101985
Politics, Power & Resistance
Assessment 2: Continuous Analytical Reflection
Citizenship & Inequality
Citizenship & Inequality I - Overview
Citizenship & Inequality II - Migration
Citizenship & Inequality III – Gender and Sexuality
17527431
Kayla Treffiletti
Citizenship and Inequality I – Overview
What is citizenship?
In democratic societies, a ‘citizen’ is a member of a political community, which is
defined by a set of rights and obligations. In contemporary times, citizenship
represents a relationship between the individual and the state, in which the two
are bound together by reciprocal rights and obligations. (Heywood cited in De La
Paz, 2012).
In Australia, becoming a citizen represents a commitment to the nation and its
people. It is believed to provide a sense of identity and belonging by enabling
citizens to participate in all aspects of Australian life. (Australian Government
Department of Immigration and Border Protection, 2014)
Obligations of Australian Citizens:
Rights for Australian citizens:
Obey the law
Defend Australia should the need
arise
Vote in federal and state or territory
elections and in a referendum
Apply for work in the Australian Public
Service or the Australian Defence Force
Serve on a jury if called to do so
Seek election to parliament
Vote in federal and state or territory
elections and in a referendum.
Apply for an Australian passport and reenter Australia freely
Receive help from an Australian official
while overseas
Register children born overseas as
Australian citizens by descent.
In 1950, Marshall defined citizenship as ‘full membership of a community’, and
assumed that civil, political and social rights constitute citizenship.
Citizenship
Elements
Civil Rights
Definition
Rights necessary for individual freedom
– liberty of the person, freedom of
speech, thought and faith, the right to
own property, to conclude valid
contracts and the right to justice
Institutions more
closely associated
Courts of justice
Political
Rights
Right to participate in the exercise of
political power, as a member of a body
invested with political authority or as
an elector of the members of such as
body
Parliament and
councils of local
government
Social Rights
The right to a modicum of economic
welfare and security
Educational system
and social services
such as public health
systems
However, it is well known that Marshall’s theory focused on a specific period in
British history (from mid 17thC to mid 20thC). Therefore, Marshall’s approach
has been criticised for being outdated, unitary and ethnocentric.
•
Turner (cited in De La Paz, 2012), was among the first to reconsider
Marshall’s theory. Turner (1993) describes citizenship as a set of legal,
economic, and cultural practices which define an individual as a
competent member of society. Such practices shape the flow of resources
to individuals and social groups. Therefore, citizenship identity depends
not only on a legal status but also on access to social and economic
resources.
•
Zamudio (2004), believes, that there are three dimensions of citizenship:
status, exercise and conscience. Which involve; the knowledge of
citizenship rights and duties; the identification of the state as responsible
of granting those rights and duties by means of laws and policies that
guarantee their fulfillment; and the recognition of legitimate means to
make demands (Zamudio cited in De La Paz, 2012).
Citizenship and Inequality
Citizenship advocates for equality and inclusiveness, however, empirical
evidence indicates that the extent of citizenship practice and the range of
application of civil, political and social rights is determined by socio-economic
factors such as: class status, ethnic group, gender, educational and economic
positions (Nash, 2009). The modern conception of citizenship, particularly when
it is combined with extreme inequality and poverty, tends to exclude some
groups and individuals. Thus, in contemporary times, citizenship and the sense
of belonging and solidarity is connected to the unfair distribution of wealth,
resources and knowledge.
Personal Viewpoint toward Citizenship and Inequality
In my opinion, there is a deficiency of political engagement for youth and people
from lower socioeconomic backgrounds, which I assume results from a lack of
civic education in primary and secondary schools. Although I was born as an
Australian citizen it wasn’t until undertaking this assessment that I have learnt
the accurate definition of citizenship and was able to gain a greater insight into
citizenship and the rights and responsibilities associated with being a citizen.
