Brandom
9/24/2013
Force and Understanding Notes
Outline of Force and Understanding:
I. Overview [132]-[135]
II. Force [136]-142]
a) Force and its Expression [136]-[137]
b) Independent Opposing Forces [138]-[140]
c) Reciprocal Action, the Play of Forces [141]-[142]
II. Law, the Supersensible World, and Explanation [143]-[155].
This is the First Supersensible World (FSW).
III. The Inverted World [156]-[160].
This is the Second Supersensible World (SSW) and the First Inverted World
(FIW).
IV.
The Infinite [161-165].
This is the Third Supersensible World (TSW) and the Second Inverted World
(SIW).
Overview:
1.
The 4 big topics of this section are:
a) Theoretical entities, that is, ones that are only accessible inferentially. We have moved
to these from the sense universals (observables) of Perception, where we discovered that
their inferential articulation is essential to them. Now we consider universals purged of
that immediacy.
Note that in discussing theoretical, postulated (posited), entities generally in terms of the concept
of force we see the first example of Hegel’s conceptual allegory (cf. the characters in A
Pilgrim’s Progress). The discussion of force is the first place it is convenient to discuss my
allegory methodology for reading the Phenomenology. Must read claims at two levels:

Specifically, about Newtonian force, and

Generically, about theoretical concepts and entities.
a. is allegorical, or within the allegory.
b. Is what it is allegorical for, outside, in the target of the allegory.
Thus, e.g. “expression of force” is observable consequence of theoretical states of affairs, and
“play of forces” is interaction of purely theoretical states (e.g. not with observables). Q: What of
“opposing forces”?
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Here the two big claims are:
 The distinction between observable and theoretical items is not ontological, but
methodological. (Sellars)
 Must not run together the observable/theoretical distinction and the
appearance/reality distinction (the distinction between what things are for
consciousness and what they are in themselves).
b) The status of modal claims, above all, statements of laws. These make explicit the
inferential-conceptual articulation of universals: the relations of material consequence
and incompatibility that articulate their determinate content.
Here tell story of Kant as realizing that the principle expressive role of some concepts is
not to describe or explain, but to make explicit essential features of the framework
within which description and explanation is possible. Sellars quote on
labelingdescribing:
…although describing and explaining (predicting, retrodicting, understanding) are
distinguishable, they are also, in an important sense, inseparable. It is only
because the expressions in terms of which we describe objects, even such basic
expressions as words for perceptible characteristics of molar objects, locate these
objects in a space of implications, that they describe at all, rather than merely
label. The descriptive and explanatory resources of language advance hand in
hand….1
This is the thought that Hegel develops in the third and final supersensible world (SSW)—
the one in which lawfulness as manifested in the semantogenic relations of exclusive difference
(now both synthetic and necessary) between properties-facts is seen as implicit.
In earlier notes I emphasize that there are two things at issue here: alethic modal
relations such as laws and semantogenic relations (Cf. (c-iv) below). Hegel is, of course,
identifying these—as Kant did before him, and Sellars would do after him. This is
moving up from facts expressed by sentences and endorsed by judging, to laws expressed
by modally qualified quantified conditionals endorsed by explaining. Full reversal,
beyond Kant's halfway position, of traditional order of logical-semantic
(meta)explanation.
c) Holism about content.
From the holism of Perception to the holism of the play of forces (see (iii) below) as multigrade
contrariety comes into play.
i. This idea is introduced in the “play of forces”, allegorical for the fact that inferenceunderwriting relations among theoretical objects-and-properties, no less than relations
between them and observable ones, articulate their content.
1
CDCM Section 108.
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ii. (b) and (c) are put together in the ascent of categorial levels ((3) on p. 10): from featureplacing universals to particulars-and-universals, to facts, to facts plus laws and the Concept.
iii. I said in a note that Hegel was innocent of the idea that having properties P and Q might
exclude, in a contrariety sense, more than P excludes by itself and Q excludes by itself.
Being green does not exclude being a winesap apple, and being ripe does not exclude being
a winesap apple, but being green and ripe does exclude being a winesap apple. But I was
dead wrong. Hegel is not innocent of that thought, consciousness understanding itself as
perceiving, i.e. applying sense universals whose content is independent of relations to other
things in virtue of its immediacy is innocent of that thought. In fact, that realization is one
of the drivers that takes us from the holism of properties whose contents are defined by
exclusions of other properties (and then the further fine-structure that unpacking that idea
turns out to involve (as in (1)), to the holism of the “play of forces.” For that latter idea
precisely does take account of the interaction of the various forces in virtue of which they
“oppose” other forces. This generalization is one of the key moves in the transition from
Perception to Force and Understanding.
iv. A conception of content according to which contingent synthetic relations can be analytic
of concepts, in the sense of being conceptually necessary. (Cf. (10) on pp. 14-15.) F=ma is
both contingent and synthetic, but it is also necessarily true in virtue of the concepts: part of
what ‘force’ and ‘mass’ mean. The question of how it can both be a definition of force and
mass and be a synthetic discovery of a truth that is in some sense contingent, while still
describing a relation that is also in some sense necessary is a substantial problem in
contemporary philosophy of science. To see that it is synthetic, see that people knew a lot
about acceleration (which, like velocity, can be defined in terms of distance, and time)
before Newton invented the correlative concepts of mass and force.
Hegel sees conceptual contents as articulated by relations of material incompatibility
(exclusive difference, determinate negation) and (so) material consequence (explanationsupporting counterfactually robust inferential relations, mediation).
Experience does not only alter our judgments or doxastic commitments, but also the broadly
inferential commitments by which the contents of the concepts applied in judgment are
articulated. Concepts, no less than judgments, are altered in the course of experience.
In fact what we must see is the Concept: the whole constellation of doxastic, inferential,
and incompatibility commitments that evolves in response to the deliverances of immediacy.
Here the story of Hegel’s successor-concept to Kant’s construal of the conceptual
inexhaustibility of the deliverances of sensuous immediacy (in “Sketch of a Program for a
Critical Reading of Hegel”) is to the fore.
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d) Hylomorphism as another level of identity (of content) in difference (of form), where the
(exclusive) difference is essential to the identity=unity. Here "essential" is reciprocal
sense-dependence. Model: inter categorial difference between universals and particulars,
up from intra-categorial ones.
The objective form of what is determinate and so (given Hegel’s definition)
conceptually contentful is laws governing forces (theoretically postulated items).
Such laws are formulated using alethic modal vocabulary. The subjective form of
what is determinate and so (given Hegel’s definition) conceptually contentful is
inferential-explanatory activity (appealing to laws), which is governed by norms
expressed in a deontic modal vocabulary. The reciprocal sense-dependence of these is
the final form of holism. See (2e) below.
Cf [140] on an image of this hylomorphism within force:
“The distinctions themselves turn out to be within a twofold distinction, once as
distinctions of content, since the one extreme term is the force reflected into itself, the
other extreme term is the medium of the matters; the other time as distinctions of form,
since one solicits, the other is solicited, the former being active, the latter being passive.”
Cf. [135]: 135. “However, because this unconditioned-universal is an object for
consciousness, the distinction of form and content emerges within it…”
Transition from Perception
One of the lessons of Perception is that the essence of a thing is not (as it was for
phenomenal consciousness conceiving of itself as perceiving) being immediately
perceptible. The essence of the thing is rather the relations that articulate the
intelligible content of perception. This brings into view not perceiving, but
understanding: the conceptual content that is delivered immediately in perception, but
can also be thought with otherwise than in perception.
129. Thus the object in its pure determinatenesses, or in the determinatenesses which were
supposed to constitute its essential being, is overcome just as surely as it was in its sensuous
being. From a sensuous being it turned into a universal; but this universal, since it originates
in the sensuous, is essentially conditioned by it, and hence is not truly a self-identical
universality at all, but one afflicted with an opposition; (BB 2013: Cf. the story in "Sketch
of a Program...", about H's version of the conceptual inexhaustibility of the sensuous as
immediacy as a principle of development of concepts through finding oneself with
incompatible commitments). for this reason the universality splits into the extremes of singular
individuality and universality, into the One of the properties, and the Also of the 'free matters'.
These pure determinatenesses seem to express the essential nature itself, but they are only a
'being-for-self' that is burdened with a 'being-for-another'. Since, however, both are essentially in
a single unity, what we now have is unconditioned absolute universality, and consciousness
here for the first time truly enters the realm of the Understanding.
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130. Thus the singular being of sense does indeed vanish in the dialectical movement of
immediate certainty and becomes universality, but it is only a sensuous universality. My
'meaning' has vanished, and perception takes the object as it is in itself, or as a universal as such.
Singular being therefore emerges in the object as true singleness, as the in-itself of the One,
or as a reflectedness-into-self. But this is still a conditioned being-for-self alongside which
appears another being-for-self, the universality which is opposed to, and conditioned by
singular being. But these two contradictory extremes are not merely alongside each other
but in a single unity, or in other words, the defining characteristic common to both, viz. 'beingfor-self', is burdened with opposition generally, i.e. it is at the same time not a 'being-for-self'.
The sophistry of perception seeks to save these moments from their contradiction, and it seeks to
lay hold on the truth, by distinguishing between the aspects, by sticking to the 'Also' and to the
'in so far', and finally, by distinguishing the 'unessential' aspect from an 'essence' which is
opposed to it. But these expedients, instead of warding off deception in the process of
apprehension, prove themselves on the contrary to be quite empty; and the truth which is
supposed to be won by this logic of the perceptual process proves to be in one and the same
respect the opposite [of itself] and thus to have as its essence a universality which is devoid of
distinctions and determinations.n
134. The result was the unconditioned universal, initially, in the negative and abstract sense
that consciousness negated its one-sided Notions and abstracted them: in other words, it gave
them up. But the result has, implicitly, a positive significance: in it, the unity of 'beingfor-self' and 'being-for-another' is posited; in other words, the absolute antithesis is
posited as a self-identical essence. At first sight, this seems to concern only the form of
the moments in reciprocal relation; but 'being-for-self' and 'being-for-another' are the
content itself as well, (BB 2013: Here H foreshadows the hylomorphic idea that taking
the two forms it does, objective and subjective, in-itself and for consciousness, is
essential to content, properly understood. That is a reciprocal sense-dependence
relation.) since the antithesis in its truth can have no other nature than the one yielded in
the result, viz. that the content taken in perception to be true, belongs in fact only to the
form, in the unity of which it is dissolved. This content is likewise universal; there can be
no other content which by its particular constitution would fail to fall within this
unconditioned universality. A content of this kind would be some particular way or other
of being for itself and of being in relation to an other. But, in general, to be for itself and
to be in relation to an other constitutes the nature and essence of the content, whose
truth consists in its being unconditionally universal; and the result is simply and solely
universal.
[135]: “because this unconditioned universal is an object for consciousness, there
emerges in it the distinction of form and content” Q: What warrants this ‘because’? A:
See note above to [134].
[136]: “the 'matters' posited as independent directly pass over into their unity, and their unity
directly unfolds its diversity, and this once again reduces itself to unity. (BB: Here the
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diversity of properties is thought of according to the last model tried out by consc
conceiving itself as perceiving: in terms of relations to many different things, e.g. To
those with which it could be co-classified. But those objects, responsible for the
diversity of the perceptible particular, by comparison, are not, as it is, concurrently
perceptible with it--though they might all be perceptible in principle. But their
presence, responsible for the diversity--as part of what it means to have diverse
prproperties--must be inferred. That is how they are cognitively accessible. This opens
up the space for the idea of things that are only accessible that way: inferentially.). But
this movement is what is called Force.” This is the first mention of force. It comes up as we
are talking about the identity-as-consisting-in-difference. We’ll see that the difference is the
expression of force, it’s relation to others, and force is the identity that is constituted by that.
Law governs the relations between different ‘forces’ (and underwrites inferences), and so
articulates the essence or identity of force. So what we get is a conception of objects not as
essentially immediately perceivable, but as essentially nodes in a field of forces (the
ontological image of a semantic holism).
[136] “When we thus preserve the two moments in their immediate unity, the Understanding,
to which the Notion of Force belongs, is strictly speaking the Notion which sustains the
different moments qua different; for, in themselves, they are not supposed to be different.
Consequently, the difference exists only in thought. That is to say, what has been posited in
the foregoing is in the first instance only the Notion of Force, not its reality. In point of fact,
however, Force is the unconditioned universal which is equally in its own self what it is for
an other; or which contains the difference in its own self—for difference is nothing else
than being-for-another.”
BB: Might talk here about the lack of a logic of relations in traditional logic, up through
Leibniz. Kant struggled. The holism of the play of forces is all relations. It is that
realization that moves us to law, as governing the relation of forces.
2.
From Force to Law:
a) Force and its Expression: The first dialectic begins with the fact that a single
unobservable state of affairs has a multiplicity of observable effects, consequences,
manifestations, or expressions. “[I]t is necessary that Force...express itself” [136].
Here the point is that we must infer to the force from its observable expressions. But
what is responsible for the variety of expressions? Other forces. This moves us to:
b) Independent opposing forces: It must be the relation of one unobservable state of affairs
to some other unobservable state of affairs that is responsible for the diversity of
manifestations that it has, the variety of actualities that can express the possibility that it
is. “What appears as an 'other' and solicits Force, both to expression and to return
to itself, proves to be itself Force...”[138] From our phenomenologically lofty vantage
point we can see that although at this second stage progress has been made in addressing
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the felt difficulty with which we began, that, namely, of accounting for the diversity of
expression, the way in which each single unobservable unfolds itself into a variety of
effects, a difficulty remains. For the various forces or theoretical objects are conceived as
"wholly independent forces" ([138], see also references to independence in [140] and
[141]). . What the notion of opposing forces has revealed is the essential
interdependence of the various theoretical postulates that a theory endorses. Explicit
attention now shifts from the moment of mutual independence of theoretical entities to
their reciprocal action--the 'play of forces'.
c) The play of forces: The lesson is a holist one: [T]heir essence rather consists simply
and solely in this, that each is solely through the other...[141]

