of reducing automotive
emissions. Choose the most fuel-efficient car in the category you
need. Walking or biking, of course, are environment-friendlier options,
and keep your eye out for ride-share possibilities.
Install solar panels on your home. Eskom has a subsidy programme
available to help home-owners install solar-powered geysers
Given that it takes energy to produce stuff and that landfills produce
greenhouse gases, it makes sense to avoid unnecessary packaging
when you can. Reuse shopping bags, buy products with the most
minimal packaging, and consume less overall.
Water must be pumped to your faucet - often over long distances.
Turn off the water while you're brushing your teeth or shaving. In the
garden, use an irrigation system rather than a hose, and think about
avoiding water-intensive lawns in favour of native plants, which
require less watering.
57
What can schools do to lower carbon-footprint:
Students
Learn more about the science and impacts of climate change. The site also provides videos,
animations, and interactive expeditions where students can explore and learn how climate change
will affect places around the world. The site helps students, their parents, and their teachers learn
about solutions and what actions they can take to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
High school students can investigate the link between everyday actions at their high school,
greenhouse gas emissions and climate change. Students must learn about climate change, estimate
their school’s greenhouse gas emissions and conceptualize ways to mitigate their school’s climate
impact. Students gain detailed understandings of climate-change drivers, impacts, and science;
produce an emission inventory and action plan; and can even submit the results of their emission
inventory to their school district.
Educators
Teach students about climate change and ecosystems.
Administrators
The least efficient schools use three times more energy than the best energy performers.
Recycle school or classroom paper, newspapers, beverage containers, electronic equipment and
batteries. Reducing, reusing and recycling at school and in the classroom helps conserve energy,
reduce pollution and greenhouse gases from resource extraction, manufacturing and disposal. You
can reduce, reuse and recycle at school or in the classroom by using two-sided printing and copying;
buying supplies made with recycled content; and recycling used printer cartridges. For your old
electronics, investigate leasing programs to ensure reuse and recycling or donate used equipment to
schools or other organizations.
Here's a list of simple things you can do immediately
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Turn it off when not in use (lights, television, DVD player, Hi Fi, computer etc. etc. ...)
Turn down the central heating slightly (try just 1 to 2 degrees C). Just 1 degree will help
reduce your heating bill by about 8%.
Turn down the water heating setting (just 2 degrees will make a significant saving)
Check the central heating timer setting - remember there is no point heating the house after
you have left for work
Fill your dish washer and washing machine with a full load - this will save you water,
electricity, and washing powder
Fill the kettle with only as much water as you need
Do your weekly shopping in a single trip
Hang out the washing to dry rather than tumble drying it
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The following is a list of items that may take an initial investment, but should pay for themselves
over the course of 1-4 years through savings on your energy bills.
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Fit energy saving light bulbs
Insulate your hot water tank, your loft and your walls
By installing 180mm thick loft insulation
Recycle your grey water
Replace your old fridge / freezer (if it is over 15 years old), with a new one with energy
efficiency rating of "A"
Replace your old boiler with a new energy efficient condensing boiler
Travel less and travel more carbon footprint friendly.
Car share to work, or for the kids school run
Use the bus or a train rather than your car
For short journeys either walk or cycle
See if your employer will allow you to work from home one day a week
Next time you replace your car - check out diesel engines. With one of these you can even
make your own Biodiesel fuel. Find out more about Biodiesel.
When staying in a hotel - turn the lights and air-conditioning off when you leave your hotel
room, and ask for your room towels to be washed every other day, rather than every day
As well as your primary carbon footprint, there is also a secondary footprint that you cause through
your buying habits.
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Don't buy bottled water if your tap water is safe to drink
Buy local fruit and vegetables, or even try growing your own
Buy foods that are in season locally
Don't buy fresh fruit and vegetables which are out of season, they may have been flown in
Reduce your consumption of meat
Try to only buy products made close to home (look out and avoid items that are made in the
distant lands)
Buy organic produce
Don't buy over packaged products
Recycle as much as possible
Why is it necessary to lower C footprint?
A Low-Carbon Economy (LCE) or Low-Fossil-Fuel Economy (LFFE) is an economy that has a minimal
output of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions into the environment biosphere, but specifically refers to
the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide. GHG emissions due to anthropogenic (human) activity are
increasingly either causing climate change (global warming) or making climate change worse.