I believe that most individuals from younger generations or of lower SES, view
citizenship as the obligation to vote in elections, however, there are aspects of
citizenship that are not known and considered by these groups.
With better education for children in regards to citizenship, civilians will be
equipped with the essential knowledge that is required for full participation in
society and within the political domain. I believe that civic education is necessary
for reducing citizenship inequality and can be considered as a method of
empowerment by distributing essential knowledge and skills among powerless
groups and individuals, which are crucial for effective citizenship. Civic
education may not only counteract the effects of exclusion, but could contribute
to the construction of a fairer, more comprehensive and effective concept of
citizenship.
References
Australian Government Department of Immigration and Border Protection
(2014), Retrieved May 8, 2014 from, http://www.citizenship.gov.au
De La Paz, G. (2012). Citizenship Identity and Social Inequality. Instituto Federal
Electoral San Diego.
Nash, K. (2009). Contemporary Political Sociology: globalization, politics and
power. John Wiley & Sons.
Citizenship and Inequality II: Migration
•
In recent years, there has been an abundance of migrants, particularly
those from the Global South travelling to Western countries in attempt to
gain employment and in pursuit of better living conditions.
•
Unfortunately, when arriving in Western countries, these migrants often
work in the least desirable, lowest paid occupations, dangerous
conditions and are often exploited by their employers.
•
Moreover, as a result of widespread xenophobic views, governments
often restrict migrants to access forms of social support such as
unemployment assistance and social housing, which are provided to other
citizens.
Portes (2013), ‘An Exercise in Scapegoating’
Portes (2013) criticizes, Goodhart’s arguments, which claim that major problems
such as economic and social issues in the British society have been caused by an
inundation of migrants.
Economic:
Goodhart argues, that “low-skilled immigrants have taken jobs from unskilled
natives, leaving them languishing on benefits, while high-skilled immigration
reduces both the incentives and opportunities for ambitious and talented natives
to move up the ladder”.
Social:
Goodhart believes that “the decline of a shared sense of community both locally
and nationally have been caused by the failure of immigrants to integrate, either
‘physically’ (where they live, who their kids go to school with, what language
they speak and so on) or ‘mentally’ (in terms of the degree to which they identify
with Britain, or share a common set of values)”.
Portes (2013) argues that immigration has little or no impact on employment
even in the short term; it may drive down wages for the low-skilled but the effect
is small compared with that of other factors such as: technological change and
the national minimum wage. Portes (2013) main argument is that Goodhart
places the blame for economic and social problems on immigration or
immigration policy, where it is unlikely to be the main or even siginificant cause.
Citizenship and Inequality II: Migration
Nations that have high levels of immigration have had to rethink their policies of
admission and the allocation of rights and benefits to citizens, immigrants and
other residents. Failures to define transparent and fair membership rules have
created different and unequal classes of membership in a given society.
Similar to Britain, Australia has a long history of xenophobic and racialised
policies which have been targeted at migrants from various countries. Morever,
institutional racism has encouraged widespread racial discourses and ideologies
within both the political and public realm.
Personal Viewpoint Toward Citizenship and Inequality: Migration
My own family are considered as Maltese Australians as we are Australian
citizens of Maltese ancestry. Maltese immigrants are representative of the
earliest stages of non-English migration to Australia, most arriving in the late
1950s or early 1960s. Although non-English speakers, Maltese migrants were
regarded more favorably by Australians because of their support for the Allies
during World War II and because of their familiarity with the British
commonwealth and British customs and traditions.
However, when my own family arrived in Australia during the 1950s they were
disadvantaged and were faced with poor working conditions when they arrived
in Australia. My great grandmother was employed as a steel worker and worked
long and tedious hours doing hard labour in poor and hazardous conditions. She
worked for many years to provide for her whole family and contribute to the
Australian society.
In my opinion, which is based on the philosophies of living in a democratic,
liberal, egalitarian society, citizenship should provide citizens with equal rights
and working conditions regardless of their cultural, social or economic
backgrounds.