Where we started out considering what is immediately given to us in perception as an
object of knowledge, we are now obliged to consider its role as a means by which we can
come to know about something that is not itself immediate. Instead of focusing on the
noninferential process from which it perceptual knowledge results, we focus on the
inferences it supports: looking downstream rather than upstream. Doing this is
thinking of immediacy as mediating our access to theoretical objects, by providing
premises from which facts about them can be inferred. Since they point beyond
themselves inferentially, besides being whatever they are immediately, noninferentially
observable states of affairs serve also to manifest or reveal other states of affairs,
including theoretical ones, which are only accessible by means of such inferential
mediation.

This is the relation Hegel talks about under the heading of “force and its expression”
[Äußerung]—the relation, namely, between a theoretical object and its observable
manifestations. Expression, making the implicit explicit, is one of Hegel’s master
concepts. It is (among other things) his preferred way of thinking about the relation
between what we are thinking about and what we think about it.

The first development of the crudest conception consists in the move to considering
“independent opposing forces” and then “reciprocal action or the play of forces”. It is the
dawning appreciation of the holistic nature of the inferences that connect us to theoretical
objects. Since our only access to these objects is by means of their inferential
connections, our grasp of the content of one theoretical claim cannot be independent of
our grasp of other contents that stand to it in material inferential and incompatibility
relations.

the fact that forces are only mediately (inferentially) accessible to us, while their
expressions can be immediately (noninferentially) accessible to us must not be taken to
imply that these two sorts of thing are intelligible independently of one another. 2013:
Indeed, the distinction between them is methodological, not ontological: Sellars.
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Larger point is not to run this together with appearance/reality, for-consc/in-itself
distinction.

So we consider what happens when the restriction to observable objects is removed—that
is, when the idea is generalized from applying to objects of perception to objects of
thought in general. The result is the thought that it is the relation of one Force to others
that is responsible for the diversity of its manifestations.

The conception of what is immediately observable as the joint manifestation of a “play of
forces” accordingly incorporates a certain sort of holism about the theoretically
postulated entities: “their essence consists simply and solely in this, that each is solely
through the other.” Hegel uses an explicitly inferential idiom, whose home language
game is discussion of syllogisms, to express the holistic nature of the essentially
interacting theoretical entities. The forces “do not exist as extremes which retain for
themselves something fixed and substantial, transmitting to one another in their
middle term and in their contact a merely external property; on the contrary, what
they are, they are only in this middle term and this contact.” 2013: Their whole
cognitive job is to function as middle terms. It is "middle terms" all the way down.