Scientists are concerned about the negative impacts of climate change on humanity in the
foreseeable future.
Globally implemented LCEs, therefore, are proposed, by those having drawn this conclusion, as a
means to avoid catastrophic climate change, and as a precursor to the more advanced, zero-carbon
society and renewable energy economy.
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In the midst of a worldwide drought and stock market collapse, consider Henry Kissinger’s classified
memo in April, 1974. It was on a secret project called National Security Study Memorandum 200
(NSSM 200) that was shaped by Rockefeller interests and aimed to adopt a “world population plan
of action” for drastic global population control – meaning to reduce it. The US led the effort, and it
worked like this – it made birth control in developing countries a prerequisite for US aid. Engdahl
summed it up in blunt terms: “if these inferior races get in the way of our securing ample, cheap raw
materials, then we must find ways to get rid of them.” UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
reporting sharply higher food prices along with severe shortages, and warned this condition is
extreme, unprecedented and threatens billions with hunger and starvation. Prices are up 40% this
year after a 9% rise in 2006, and it forced developing states to pay 25% more for imported food and
be unable to afford enough of it.
Various explanations for the problem are cited that include growing demand, higher fuel and
transportation costs, commodity speculation, the use of corn for ethanol production (taking onethird of the harvest that’s more than what’s exported for food) and extreme weather while ignoring
the above implications – the power of agribusiness to manipulate supply for greater profits and “cull
the herd” in targeted Third World countries. Affected ones are poor, and FAO cites 20 in Africa, 9 in
Asia, 6 in Latin America and 2 in Eastern Europe that in total represent 850 million endangered
people now suffering from chronic hunger and related poverty. They depend on imports, and their
diets rely heavily on the type grains agribusiness controls – wheat, corn and rice plus soybeans. If
current prices stay high and shortages persist, millions will die – maybe by design.
The food crisis has suddenly worsened, reminding us that the specter of hunger continues to
threaten almost 1 billion people. In about 40 countries, the high cost of food has provoked uprisings
and general revolts. The summit of the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO),
held June 5 in Rome to consider alimentary security, could not reach an agreement to relaunch
worldwide food production. Here, too, speculators fleeing from the financial disaster are partly
responsible, because they”re betting on a high price of future harvests. Even agriculture is being
financialized.
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Yes
Risks of Genetic Engineering
Many previous technologies have proved to have adverse effects unexpected by their developers.
DDT, for example, turned out to accumulate in fish and thin the shells of fish-eating birds like eagles
and ospreys. And chlorofluorocarbons turned out to float into the upper atmosphere and destroy
ozone, a chemical that shields the earth from dangerous radiation.
So far, scientists know of no generic harms associated with genetically engineered organisms. For
example, it is not true that all genetically engineered foods are toxic or that all released engineered
organisms are likely to proliferate in the environment. But specific engineered organisms may be
harmful by virtue of the novel gene combinations they possess. This means that the risks of
genetically engineered organisms must be assessed case by case and that these risks can differ
greatly from one gene-organism combination to another.
60
So far, scientists have identified a number of ways in which genetically engineered organisms could
potentially adversely impact both human health and the environment. Once the potential harms are
identified, the question becomes how likely are they to occur. The answer to this question falls into
the arena of risk assessment.
In addition to posing risks of harm that we can envision and attempt to assess, genetic engineering
may also pose risks that we simply do not know enough to identify. The recognition of this possibility
does not by itself justify stopping the technology, but does put a substantial burden on those who
wish to go forward to demonstrate benefits.
1. Potential Harms to Health
Here are the some examples of the potential adverse effects of genetically engineered organisms
may have on human health. Most of these examples are associated with the growth and
consumption of genetically engineered crops. Different risks would be associated with genetically
engineered animals and, like the risks associated with plants, would depend largely on the new traits
introduced into the organism.
New Allergens in the Food Supply
Transgenic crops could bring new allergens into foods that sensitive individuals would not know to
avoid. An example is transferring the gene for one of the many allergenic proteins found in milk into
vegetables like carrots. Mothers who know to avoid giving their sensitive children milk would not
know to avoid giving them transgenic carrots containing milk proteins. The problem is unique to
genetic engineering because it alone can transfer proteins across species boundaries into completely
unrelated organisms.