I believe that a proportion of Australians uphold Goodhart’s view toward
immigration and the negative impacts that they create for the country’s
economic and social affairs, while migrants positive contributions towards the
Australian society is hardly recognised or appreciated.
References
J. Portes (2013) ‘An Exercise in Scapegoating’, London Review of Books,
35(12): 7-9. http://www.lrb.co.uk v35/ n12/jonathan-portes/anexcersise-in- scapegoating
Klusmeyer, D. B., & Aleinikoff, T. A. (Eds.). (2000). From migrants to
Membership in a changing world. Carnegie Endowment.
http://www.dfat.gov.au/geo/malta/malta_brief.html
citizens:
Citizenship and Inequality III: Gender and Sexuality
In Western societies, including Australia, women are assumed to have achieved
equality with men. However, there are still prevailing inequalities that women
are subjected to, such as unequal pay even if women are working the exact same
occupations as men, in Australia, women earn 70% of what men do.
Feminist views towards the inequality of women have evolved and transformed
over time:
- Liberal feminism focuses on equal pay for equal work.
- However, ‘radical’ feminists claim that liberal feminism is to concerned with
merely including women in a man’s world.
- Whereas, standpoint theorists believe that women must be treated equal to
men but differently due to women’s specific needs.
- Those concerned with deconstructing the categories of sex and gender argue
that there should not be a focus on womens biology and instead gender should
be viewed as a social construct.
- Coloured and minority world feminisits focus on equality of all women
regardless of their race, sexuality, class and ability.
Power (2009), ‘One Dimensional Women’
Power’s book takes its title from Herbert Marcuse's 1964 One-Dimensional Man,
which demonstrates how supposedly content and free individuals were in fact
labouring under the illusory freedoms of capitalism. Power (2009) states, "what
looks like emancipation is nothing but a tightening of the shackles”. Power
critiques consumerism and contemporary feminism in order to rethink: work,
sex and politics. Power views the oppression of women arising primarily from
economic inequalities in societies.
Vidal (2014) ‘Intersectional Feminism’
What is intersectionality?
The view that women experience oppression in varying configurations and in
varying degrees of intensity. Cultural patterns of oppression are not only
interrelated, but are bound together and influenced by the intersectional systems of
society. Examples of this include race, gender, class, ability, and ethnicity.”
Today's feminist movement is said to be in danger of losing momentum unless it
recognises that not every feminist is white, middle class, cis-gendered and able
bodied.
In other words, particular groups of women have multi-layered facets in life that
they have to deal with and there is no one-size-fits-all type of feminism.
'Intersectionality' reveals that feminism is overly white, middle class, cisgendered and able-bodied which represents just one type of viewpoint and does
not reflect on the experiences of all the multi-layered facets in life that women of
all backgrounds face.
Personal Views on Citizenship and Inequality III: Gender and Sexuality
I personally believe that of all the approaches to feminism, ‘intersectional
feminism’ best resonates modern society and the inequalities and oppression
which contemporary women are faced with. Intersectionality considers the
many dimensions and ways in which women are unequal. I believe that this
approach to feminism could have a positive effect for social change and in
equalizing citizenship rights for men and women.
In my opinion, past approaches to feminism are somewhat limited and
hypocritical as they call for equality to men whilst still excluding some women
such as the racialised, poor and disabled for example.
The acknowledgement of differences between women will ensure that all women
regardless of their backgrounds can achieve true equality. Until the mainstream
feminist movement starts attending to the various groups of women within it,
then equality will not be achieved.
References
Power, N. (2009). One dimensional woman. John Hunt Publishing.
Vidal. A (2014) ‘Intersectional feminism’. What the hell is it? (and why you
should care)’, The Telegraph, 15 January 2014.
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/women/womenslife/10572435/Intersectional-feminism.-What-the-hell-is-it-And-whyyou-should-care.html