If no identity or difference, no individual or its relation to others, is intelligible prior to
any other, how is any identity or difference constituted? “They have, thus, in fact, no
substances of their own that might support and maintain them.” It seems that something
determinate needs to be fixed first, to get the whole scheme off the ground. This is what
one might have hoped that immediacy would supply. (Thus Quine conceived his holistic
web of belief as ‘anchored’ at its edges by perceptual experience, construed as deriving
its content noninferentially, from the pattern of stimulations of sensory surfaces that elicit
them.) But this is just what the discovery of the essential, and not just accidental,
inferential articulation of the determinate content of the immediate deliverances of sense
debars.

[My holism story from “Holism and Idealism…” here.]
d) Law: For with the realization that necessitation is the essence of force, the issue of the
explanation of appearance is explicitly raised. 2013: Cf. Sellars on labeling/describing as
distinguished by descriptions, but not labels (which are immediate, looking only
upstream), being “situated in a space of implications”, which makes explanation possible,
and is why “description and explanation advance hand in hand”, and are different , but
inseparable.
e) Law and Explanation: Here is where the hylomorphism about determinate conceptual
content comes into play. This is the idea that one sort of content can both be how things
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are in themselves (reality) and how they are for consciousness or thought (appearance),
but that these objective and subjective poles of the intentional nexus are different forms
that one sort of content can take. Law as the truth of force (because it governs their
relations, and the play of forces has shown us that that is what is fundamental) is on the
objective side, and explanation (a kind of inference) is on the subjective side.
The relation between them is that what one must do in order to take there to be laws
(expressed using alethic modal categorial concepts) is to exploit them in explanations (a kind
of norm-governed inference).
Two stories here at level of objective idealism (reciprocal sense-dependence):
 Particular/Universal : Singular Term/Predicate : Referring/Classifying
Fact : Declarative sentence : Asserting-judging
Law : Modally qualified quantified conditional : Inferring-explaining
 Relations between two forms is both alethic modal and deontic normative:
i)
Modal tracking of objective facts and relations by subjective doxastic and
inferential commitments, and
ii)
Normative governance of subjective commitments by objective facts and
relations (laws).
Conceptual idealism will then see these relations as instituted by norm-governed practices.
This is a breaking of the symmetry of reciprocal sense-dependence in objective idealism in
favor of the side of the subject. This move is made explicit in the order of exposition of the
PhdG by the transition from Consciousness to Self-Consciousness.
f) There is an important connection between:
a. Giving immediacy a new role, by focusing on its consequences, hence it as
revelatory of theoretical (which is not equivalent to real, but can be real), i.e.
what is not available as non-inferentially elicited. (Also, and related, as placeholder or vehicle of content, cf. holism and chicken-and-egg problem.) and
b. Concern with laws, first as they codify inferential bridge principles connecting
observation and theory, and also inter-theoretic entity consequences.
From Law to the FSW:
1)
The actual, observable manifestations of theoretical objects—the products of the play of
forces—serve for the Understanding only as premises, from which to make inferences about the
objects whose interactions they express. These are objects individuated solely by the inferencesupporting laws they are subject to. The true essence of this first conception of the supersensible
world is taken to consist in those laws: the “calm realm of laws”. Immediacy ‘vanishes’ for the
Understanding in playing only this mediating role.
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1) For Hegel the contingency expressed by synthetic judgments is incorporated into the
(therefore) determinate necessity of concepts (in Kantian terms, into the rules for making
judgments) by the joint evolution of doxastic commitments (judgments) and inferential
commitments (concepts) that results from extracting hitherto implicit inferential
consequences of the judgments and concepts one finds oneself with, and adjusting both sorts
of commitments in the light of the materially incompatible commitments that emerge as their
consequences. In the same way the deliverances of immediacy (all of which will be synthetic
judgments in Kant’s sense) are incorporated into the mediated structure of concepts. Talk
about the goodness of inferences and talk about the contents of concepts are two sides of
one coin. But what follows from what depends on what else is true. So the contents of
concepts must not be thought of as settled independently and in advance of
consideration of actual judgments and inferences they figure in.
2) Cf. the role of immediacy as the inexhaustibility of the sensous in “Sketch…” is more like
Anil’s notion of experience: its function is transformative of (for him, belief) here beliefsand-concepts.
3) The “categorial ascent” in FU: Hegel thinks that adequate conceptions of form and content,
of identity and difference, cannot be adumbrated in advance of consideration of their role in
explicating features of this evolutionary developmental process. Concepts are not to be
thought of (as for Kant) just in terms of their role in judgment. H’s view differs from K’s in
that:

First, we must think of their inferential potential.

Second, we must think of that potential as actualized by combining those inferential
commitments with doxastic commitments (judgments, including synthetic ones) in
multipremise inferences that may yield discordant (materially incompatible)
conclusions.

Then we must think of the broadly inferential commitments implicit in concepts as
revisable in the light of those conclusions they actually lead us to, in concert with the
doxastic commitments we actually undertake.

Finally, we must identify concepts with the second order potential to develop (in the
context of other concepts and judgments) their contents by this process. At this point
we will be thinking of concepts as having Hegelian negativity as their form: as having
their determinate identity consisting in the way they develop by giving rise to
differences. The developing whole of holistically related inferential and doxastic
commitments, concepts and judgments, Hegel calls “the Concept”. In calling it
“infinite” at the end of his discussion of Force and Understanding, he is marking the
conceptual shift he is urging from the atomistic Kantian picture of antecedently
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determinate concepts, each one what it is independently of its relation to any different
concepts, only externally related to those others in synthetic judgments whose truth is
irrelevant to the content of any concepts. It is the shift from conceiving concepts
according to the categories of Verstand to using those of Vernunft.

Pitch the story about how we need to radicalize Kant’s thought that concepts are
functions of judgment, by moving to include in the functional system that holistically
defines them—inferences the judgments are involved in, and then the process by
which judgments and inferential commitments are groomed by the experience of
error—as the resolution of the dilemma about whether F=ma is a definition, hence
supporting no real explanations, but articulating semantic content, or relates
antecedently determined distinct contents (which seems then to push us towards
thinking with Kant that it is something about our Understanding that establishes
whatever connection there is). This is in (9) below.
4) Hegel summarizes this development:
In this way there vanishes completely all distinction of separate, mutually
contrasted Forces, which were supposed to be present in this movement…Thus
there is neither Force, nor the act of soliciting or being solicited, nor the
determinateness of being a stable medium and unity reflected into itself, there is
neither something existing singly by itself, nor are there diverse antitheses; on the
contrary, what there is in this absolute flux is only difference as a universal
difference, or as a difference into which the many antitheses have been resolved.
This difference as a universal difference, is consequently the simple element in
the play of Forces itself and what is true in it. It is the law of Force. [148]
Note that proper Newtonian forces are governed by laws in the form of differential equations:
equations that tell us, down to the level of infinitesimal differences, how one difference stands in
ratio to another difference: dx/dy. This is the variable difference of two differences. Cf. the
original difference between indifferent-mere difference and exclusive difference that is
elaborated into 5 further compound intra- and inter-categorial differences in Perception.]
By ‘law’ Hegel means what Kant meant: a rule that has objective validity.
This is (or corresponds to, on the deontic side) a kind of authority. Recognizing something as a
law is according it a distinctive kind of authority over one' inferences and explanations.
A rule unifies a diverse set of instances, by applying to all of them.
But it is categorially beyond a mere universal:
it is a rule for reasoning--a rule in accordance with which to reason, not merely a fact from
which to reason.. This is obscured by the fact that it can be stated, in a (declarative) sentence.
Nonetheless, it's role is not to describe how thing are. It does not state a superfact.
This realization--that the job of a statement of law is to make explicit something implicit in
the use of ordinary, descriptive, fact-stating vocabulary--drives us to the final SSW.
Cf. "Modal Expressivism and Modal Realism, Together Again".
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So we are now to look at the rules that relate theoretical objects to each other and to their
observable expressions.
Laws as this kind of rules are the successors of properties as universals that unify different
instances. Cf. understanding the essence of concept application in terms of the “rule-following
considerations,” in the debate downstream from Kripkenstein.
5) The essence of the play of forces now appears in the form of the objective rules (=laws) that
govern it. Three features of these laws merit mention:

First, as rules, they are general: they apply to many actual and possible instances.