Genetic engineering routinely moves proteins into the food supply from organisms that have never
been consumed as foods. Some of those proteins could be food allergens, since virtually all known
food allergens are proteins. Recent research substantiates concerns about genetic engineering
rendering previously safe foods allergenic. A study by scientists at the University of Nebraska shows
that soybeans genetically engineered to contain Brazil-nut proteins cause reactions in individuals
allergic to Brazil nuts.
Scientists have limited ability to predict whether a particular protein will be a food allergen, if
consumed by humans. The only sure way to determine whether protein will be an allergen is
through experience. Thus importing proteins, particularly from nonfood sources, is a gamble with
respect to their allergenicity.
Antibiotic Resistance
Genetic engineering often uses genes for antibiotic resistance as "selectable markers." Early in the
engineering process, these markers help select cells that have taken up foreign genes. Although they
have no further use, the genes continue to be expressed in plant tissues. Most genetically
engineered plant foods carry fully functioning antibiotic-resistance genes.
The presence of antibiotic-resistance genes in foods could have two harmful effects. First, eating
these foods could reduce the effectiveness of antibiotics to fight disease when these antibiotics are
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taken with meals. Antibiotic-resistance genes produce enzymes that can degrade antibiotics. If a
tomato with an antibiotic-resistance gene is eaten at the same time as an antibiotic, it could destroy
the antibiotic in the stomach.
Second, the resistance genes could be transferred to human or animal pathogens, making them
impervious to antibiotics. If transfer were to occur, it could aggravate the already serious health
problem of antibiotic-resistant disease organisms. Although unmediated transfers of genetic
material from plants to bacteria are highly unlikely, any possibility that they may occur requires
careful scrutiny in light of the seriousness of antibiotic resistance.
In addition, the widespread presence of antibiotic-resistance genes in engineered food suggests that
as the number of genetically engineered products grows, the effects of antibiotic resistance should
be analyzed cumulatively across the food supply.
Production of New Toxins
Many organisms have the ability to produce toxic substances. For plants, such substances help to
defend stationary organisms from the many predators in their environment. In some cases, plants
contain inactive pathways leading to toxic substances. Addition of new genetic material through
genetic engineering could reactivate these inactive pathways or otherwise increase the levels of
toxic substances within the plants. This could happen, for example, if the on/off signals associated
with the introduced gene were located on the genome in places where they could turn on the
previously inactive genes.
Concentration of Toxic Metals
Some of the new genes being added to crops can remove heavy metals like mercury from the soil
and concentrate them in the plant tissue. The purpose of creating such crops is to make possible the
use of municipal sludge as fertilizer. Sludge contains useful plant nutrients, but often cannot be used
as fertilizer because it is contaminated with toxic heavy metals. The idea is to engineer plants to
remove and sequester those metals in inedible parts of plants. In a tomato, for example, the metals
would be sequestered in the roots; in potatoes in the leaves. Turning on the genes in only some
parts of the plants requires the use of genetic on/off switches that turn on only in specific tissues,
like leaves.
Such products pose risks of contaminating foods with high levels of toxic metals if the on/off
switches are not completely turned off in edible tissues. There are also environmental risks
associated with the handling and disposal of the metal-contaminated parts of plants after
harvesting.
Enhancement of the Environment for Toxic Fungi
Although for the most part health risks are the result of the genetic material newly added to
organisms, it is also possible for the removal of genes and gene products to cause problems. For
example, genetic engineering might be used to produce decaffeinated coffee beans by deleting or
turning off genes associated with caffeine production. But caffeine helps protect coffee beans
against fungi. Beans that are unable to produce caffeine might be coated with fungi, which can
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produce toxins. Fungal toxins, such as aflatoxin, are potent human toxins that can remain active
through processes of food preparation.
Unknown Harms to Health
As with any new technology, the full set of risks associated with genetic engineering have almost
certainly not been identified. The ability to imagine what might go wrong with a technology is
limited by the currently incomplete understanding of physiology, genetics, and nutrition.
2. Potential Environmental Harms
Increased Weediness
One way of thinking generally about the environmental harm that genetically engineered plants
might do is to consider that they might become weeds. Here, “weeds” means all plants in places
where humans do not want them. The term covers everything from Johnson grass choking crops in
fields to kudzu blanketing trees to melaleuca trees invading the Everglades. In each case, the plants
are growing unaided by humans in places where they are having unwanted effects. In agriculture,
weeds can severely inhibit crop yield. In unmanaged environments, like the Everglades, invading
trees can displace natural flora and upset whole ecosystems.