Second, they are conditional or consequential: they say that if a specified condition is
satisfied, then a consequence of a definite sort will occur. This is to say that the laws
codify inferences.

Third, the laws specify the ways in which the occurrence of one theoretical state of
affairs can (in context) necessitate the occurrence of another: they have a modal force.
This is to say that they do not just specify what is in fact the case, but rather what
would happen, or must happen if a state of affairs of certain kind were to occur.
6) We can think about the various conceptual points that have been made in the discussion of
Consciousness in terms of the kinds of logical vocabulary that have been discovered to be
necessary to make explicit what is implicit in ordinary empirical knowledge claims.
a) In Sense Certainty: Besides the demonstratives, with which we began as the basic way of
trying to say what is meant in immediate experience, we discovered that we need also
anaphoric pronouns, to make it possible to hold onto and recollect what is indicated by
the demonstratives: to make what is presented available for inference.
b) Negation (not just formal negation), and, turning out to be implicit in the two kinds of
negation (codifying two kinds of difference) singular terms and predicates, then turned
out to be needed to articulate the propositional content of simple observations.
c) It now emerges that quantifiers (for generality), conditionals (for the consequential
element), and modal operators (for necessity) would be needed as well, to make explicit
the inferential connections that relate observational and theoretical concepts—that is, to
state laws.
7) Anti-descriptivism (Sellars): A law, as statable, is a kind of superfact. As a result, the
concept of law still incorporates a conception of the determinateness of conceptual contents
that is structured by categories of independence. No judgment, including one that states a
law, can be thought of as simply true or false, so long as the concepts it employs are
defective. But they will be inadequate so long as they contain the potential, when properly
applied in concert with others to which they are inferentially related, to lead in empirical
circumstances (2013: Cf. the inexhaustibility of sensuous immediacy as understood in
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“Sketch…) to incompatible judgments. But that holistic potential is not a merely regrettable,
because dispensable, feature of the employment of empirical concepts. For Hegel, as we are
aiming to put ourselves in a position to see, that residual ‘negativity’ of such concepts not
only provides the normative motor for conceptual and doxastic change, and thereby the
mechanism whereby immediacy and contingency are incorporated into concepts—mediated
and given (made to have) the form of necessity—but is what determines the content of such
concepts, and so constitutes their determinateness. So statable rules, even lawlike claims that
codify proprieties of inference, are the wrong sort of unit to look to for a solution to the
unity-in-difference problem raised by acknowledgment of the essential contribution made by
inferential relations to other concepts in the constitution of the content of one concept. For
such rules or laws still presuppose, rather than articulate the nature and conditions of the
intelligibility of, the determinately contentful concepts in terms of which they are formulated.
8) Reflection on the role of the realm of laws reveals that the concept of law is doing two different things, that two
different conceptions of law are really in play. (Compare the 'doubling' of forces into unifying force whose
expression is solicited and diversifying force that solicits that expression.)
a)
On the one hand law is the principle of unity, of the unification of diverse appearances by exhibiting them
as necessary, that is as instances of a rule that necessitates them. This is law as the principle of lawlikeness, law as
the abstract form of law. It is the principle that ultimately demands the unity of science, what appears in Kant's
philosophy of science as the ideal that science form a system, that all laws eventually be capable of being exhibited
as consequences of one law. Otherwise the realm of law, which unifies diverse appearances, itself contains an
irreducible contingency and diversity of laws.
b)
On the other hand, laws must have determinate content, if they are to unify the restless particularity of
phenomena by exhibiting their connection as instances of rules. Explanation cannot proceed according to empty or
contentless laws, but requires determinateness and content.
For us, but not for the consciousness undergoing this experience, this splitting of the realm of laws into a unifying
principle or form and a set of diverse, determinately contentful particular laws manifests the requirement that
anything with determinate content acquire that content in virtue of its role in a Notion, a system of relative identities
constituted by their relative differences. This principle arose for us already in the exposition of perceiving
consciousness. Law as unity must have diversity within itself if it is to have content. It cannot be purely diverse if
it is to be able to perform its unifying function. So law is seen to 'double' itself, just as force did, when the idea
of its confrontation with an 'other' is reflected upon, and its implicit presuppositions made explicit.
9) The final movement of understanding consciousness operating according to the conception of
supersensuous, necessitating law unfolds the consequences of the demand for determinate
content in the laws appealed to by explanation. Explanation, which "condenses the law
into Force as the essence of the law," finding in things a "ground constituted exactly the
same as the law". With the concept of explanation necessity becomes not an abstract form
or principle divorced from the determinate contents of the laws that govern actual appearance,
but rather a feature inherent in those laws themselves.
10) Consider Newton's fundamental law F=ma. Is this a definition, say of force? If it is, then we
can understand how it has the special status marked by calling it 'necessary'. But in that case
the distinctness of force from mass and acceleration is merely apparent. Explanation by
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appeal to such an analytic 'law' then seems to be a cheat, a trick. For it just consists in
exhibiting or asserting the necessary interrelation of things that only appear to be distinct.
On the other hand, if this claim is not analytic, that is, if force is not being defined as the
product of mass and acceleration, then the explanatory invocation of this law would not be
misleading, and we would really learn something from it. But how in that case are we to
understand the alleged necessity of the law? What does it mean to say that things that are
really distinct are also necessarily related to one another? Here, of course, Hegel is asking
Hume's question. How is it possible to make sense of a natural necessity that does not
collapse into uninformative analyticity or empirical contingency?
153. On hand in yet another way than that already indicated is the indifference of the law and
force, that is, of the concept and being. In the law of motion, for example, it is necessary
that motion be partitioned into time and space, or also into distance and velocity. Since
motion is only the relation of those moments, motion (the universal) is here partitioned
in itself; however, now these parts, time and space (that is, distance and velocity), do not
express in themselves this origination out of one universal; they are indifferent to each other;
space is represented as being able to be without time, time without space, and distance at
least without velocity, — just as their magnitudes are indifferent to each other, since they do
not relate themselves as positive and negative, and thus are not related to each other by virtue
of their essence. The necessity of partition is thus certainly on hand but not that of the parts
as such for each other. For that reason, however, that first necessity itself is also only a sham,
false necessity; namely, motion itself is not represented as simple, that is, as pure essence;
rather, it is represented as already partitioned; time and space are its self-sufficient parts, that
is, essences in themselves, that is, distance and velocity are ways of being, or of representing,
either of which one can just as well exist without the other, and motion is consequently only
their superficial relation, not their essence. Represented as simple essence, that is, as force,
motion is indeed gravity, which, however, does not contain these distinctions at all within
itself.
154. The distinction is therefore in both cases no distinction in itself; either universal, the
force, is indifferent to the partition, which lies in the law, or the distinctions, the parts of the
law, are indifferent to each other. However, the understanding has the concept of this
distinction in itself just in the law’s being in part what is inner, what is existing-in-itself, but
at the same time being what is distinguished within the concept; that this distinction shall
thus be an inner distinction is on hand in the law’s being a simple force, that is, as the
concept of that same distinction, and thus a distinction of the concept. However, this inner
distinction still at first belongs to the understanding and is not yet posited in the real thing
itself. It is thus only its own necessity that understanding articulates, a distinction that it thus
makes in such a way that it expresses at the same time that the distinction is to be no
distinction in the real thing. This necessity, which only lies in words, is thus the recital of
the moments that constitute the circle of necessity; they are, to be sure, distinguished,
but at the same time their distinction is expressed as being no distinction of the real
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thing itself and consequently it is itself straight away cancelled and superseded again;
this movement is called explanation. A law is thus declared; and from this law, its
universal in itself (that is, the ground) is distinguished as force; however, it is said of
this distinction that it is no distinction at all, but rather, on the contrary, that the
ground is constituted in the same way as the law. For example, the individual event of
lightning is apprehended as universal, and this universal is articulated as the law of
electricity: The explanation then condenses the law into the force as the essence of the
law. This force is then so constituted that when it expresses itself, opposed electricities
emerge, which again vanish into each other, which is to say, the force is constituted exactly
as is the law; it is said that both are not at all distinct. The distinctions are the pure
universal expression, that is, the law and the pure force; both have, however, the same
content, the same constitution; the distinction as a distinction of content, which is to say,
of the real thing, is therefore also again retracted.
11) On the first horn of the dilemma, explanation appears as consciousness recognizing as
necessary connections between elements that are distinct only as consciousness has divided
them up in appearance. Here once again the supersensible in itself is conceived as a unity,
with diversity being merely an appearance for consciousness. On the second horn of the
dilemma, it seems that the necessity must be an importation of consciousness, a feature of its
formulation of laws or what things are for it, not something that could be considered as
grounded in what things are in themselves. Necessity resides in the Understanding, since the
unification into a rule or law of what are in themselves distinct things is its work. This latter
is of course Kant's strategy.
12) But these incompatibilities are not simply stipulated, or analytically true. They are features
of the contents comprised by a system, the Notion, that has produced them as the products of
a course of concrete experience. That experience is the movement of the system in
response to the immediate (noninferential in the sense of being commitments that are
not the results of a process of inferring, not in the sense of being articulated without
reference to their inferential roles) deliverances of perception, what is implicit in the
world becoming explicit for consciousness through observation.
(2013: Immediacy must now be understood in terms of its role in mediating this process, i.e.
its significance as a means, playing the inferential role of exposing the incompatibility of
commitments.)
And that experience is the movement of the system in response to the purely mediate
deliverances of inference to the best explanation in response to the explicit confrontation of
incompatibilities among its commitments, what is implicit in the system of concrete contents
becoming explicit for consciousness through reflection. These meanings have not evolved
and cannot be grasped independently of what is taken to be true. The necessity of their
holistic interconnections cannot be reduced either to a reflection of an antecedent and
independent objective reality, nor to a reflection of an antecedent and independent subjective
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reality. Determinate diversity of content and universal unity of necessity as its form are
aspects of the Notion that cannot be understood independently of one another. (Cf. (2)
above in this section.)
13) Focusing on explanation brings explicitly into view a topic that has been in the background
throughout the discussion of theoretical entities: the distinction between appearance and
reality.
Our object is thus from now on the syllogism [Schluß] which has for its extremes the
inner being of Things, and the Understanding, and for its middle term
appearance[BB: i.e., sensuous immediacy]; but the movement [Bewegung] of this
syllogism yields the further determination of what the Understanding descries in
this inner world though the middle term, and the experience from which the
Understanding learns about the close-linked unity of these terms. [145]
The end of Force and Understanding discusses the relationships among inference, explanation,
and the distinction between appearance and reality. The issues surrounding them are discussed
in the context of three conceptions of a reality beyond or behind appearance, which is
inferentially revealed by appearance:
a) the first supersensible world,
b) the first inverted world, and
c) the second inverted world.
3.
First supersensible world (FSW):
a) The first step (which is not yet the FSW) is to an Eddingtonian realism. 2013: Also
Sellarsian scientific realism. The scientia mensura from EPM. (Cf. Part Two of Chapter
One of From Empiricism to Expressivism: Brandom Reads Sellars. Available on the
website as " Categories and Noumena: Two Kantian Axes of Sellars's Thought"). What is
real is the theoretical entities whose interactions are responsible for the observable
appearances. Primary qualities are real, secondary qualities are not (they are appearances,
resulting from our interaction with the real). Science is the measure of primary qualities.
What things are in themselves vs. what they are only for consciousness. Example: Of
Eddington’s two tables, it is the table of the physicist that is real, not the table of
observation (the scientific image table, not the manifest image table).
b) This view is the converse of instrumentalism in the philosophy of science. That is the
view that it is only observable entities that are real. Theoretical entities are mere
calculational postulates, convenient in organizing observable facts, but not referring to
what there really is.
c) These two views, i) instrumentalism and ii) the Eddingtonian Strong Theoretical Realism
that claims not just that theoretical entities (e.g. forces) are or can be real, but that only
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d)
e)
i.
ii.
they can be, are not only converses. They both result from running together the
appearance/reality distinction and the observation/theory distinction. In fact these
distinctions are orthogonal: some theoretical entities are unmasked as appearances, and
some observable entities are real.
But this does not get us all the way to the FSW. For the FSW is the “calm realm of laws.”
For this we must add that it is not the forces (theoretical entities). For this we must
i.
add to the theoretical realism that is the converse of instrumentalism
ii.
the relational realist claim that it is the nomological relations that functionally
articulate the contents of these universals that are real, rather than the functional
roles they define; and
iii.
a conception of statements of laws as describing superfacts. They are facts,
because like ordinary facts, they state how things are. Laws are understood as
descriptions of how things are. They are superfacts because they govern the
relations among facts and possible facts.
The FSW is what you get if you put these three elements together.
(ii) comes from the holistic conclusion of the discussion of the “play of forces.”
Premises (i) and (ii) here are where we have gotten to by thinking about the play of forces.
Two claims H makes about FSW:
Don’t line up obs/theory and appearance/reality (what things are for consciousness vs.
what things are in themselves) distinction (either in the theoretical realist or the
instrumentalist way); and
It is a mistake, however, to identify the appearance/reality distinction with the
observable/theoretical distinction. The distinction between observable and theoretical
objects is not a distinction between two different kinds of objects at all. It is, as Sellars
will later put it, not an ontological distinction at all, but only a methodological one.
But the distinction btw what things are in themselves and what they are for
consciousness is, in a sense, an ontological one. It is, even in veridical cases, cases
where all goes well, the Hylomorphic distinction between two forms one
(conceptual) content can take: objective and subjective: reality and its appearance
(e.g. Law and Explanation-inference), what is articulated by alethic modal relations
among things and what is articulated by deontic norms governing our cognitive
doings (processes, practices).
14) We saw in (13c) that the first conception of a supersensible world is what one gets by
running together the distinction between observable and theoretical things or states of affairs
with the distinction between appearance and reality. ((13d) adds other moves to this one.)
One takes theoretical objects to be real and what is observable to be their appearance by
seeking to explain the latter in terms of the former, and not vice versa. The real is that
in terms of which one offers accounts, and what one accounts for is how things appear.
This sort of explanation reverses the direction of the inferences by means of which
theoretical objects are revealed (appear) to us. To find out about theoretical objects, we
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draw conclusions from observational premises. To explain what we observe we draw
conclusions from theoretical premises.
15) In “the process called explanation”:
A law is enunciated; from this, its implicitly universal element or ground is
distinguished as Force; but it is said that this difference is no difference,
rather that the ground is constituted exactly the same as the law. The single
occurrence of lightning, e.g. is apprehended as a universal, and this universal is
enunciated as the law of electricity; the ‘explanation’ then condenses
[zusammenfat] the law into Force as the essence of the law…Force is
constituted exactly the same as law…the difference qua difference of content…is
withdrawn. [154]
The metaconception of understanding that Hegel is considering in this part of his story does not
have a sufficiently good grip on the structure of the Concept to follow out this insight coherently.
But in explanation for the first time the identity of content of thought in its subjective
aspect (thinking) and objective aspect (what is thought about) appears, albeit darkly. When
things go well, there is an identity of content between a statement, claim or judgment and a fact,
between a propriety of inference and a law. It is a criterion of adequacy for Hegel’s
metaconception of the infinite Concept that it make sense both of this identity of content and of
the difference of form between the subjective certainty that can attach to that content and the
objective truth that can attach to it: the difference between what something is for consciousness,
and what it is in itself. The difference of form is the difference between the alethic modality
of force and the laws that articulate those theoretical entities on the objective side and the
deontic force of law as it appears in subjective explanation and inference. This is an
explicit broaching of the Hylomorphic conception. A crucial passage for me.
In general [154]-[156] are the most important hylomorphism passages.
Beginning at [153] we get the question of how to understand the relations among space, time,