Some weeds result from the accidental introduction of alien plants, but many were the result of
purposeful introductions for agricultural and horticultural purposes. Some of the plants intentionally
introduced into the United States that have become serious weeds are Johnson grass, multiflora
rose, and kudzu. A new combination of traits produced as a result of genetic engineering might
enable crops to thrive unaided in the environment in circumstances where they would then be
considered new or worse weeds. One example would be a rice plant engineered to be salt-tolerant
that escaped cultivation and invaded nearby marine estuaries.
Gene Transfer to Wild or Weedy Relatives
Novel genes placed in crops will not necessarily stay in agricultural fields. If relatives of the altered
crops are growing near the field, the new gene can easily move via pollen into those plants. The new
traits might confer on wild or weedy relatives of crop plants the ability to thrive in unwanted places,
making them weeds as defined above. For example, a gene changing the oil composition of a crop
might move into nearby weedy relatives in which the new oil composition would enable the seeds to
survive the winter. Overwintering might allow the plant to become a weed or might intensify weedy
properties it already possesses.
Change in Herbicide Use Patterns
Crops genetically engineered to be resistant to chemical herbicides are tightly linked to the use of
particular chemical pesticides. Adoption of these crops could therefore lead to changes in the mix of
chemical herbicides used across the country. To the extent that chemical herbicides differ in their
environmental toxicity, these changing patterns could result in greater levels of environmental harm
overall. In addition, widespread use of herbicide-tolerant crops could lead to the rapid evolution of
resistance to herbicides in weeds, either as a result of increased exposure to the herbicide or as a
result of the transfer of the herbicide trait to weedy relatives of crops. Again, since herbicides differ
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in their environmental harm, loss of some herbicides may be detrimental to the environment
overall.
Squandering of Valuable Pest Susceptibility Genes
Many insects contain genes that render them susceptible to pesticides. Often these susceptibility
genes predominate in natural populations of insects. These genes are a valuable natural resource
because they allow pesticides to remain as effective pest-control tools. The more benign the
pesticide, the more valuable the genes that make pests susceptible to it.
Certain genetically engineered crops threaten the continued susceptibility of pests to one of nature's
most valuable pesticides: the Bacillus thuringiensis or Bt toxin. These "Bt crops" are genetically
engineered to contain a gene for the Bt toxin. Because the crops produce the toxin in most plant
tissues throughout the life cycle of the plant, pests are constantly exposed to it. This continuous
exposure selects for the rare resistance genes in the pest population and in time will render the Bt
pesticide useless, unless specific measures are instituted to avoid the development of such
resistance.
Poisoned Wildlife
Addition of foreign genes to plants could also have serious consequences for wildlife in a number of
circumstances. For example, engineering crop plants, such as tobacco or rice, to produce plastics or
pharmaceuticals could endanger mice or deer who consume crop debris left in the fields after
harvesting. Fish that have been engineered to contain metal-sequestering proteins (such fish have
been suggested as living pollution clean-up devices) could be harmful if consumed by other fish or
raccoons.
Creation of New or Worse Viruses
One of the most common applications of genetic engineering is the production of virus-tolerant
crops. Such crops are produced by engineering components of viruses into the plant genomes. For
reasons not well understood, plants producing viral components on their own are resistant to
subsequent infection by those viruses. Such plants, however, pose other risks of creating new or
worse viruses through two mechanisms: recombination and transcapsidation.
Recombination can occur between the plant-produced viral genes and closely related genes of
incoming viruses. Such recombination may produce viruses that can infect a wider range of hosts or
that may be more virulent than the parent viruses.
Transcapsidation involves the encapsulation of the genetic material of one virus by the plantproduced viral proteins. Such hybrid viruses could transfer viral genetic material to a new host plant
that it could not otherwise infect. Except in rare circumstances, this would be a one-time-only effect,
because the viral genetic material carries no genes for the foreign proteins within which it was
encapsulated and would not be able to produce a second generation of hybrid viruses.
Unknown Harms to the Environment
As with human health risks, it is unlikely that all potential harms to the environment have been
identified. Each of the potential harms above is an answer to the question, "Well, what might go
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wrong?" The answer to that question depends on how well scientists understand the organism and
the environment into which it is released. At this point, biology and ecology are too poorly
understood to be certain that question has been answered comprehensively.