distance, and velocity involved in motion, when so analyzed. Are these analytic or synthetic?
How can synthetic necessities be analytic of concepts? Hegel’s story (like Sellars’s) explains
this. Cf. (10)-(12) above.
4.
The second supersensible world (SSW), which is the first inverted world (FIW):
a) This keeps the idea that statements of laws describe superfacts. It thinks the statements
expressing the semantogenic modal relations of exclusion and inclusion in virtue of
which universals and the concepts expressing them have the determinate contents they do
are descriptions of something.
b) But since those possible facts articulate the determinate contentfulness of facts, we think
of a nimbus of Tractarian Sachverhalten surrounding the Tatsachen. 2013: Compare the
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nimbus of excluded properties surrounding each property instantiated in an object, in
Perception.
c) The first conception of a supersensible world as inverted is the result of misconstruing a
genuine insight. The insight is Understanding’s discovery that the reality that is the truth
of appearance is the Concept, and that "it is a law of appearance itself."[156] That law is
a law regulating differences, changes in which "the content of the moments of change
remains the same." "The differences are only such as are in reality no differences and
which cancel themselves." We have seen how in the Concept the contents consist in their
differences, which differences both thereby cancel themselves in the sense of defining
self-same unities, and do not cancel themselves entirely, in that the movement of
experience results. The idea of a calm realm of laws expressed in a changing realm of
appearance is thus replaced by a conception of law as not only a unifying rule, but as
equally the differentiating relations in virtue of which that unifying rule has a determinate
content.
d)
The mistake is to reify these essential, broadly inferential relations to construe them as
constituting a separate world: to think of the relation between these laws and the
appearance of which they are the law as a relation between two different kinds of thing.
The result of making that mistake is a very odd conception of reality:
According...to the law of this inverted [verkehrte] world, what is like in the first
world is unlike to itself and what is unlike in the first world is equally unlike to itself,
or it becomes like itself.
Looked at superficially, this inverted world is the opposite of the first in the sense
that it has the latter outside of it and repels that world from itself as an inverted
actual world: that the one is appearance, but the other the in-itself; that the one is
the world as it is for an other, whereas the other is the world as it is for itself.
The mistake is to make the distinction between the world as it appears and the world as it is in
itself, on this conception, into an ontological distinction.
1. The semantogenic statements of relations of exclusion and inclusiomn among properties
and states of affairs describe the first inverted world (FIW=SSW). For the non-actual relata,
the excluded possibilia relation to which is essential to the determinateness of the actual
things and states of affairs, are not observable (so what is described or represented is
supersensible), and they are the opposites of the actually instantiated ones.
2. The lesson is that statements of this sort do not represent or describe anything, but have a
different expressive function. They make explicit something that is implicit in the terms we
use to describe and represent the empirical world (including its supersensible, only
inferentially available portions).
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3. Possible world semantics is a paradigm of a view that does take modal statements to
describe or represent states of affairs, but not states of affairs in the actual world we can find
out about empirically—not just the observable part of it, but also the part we can make
inferences about. What is described or represented is features of the universe of possible
worlds. The other possible worlds are inverted worlds in Hegel’s sense: what is true
there is things that are not true here, including many things that are incompatible with
what is true here. Further, the determinate contentfulness of the actual facts is to be
understood, according to possible worlds semantics, in terms of what is true in the rest of the
modal universe of possible worlds, outside the actual world. 2013: We need also the
thesis, NOT standardly part of PW semantics, that their modal
implications are an essential part of what any properties are. In this sense,
there are no nonmodal properties. This is the “modal Kant-Sellars thesis” I pursue
in the second half of “Categories and Noumena: Two Kantian Axes of Sellars’s Thought.”
4. Conclusion: Contemporary possible world semantics falls within the scope of what
Hegel denominates the “second supersensible world, the first inverted world”
conception. Possible world semantics is the contemporary form of the inverted world.
5. The First Inverted World (FII), which is the Second Supersensible World (SSW), sees the
relations that define the determinate contents of empirical facts (and of the corresponding
thoughts) as descriptive of something, as representing something. Since we cannot
immediately perceive (or infer) the instantiation of the properties that are materially
incompatible with those that we do take to be empirically instantiated (whether observably or
ones we find out about only inferentially), what the relational claims that must be true for
determinateness describe must be “jenseits”, over there, somewhere else, in some
supersensible world. Compare: In the First Supersensible World (FSW), we took statements
of laws to be descriptions of superfacts. (See (12) below and (7) above: Possible worlds are
the inverted world.)
6. Hegel’s description of the SSW is alarming, apparently unmotivated, and almost obviously incoherent. It is
alarming, in that the idea of a quasi-empirical world in which what here is salty is there sweet, what here is
cubical is there round, and so on sounds like a fantasy. It is unmotivated, because (by contrast to the wellattested FSW view, which people like Eddington, and lots of others subscribe to) who ever believed this? (I
think Hegel is bending his idiom out of shape to accommodate Schelling, in a hermeneutically generous attempt
to show that there was, after all, something to the silly things the young Schelling said. Certainly he seems to be
doing that in the Perception chapter, using the verbal formulae of an Identitätsphilosophie when it is not clearly
necessary to do so.) It is almost obviously incoherent because one thing cannot (and this is an important
Aristotelian point from Perception) coherently conceive an object that has all the properties incompatible with
those that some particular object has. For they are often incompatible with each other. And Hegel has
obtrusively acknowledged and depended on this point in Perception. (But we’ll see—(7) and (12)—that one
significant answer is: possible world semantics.)
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7. In fact, as I have long claimed, the point of this model is that we must think about the status of the
properties whose relation of exclusive difference from the given property are essential to its identity: its
semantogenic contraries. If statements of those relations are descriptions, what are they descriptions of? The
Tractarian Tatsachen are defined in part, as Wittgenstein fully appreciates, by the cloud of Sachverhalten with
which they contrast. What those statements are descriptions of is a SSW.
8. But looking at the issue somewhat more broadly, it concerns the cloud of excluded possibilities, in virtue of
which one particular fact counts as determinate at all. The contemporary form of that view is possible world
semantics. There the idea is that what makes my claim mean what it does, what is determinate about a fact, is
its inclusion in one side, rather than the other, of a whole variety of partitions of the space of possible worlds. It
is surrounded by a cloud of mere possibilia. That is the modern-day version of the SSW=FIW.
5.
The third supersensible world (TSW) =second inverted world (SIW) is infinity:
a) Laws as making explicit what is implicit in facts. The key here is that we give up the idea
that the statements of laws describe anything, give up the idea that laws are superfacts.
2013: Cf Sellars’s anti-descriptivism.
[O]nce the tautology ‘The world is described by descriptive concepts’ is freed
from the idea that the business of all non-logical concepts is to describe, the way
is clear to an ungrudging recognition that many expressions which empiricists
have relegated to second-class citizenship in discourse are not inferior, just
different.
Instead we see them as performing an expressive function, bringing out something that is
already implicit in the facts. What matters here is the distinction two ways of
understanding the inferential relations (or mediations) that conceptually articulate our
knowledge:
i) as a special kind of reality behind appearances, 2013: which represent them, and
ii) as something that is implicit in and expressed by them.
b) That such an inverted world ‘behind’ the one that appears to us cannot be pointed out is
not just because it is not here. If that world contains all the property instantiations
incompatible with each actual perceived instantiation—everything that determinately
negates every property that appears to us—it will contain instantiations incompatible with
each other. (Recall that this is why properties have abstract negations, and objects don't).
What is needed is to de-ontologize (and desensualize) the conception of the relation between
what is immediately available to us through perception and the conceptual element in virtue of
which it (or anything) is cognitively available to us at all.
From the idea, then, of inversion, which constitutes the essential nature of one aspect of
the supersensible world, we must eliminate the sensuous idea of fixing the differences in
a different sustaining element; and this absolute notion of the difference must be
represented and understood purely as inner difference. [160]
The final picture of the inverted world returns this supersensible beyond to its proper place
within, as implicit in, the realm of appearance. Inversion is the way in which the second
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supersensible world is in the world of appearance. It is in it as the necessary connection of