3. Risk Assessment
Having identified a list of possible harms that might occur as a result of using or releasing genetically
engineered organisms, the next question is how likely are any of these to occur? Like the original
"brainstorming" of potential harms, the answer to this question depends greatly on how well the
organisms and their interaction in the environment are understood. Risks must be assessed case by
case as new applications of genetic engineering are introduced. In some circumstances, it is possible
to assess risks with great confidence. For example, it is vanishingly unlikely that genetically
engineered palm trees will thrive in the Arctic regardless of what genes have been added. But for
many potential harms, the answers are far less certain.
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Seven desirable outcomes from altering the genetic makeup of new crop varieties
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Altered plant fats and oils to improve health
Environmentally benign herbicides
Longer shelf life of foods at full ripeness
Methionine- and lysine-enhanced grain and legume proteins
Plant foods that deliver immunizing antigens
Reduced world hunger
Resistance to pests, and diseases
Sustainable agriculture is an alternative to genetically modifying crops and means, by definition,
agriculture that does not deplete natural resources and does not use harmful, artificial substances
that cumulate in the environment. Therefore, contrary to industrial agriculture, it can be applied
indefinitely without harming the environment. It is the only kind of agriculture that is feasible in the
long run. A common word for it is "organic farming".
CSIR projects
Student’s own opinions – HIV; Cancer-research; Green energy sources; Electrical vehicles;
Genetically modified crops; Organic fertilizers; organic herbicides; Drought resistant cropping; etc.
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Own opinion – YES / NO : proper motivation: Herewith some background info:
Animal rights, also known as animal liberation, is the idea that the most basic interests of nonhuman animals should be afforded the same consideration as the similar interests of human beings.
Advocates approach the issue from different philosophical positions, ranging from the protectionist
side of the movement, presented by philosopher Peter Singer—with a utilitarian focus on suffering
and consequences, rather than on the concept of rights—to the abolitionist side, represented by law
professor Gary Francione, who argues that animals need only one right: the right not to be property.
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Despite the different approaches, advocates broadly agree that animals should be viewed as nonhuman persons and members of the moral community, and should not be used as food, clothing,
research subjects, or entertainment. The idea of awarding rights to animals has the support of legal
scholars such as Alan Dershowitz and Laurence Tribe of Harvard Law School. Animal rights is
routinely covered in universities in philosophy or applied ethics courses, and as of 2011 animal law
was taught in 135 law schools in the United States and Canada. Toronto lawyer Clayton Ruby argued
in 2008 that the movement had reached the stage the gay rights movement was at 25 years earlier.
Critics of the idea argue that animals are unable to enter into a social contract or make moral
choices, and for that reason cannot be regarded as possessors of rights, a position summed up by
the philosopher Roger Scruton, who wrote in 2000 that only humans have duties and therefore only
humans have rights. There has also been criticism, including from within the animal rights
movement itself, of certain forms of animal rights activism, in particular the destruction of fur farms
and animal laboratories by the Animal Liberation Front. A parallel argument is that there is nothing
inherently wrong with using animals as resources so long there is no unnecessary suffering, a view
known as the animal welfare position.
Intensive agriculture has a number of benefits:
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Significantly increased yield per acre, per person, and per GBP relative to extensive farming and
therefore,
Food becomes more affordable to the consumer as it costs less to produce.
The same area of land is able to supply food and fibre for a larger population reducing the risk of
starvation.
The preservation of existing areas of woodland and rainforest habitats (and the ecosystems and
other sustainable economies that these may harbour), which would need to be felled for
extensive farming methods in the same geographical location. This also leads to a reduction in
anthropomorphic CO2 generation (resulting from removal of the sequestration afforded by
woodlands and rainforests).
In the case of intensive livestock farming: an opportunity to capture methane emissions which
would otherwise contribute to global warming. Once captured, these emissions can be used to
generate heat or electrical energy, thereby reducing local demand for fossil fuels.
Intensive farming alters the environment in many ways.
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Limits or destroys the natural habitat of most wild creatures, and leads to soil erosion.
Use of fertilizers can alter the biology of rivers and lakes.
Pesticides generally kill useful insects as well as those that destroy crops.
Is often not sustainable if not properly managed—may result in desertification, or land that is so
poisonous and eroded that nothing else will grow there.
Requires large amounts of energy input to produce, transport, and apply chemical
fertilizers/pesticides
The chemicals used may leave the field as runoff eventually ending up in rivers and lakes or may
drain into groundwater aquifers.
Use of pesticides have numerous negative health effects in workers who apply them, people
that live nearby the area of application or downstream/downwind from it, and consumers who
eat the pesticides which remain on their food.
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Sustainable intensive farming
Bio-intensive agriculture focuses on maximizing efficiency: yield per unit area, yield per energy input,
yield per water input, etc. Agroforestry combines agriculture and orchard/forestry technologies to
create more integrated, diverse, productive, profitable, healthy and sustainable land-use systems.
Intercropping can also increase total yields per unit of area or reduce inputs to achieve the same,
and thus represents (potentially sustainable) agricultural intensification. Unfortunately, yields of any
specific crop often diminish and the change can present new challenges to farmers relying on
modern farming equipment which is best suited to monoculture. Vertical farming, a type of intensive
crop production that would grow food on a large scale in urban centres, has been proposed as a way
to reduce the negative environmental impact of traditional rural agriculture.
Intensive livestock farming
"Factory farming" is a term referring to the process of raising livestock in confinement at high
stocking density, where a farm operates as a factory — a practice typical in industrial farming by
agribusinesses. The main product of this industry is meat, milk and eggs for human consumption.
The term is often used in a pejorative sense, criticising large scale farming processes which confine
animals.
Managed intensive grazing
This sustainable intensive livestock management system is increasingly used to optimize production
within a sustainability framework and is generally not considered Factory farming. Intensive farming
or intensive agriculture is an agricultural production system characterized by the high inputs of
capital, labour, or heavy usage of technologies such as pesticides and chemical fertilizers relative to
land area.
This is in contrast to many forms of sustainable agriculture such as permaculture or extensive
agriculture, which involve a relatively low input of materials and labour, relative to the area of land
farmed, and which focus on maintaining long-term ecological health of farmland, so that it can be
farmed indefinitely.
Modern day forms of intensive crop based agriculture involve the use of mechanical ploughing,
chemical fertilizers, herbicides, fungicides, insecticides, plant growth regulators and pesticides. It is
associated with the increasing use of agricultural mechanization, which has enabled a substantial
increase in production, yet have also dramatically increased environmental pollution by increasing
erosion, poisoning water with agricultural chemicals, and destroying forests to make room for
farmland.
Intensive animal farming practices can involve very large numbers of animals raised on limited land
which requires large amounts of food, water and medical inputs (required to keep the animals
healthy in cramped conditions). Very large or confined indoor intensive livestock operations
(particularly descriptive of common US farming practices) are often referred to as Factory farming
and are criticised by opponents for the low level of animal welfare standards and associated
pollution and health issues.
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Crop rotation
Crop rotation or crop sequencing is the practice of growing a series of dissimilar types of crops in the
same space in sequential seasons for various benefits such as to avoid the build-up of pathogens and
pests that often occurs when one species is continuously cropped. Crop rotation also seeks to
balance the fertility demands of various crops to avoid excessive depletion of soil nutrients. A
traditional component of crop rotation is the replenishment of nitrogen through the use of green
manure in sequence with cereals and other crops. It is one component of polyculture. Crop rotation
can also improve soil structure and fertility by alternating deep-rooted and shallow-rooted plants.
Good / Bad?
OWN opinion – motivate properly, listing examples with advantages and disadvantages.
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They have stabilised economies and no longer operate as developing countries.
Although limited, GDP per capita is a useful measure of countries' standard of living. A higher GDP
per capita means more consumption possibilities, on average, for a country's population. Differences
in GDP per capita over time and across countries are driven by differences in productivity. As labour
productivity grows, higher levels of output are produced for a given level of labour inputs. A
country's ability to improve its standard of living over time depends almost entirely on its ability to
raise its output per worker. A better understanding of the causes of productivity differences shed
light on how much a country's income per person can catch up to richer countries, and the role for
economic policy.
The most significant change in the global economy is the change of focus from domestic to the world
economy as the chief economic unit. This has been grasped by Japan and Germany, but not really by
the USA, or Africa. These factors have repercussions on exporting by developing countries. Firstly
with developing countries' emphasis on the export of primary products, they are at the mercy of
world supply and demand movements, with the resultant fluctuations in prices. Depressed world
market prices can have a deleterious effect on developing economies.