opposites in constituting the contents of possible experience.
c) The third supersensible world is the concrete mediated structure in virtue of which
appearance has a content.
Thus the supersensible world, which is the inverted world, has at the same time
overarched the other world and has it within it; it is for itself the inverted world, i.e. the
inversion of itself; it is itself and its opposite in one unity. Only thus is it difference as
inner difference, or difference in its own self, or the difference as infinity.
d) The first conception of a supersensible world was a conception of a “calm realm of laws.”
Those laws are expressed by quantified, modally qualified conditionals. They underwrite
inferences from observable to theoretical states of affairs. And they were construed as
for that reason also underwriting the explanations of perceptible appearance in terms of
an underlying merely thinkable reality, consisting of objects individuated solely by the
roles they play with respect to those laws. Now we are to see that this thought about
appearance and reality should not be understood merely as the converse of the thought
about observable and theoretical states of affairs. Being a theoretical object—only
accessible inferentially—does not preclude being an aspect of appearance rather than
reality. And being an observable object—noninferentially accessible through
perception—does not preclude being an aspect of reality rather than appearance. The
essential inferential and so conceptual articulation of all awareness means that what is
observable is as thinkable as what is only inferrable. The fact that observable objects are
not only inferrable but perceivable does not mark an ontological difference between them.
And the laws according to which we make inferences, which articulate the conceptual
contents of both, also do not constitute a distinct ontological realm. The quantified,
modally qualified conditionals that express those laws do not describe a distinct kind of
state of affairs. Indeed, they do not describe anything. Rather they serve to make explicit
the inferential articulation in virtue of which anything is thinkable (and so, in some cases,
perceivable) at all. Cf. a contemporary theory of the categories as universally LX, as in
first part of Ch. 1 of From Empiricism to Expressivism, “Categories and Noumena: Two
Kantian Axes of Sellars’s Thought.”
The basis of those inferential relations (mediations) is the material incompatibilities (relations of
determinate negation) among the concepts. I’ve suggested that the connection is that p as entails
q just in case everything materially incompatible with q is materially incompatible with p. In
this sense, being a dog entails being a mammal, because everything incompatible with being a
mammal is incompatible with being a dog. So it is equally a mistake to think of those
incompatibilities in ontological terms of a distinct kind of thing. The material incompatibilities
that articulate the conceptual content of a state of affairs (whether perceptible or not) should be
understood as implicit in it.
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e) Infinity: “Thus the supersensible world, which is the inverted world, has at the same time
overarched the other world and has it within it. It is for itself the inverted world, i.e. the
inversion of itself; it is itself and its opposite in one unity. Only thus is it difference as
inner difference, or difference in its own self, or difference as an infinity [Unendlichkeit].”
[M160]
f) [M161-2] on holism.
g) “Infinity, or this absolute unrest of pure movement, in which whatever is determined in
one way or another, e.g. has being, is rather the opposite of this determinateness,
this no doubt has been from the start the soul of all that has gone before; but it is in
the inner world that it has first freely and clearly shown itself. Appearance, or the play of
forces, already displays it, but it is as ‘explanation’ that it first freely stands forth; and
in being finally an object for consciousness, as that which it is, consciousness is thus
self-consciousness.” [M163]
Reading [163]:
1. "Infinity, or this absolute unrest of pure movement, in which whatever is determined in
one way or another, e.g. has being, is rather the opposite of this determinateness, this no
doubt has been from the start the soul of all that has gone before;" BB: The common
theme guiding all the discussion in the Consciousness chapter is a notion of (conceptual)
content.
2. "Appearance, or the play of forces, already displays it," BB: Why? Because here we first
see the holistic form of identity-through-relations-to-exclusively-different-things.
3. "It is as ‘explanation’ that it first freely stands forth" BB: Q: Why? A: Because here we
see clearly, for the first time the relation btw objective alethic-nomological laws
governing holistic processes and subjective, norm-governed processes of inference
(explanation) that articulate the two different forms one kind of content hylomorphically
takes. Cf. [154]-[156].
4. " being finally an object for consciousness, as that which it is, consciousness is thus selfconsciousness." BB: Q: Why? A: In realizing a) that the notion of content in (1) has
been the theme of all the experiences we have reconstructed for consciousness, and b)
that that notion of content essentially involves the two forms in (3), that is, seeing the
hylomorphic relation-process between objective relations and subjective normative
inferential processes as another, higher-level instance of the structure in (2), makes
accessible the realization that SC, P, and FU were all ways consciousness
(mis)understood itself, that is, we're forms of self-consciousness. This is an experience,
in the sense of the Introduction: the experience of seeing how one took things to be in
themselves unmasked as merely how they are for consciousness. Here, forms of
consciousness are unmasked as (merely) forms of self-consciousness.
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h) “Since this Notion of infinity is an object for consciousness, the latter is consciousness of
a difference that is no less immediately cancelled; consciousness is for its own self, it is a
distinguishing of that which contains no difference, or self-consciousness…The
necessary advance from the previous shapes of consciousness for which their truth was a
Thing, an ‘other’ than themselves, expresses just this, that not only is consciousness of a
thing possible only for a self-consciousness, but that self-consciousness is itself the
truth of those shapes. But it is only for us that this truth exists, not yet for
consciousness.” [M164]
2013: We now see for the first time that all the forms we considered so far were really
forms of self-consciousness, i.e. forms by which consciousness understood itself.
Consciousness understood itself as awareness of sensuous immediacy, it understood itself
as perceiving the thing of immediate properties (sense universals), it understood itself as
Understanding (force, law, explanation).
i) “We see that in the inner world of appearance, the Understanding in truth comes to know
nothing else but appearance, but not in the shape of a play of Forces, but rather that play
of Forces in its absolutely universal moments and in their movement; in fact, the
Understanding experiences only itself.” [M165]
j)
Infinity: 160. From the idea, then, of inversion, which constitutes the essential nature of one aspect of
the supersensible world, we must eliminate the sensuous idea of fixing the differences in a different
sustaining element; and this absolute Notion of the difference must be represented and understood purely
as inner difference, a repulsion of the selfsame, as selfsame, from itself, and likeness of the unlike as unlike.
We have to think pure change, or think antithesis within the antithesis itself, or contradiction…Thus the
supersensible world, which is the inverted world, has at the same time overarched the other world and has it
within it; it is for itself the inverted world, i.e. the inversion of itself; it is itself and its opposite in one unity.
Only thus is it difference as inner difference, or difference in its own self, or difference as an infinity.
2013: "think antithesis within the antithesis itself": the content is articulated by antithesis
(Gegenstandlichkeit? Entgegensetzung?), I.e. Identity-through-exclusive-difference, and so is the relation
between the two (equally essential) forms of that content: objective-nomological and subjective normativeinferential.
k) 161. We see that through infinity, law completes itself into an immanent necessity, and all the moments of
[the world of] appearance are taken up into the inner world. That the simple character of law is infinity
means, according to what we have found, (a) that it is self-identical, but is also in itself different; or it is the
selfsame which repels itself from itself or sunders itself into two. What was called simple Force duplicates
itself and through its infinity is law. (b) What is thus dirempted, which constitutes the parts thought of as in
the law, exhibits itself as a stable existence… But (c) through the Notion of inner difference, these unlike
and indifferent moments, space and time, etc. are a difference which is no difference, or only a difference
of what is selfsame, and its essence is unity. As positive and negative they stimulate each other into activity,
and their being is rather to posit themselves as not-being and to suspend themselves in the unity. The
two distinguished moments both subsist; they are implicit and are opposites in themselves, i.e. each is
the opposite of itself; each has its 'other' within it and they are only one unity.
l) 162. This simple infinity, or the absolute Notion…whose omnipresence is neither disturbed nor interrupted
by any difference, but rather is itself every difference, as also their supersession; it pulsates within itself but
does not move, inwardly vibrates, yet is at rest. It is self-identical, for the differences are tautological; they
are differences that are none. This self-identical essence is therefore related only to itself; 'to itself' implies
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relationship to an 'other', and the relation-to-self is rather a self-sundering; or, in other words, that very
self-identicalness is an inner difference. These sundered moments are thus in and for themselves each
an opposite—of an other; thus in each moment the 'other' is at the same time expressed; or each is
not the opposite of an 'other' but only a pure opposite; and so each is therefore in its own self the