Secondly the rapid globalisation and focus away from domestic economies has created global
competition and in turn, this has pushed up quality. Generally speaking, unless developing countries
can break into non-committal based products they are being further left behind in the global
economic stakes. However positively, whilst developed worlds concentrate on industrial and service
products it leaves opportunities for developing countries to export more food based products.
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South Africa is the economic powerhouse of Africa, leading the continent in industrial output and
mineral production and generating a large proportion of Africa's electricity.
SA has abundant natural resources, well-developed financial, legal, communications, energy and
transport sectors, a stock exchange ranked among the top 20 in the world, and a modern
infrastructure supporting efficient distribution of goods throughout the southern African region.
South Africa has a world-class and progressive legal framework. Legislation governing commerce,
labour and maritime issues is particularly well developed, and laws on competition policy, copyright,
patents, trademarks and disputes conform to international norms and conventions.
The country's financial systems are sophisticated and robust. The banking regulations rank with the
best in the world, and the sector has long been rated among the top 10 globally.
Not only is South Africa itself an important emerging economy, it is also the gateway to other African
markets. The country plays a significant role in supplying energy, relief aid, transport,
communications and investment on the continent. Its well-developed road and rail links provide the
platform and infrastructure for ground transportation deep into Africa.
South Africa's economy has been completely overhauled since the advent of democracy in the
country in 1994. Bold macroeconomic reforms have boosted competitiveness, growing the
economy, creating jobs and opening South Africa up to world markets.
Over the years these policies have built up a rock-solid macroeconomic structure. Taxes have been
cut, tariffs dropped, the fiscal deficit reined in, inflation curbed and exchange controls relaxed.
In 2006/07, the country posted its first ever budget surplus, of 0.3%.
Despite lower taxes across the board, the upbeat economy, improved tax compliance and a steadily
improving tax and customs administration have seen government revenue surging, hitting R475.8billion in 2006/07 – over three times the figure for 1996/97.
Over a decade of comprehensive institutional reform and sound economic management have also
been rewarded with improved sovereign credit ratings, implying less risk for investors and cutting
the cost of capital for the country's public and private sector borrowers.
South Africa's credit ratings have steadily improved since 1994. In 2006, Moody's and Fitch indicated
that the upward trend was likely to continue, revising the outlook on SA's ratings from stable to
positive. Fitch said the change in outlook reflected South Africa's improved growth performance and
prospects as a result of rapidly rising public and private investment and ongoing micro-reforms in
the economy.
"In addition, the country has seen a substantial improvement in its already sound public finances
and strong external balance sheet."
Challenges: energy supply
The biggest immediate threat to South Africa's continued economic growth is a capacity constraint
that has arisen precisely because of the country's strong economic performance in recent years.
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This growth, coupled with the rapid industrialisation and mass electrification programme of the last
decade, finally led, in January 2008, to demand for electricity outstripping supply.
The resulting power cuts prompted the government to move quickly to address the crisis. The
response plan includes spending about R343-billion over five years to fund a new generation of
power stations, as well as a raft of measures to reduce residential and industrial demand.
Ratings agencies Standard & Poor's and Fitch said in January 2008 that the electricity shortage was
not seen as an immediate threat to SA's investment-grade credit rating, but could become an issue if
it sharply curbed economic growth.
Challenges: unemployment
The International Monetary Fund (IMF), in its 2007 annual country assessment, noted that South
Africa's economy was "undergoing its longest expansion on record, and in recent years has
experienced elevated growth in an environment of rapid credit expansion, booming asset prices,
strengthening public finances, and rising international reserves financed by large capital inflows."
At the same time, the IMF expressed concerns about the country's current account deficit and
inflation rate.
The IMF report also identified the long-standing issue of unemployment as one of the biggest
challenges to economic growth in the country, along with poverty, large wealth disparities and a
high incidence of HIV/Aids.
But the report also came out in support of the SA authorities' approach to these problems, with
policies aimed at raising economic growth in a stable economic environment and initiatives to
reduce unemployment and improve social conditions.
The IMF said this strategy could be bolstered by labour market reforms and further trade
liberalisation.
Key to overcoming the challenges identified by the IMF will be the economic integration of South
Africa's previously disadvantaged majority. South Africa's economy has a marked duality, with a
sophisticated financial and industrial economy having grown alongside an underdeveloped informal
economy.
While SA's financial and industrial "first economy" has an established infrastructure and economic
base with great potential for further growth and development, its informal "second economy"
presents both untapped potential and a developmental challenge for the country.
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