opposite of itself. In other words, it is not an opposite at all, but is purely for itself, a pure, selfidentical essence that has no difference in it.
m) 163. Infinity, or this absolute unrest of pure self-movement, in which whatever is determined in one way or
another, e.g. as being, is rather the opposite of this determinateness, this no doubt has been from the start
the soul of all that has gone before; but it is in the inner world that it has first freely and clearly shown itself.
Appearance, or the play of Forces, already displays it, but it is as 'explanation' that it first freely stands
forth; and in being finally an object for consciousness, as that which it is, consciousness is thus selfconsciousness. The Understanding's 'explanation' is primarily only the description of what selfconsciousness is.
6.
“Thus the supersensible world, which is the inverted world, has at the same time
overarched the other world and has it within it. It is for itself the inverted world, i.e. the
inversion of itself; it is itself and its opposite in one unity. Only thus is it difference as inner
difference, or difference in its own self, or difference as an infinity [Unendlichkeit].” [M160]
7.
Holism is the big story of HI. Finite=atomistic, infinite=holistic. As Hegel puts the point
in the hyperbolic language characteristic of his ‘speculative’ concept of identity: “the absolute
antithesis [Gegensatz] is posited as a self-identical essence” [M134]. Determinate
contentfulness begins to appear as a kind of differentiated identity, as identity in difference.
This drives EVERYTHING.
8.
Hermeneutical challenges:
a. Relation between discussion of force and of law, explanation, understanding.
b. Lesson of the “inverted world”, and the “second supersensible world”.
c. Understanding the “infinity of the Concept”.
d. Understanding the argumentative rationale for the transition from discussion of
consciousness to that of self-consciousness.
Passages:
1. One of the lessons of Perception is that the essence of a thing is not (as it was for
phenomenal consciousness conceiving of itself as perceiving) being immediately
perceptible. The essence of the thing is rather the relations that articulate the
intelligible content of perception. This brings into view not perceiving, but
understanding: the conceptual content that is delivered immediately in perception, but
can also be thought with otherwise than in perception.
129. Thus the object in its pure determinatenesses, or in the determinatenesses which were
supposed to constitute its essential being, is overcome just as surely as it was in its sensuous
being. From a sensuous being it turned into a universal; but this universal, since it originates
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in the sensuous, is essentially conditioned by it, and hence is not truly a self-identical
universality at all, but one afflicted with an opposition; (BB 2013: Cf. the story about H's
version of the conceptual inexhaustibility of the sensuous as immediacy as a principle of
development of concepts through finding oneself with incompatible commitments). for this
reason the universality splits into the extremes of singular individuality and universality, into the
One of the properties, and the Also of the 'free matters'. These pure determinatenesses seem to
express the essential nature itself, but they are only a 'being-for-self' that is burdened with a
'being-for-another'. Since, however, both are essentially in a single unity, what we now have is
unconditioned absolute universality, and consciousness here for the first time truly enters the
realm of the Understanding.
130. Thus the singular being of sense does indeed vanish in the dialectical movement of
immediate certainty and becomes universality, but it is only a sensuous universality. My
'meaning' has vanished, and perception takes the object as it is in itself, or as a universal as such.
Singular being therefore emerges in the object as true singleness, as the in-itself of the One,
or as a reflectedness-into-self. But this is still a conditioned being-for-self alongside which
appears another being-for-self, the universality which is opposed to, and conditioned by
singular being. But these two contradictory extremes are not merely alongside each other
but in a single unity, or in other words, the defining characteristic common to both, viz. 'beingfor-self', is burdened with opposition generally, i.e. it is at the same time not a 'being-for-self'.
The sophistry of perception seeks to save these moments from their contradiction, and it seeks to
lay hold on the truth, by distinguishing between the aspects, by sticking to the 'Also' and to the
'in so far', and finally, by distinguishing the 'unessential' aspect from an 'essence' which is
opposed to it. But these expedients, instead of warding off deception in the process of
apprehension, prove themselves on the contrary to be quite empty; and the truth which is
supposed to be won by this logic of the perceptual process proves to be in one and the same
respect the opposite [of itself] and thus to have as its essence a universality which is devoid of
distinctions and determinations.n
134. The result was the unconditioned universal, initially, in the negative and abstract sense
that consciousness negated its one-sided Notions and abstracted them: in other words, it gave
them up. But the result has, implicitly, a positive significance: in it, the unity of 'beingfor-self' and 'being-for-another' is posited; in other words, the absolute antithesis is
posited as a self-identical essence. At first sight, this seems to concern only the form of
the moments in reciprocal relation; but 'being-for-self' and 'being-for-another' are the
content itself as well, (BB 2013: Here H foreshadows the hylomorphic idea that taking
the two forms it does, objective and subjective, in-itself and for consciousness, is
essential to content, properly understood. That is a reciprocal sense-dependence
relation.) since the antithesis in its truth can have no other nature than the one yielded in
the result, viz. that the content taken in perception to be true, belongs in fact only to the
form, in the unity of which it is dissolved. This content is likewise universal; there can be
no other content which by its particular constitution would fail to fall within this
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unconditioned universality. A content of this kind would be some particular way or other
of being for itself and of being in relation to an other. But, in general, to be for itself and
to be in relation to an other constitutes the nature and essence of the content, whose
truth consists in its being unconditionally universal; and the result is simply and solely
universal.
2. [135]: “because this unconditioned universal is an object for consciousness, there
emerges in it the distinction of form and content” Q: What warrants this ‘because’? A:
See note above to [134].
3. [136]: “the 'matters' posited as independent directly pass over into their unity, and their
unity directly unfolds its diversity, and this once again reduces itself to unity. But this
movement is what is called Force.” This is the first mention of force. It comes up as we are
talking about the identity-as-consisting-in-difference. We’ll see that the difference is the
expression of force, it’s relation to others, and force is the identity that is constituted by that.
Law governs the relations between different ‘forces’ (and underwrites inferences), and so
articulates the essence or identity of force. So what we get is a conception of objects not as
essentially immediately perceivable, but as essentially nodes in a field of forces (the
ontological image of a semantic holism).
4. [136] “When we thus preserve the two moments in their immediate unity, the
Understanding, to which the Notion of Force belongs, is strictly speaking the Notion which
sustains the different moments qua different; for, in themselves, they are not supposed to be
different. Consequently, the difference exists only in thought. That is to say, what has been
posited in the foregoing is in the first instance only the Notion of Force, not its reality. In
point of fact, however, Force is the unconditioned universal which is equally in its own self
what it is for an other; or which contains the difference in its own self—for difference is
nothing else than being-for-another.”
5. [141] Force, as actual, exists simply and solely in its expression, which at the same
time is nothing else than a supersession of itself. This actual Force, when thought of as free
from its expression and as being for itself, is Force driven back into itself; but in fact this
determinateness, as we have found, is itself only a moment of Force's expression. Thus the
truth of Force remains only the thought of it; the moments of its actuality, their substances
and their movement, collapse unresistingly into an undifferentiated unity, a unity which is
not Force driven back into itself (for this is itself only such a moment), but is its Notion qua
Notion. Thus the realization of Force is at the same time the loss of reality; in that realization
it has really become something quite different, viz. this universality, which the
Understanding knows at the outset, or immediately, to be its essence and which also proves
itself to be such in the supposed reality of Force, in the actual substances.
6. 143. This true essence of Things has now the character of not being immediately for
consciousness; on the contrary, consciousness has a mediated relation to the inner being
and, as the Understanding, looks through this mediating play of Forces into the true
background of Things. The middle term which unites the two extremes, the
Understanding and the inner world, is the developed being of Force which, for the
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Understanding itself, is henceforth only a vanishing. This 'being' is therefore called
appearance;BB 2013: Now the immediate becomes a means, inferentially mediating our
access to the theoretical entities that are reality.
7. [143] This play of Forces is consequently the developed negative; but its truth is the
positive, viz. the universal, the object that, in itself, possesses being. The being of this
object for consciousness is mediated by the movement of appearance, in which the being
of and the sensuously objective in general has a merely negative significance. Consciousness,
therefore, reflects itself out of this movement back into itself as the True; but, qua
consciousness, converts this truth again into an objective inner, and distinguishes this
reflection of Things from its own reflection into itself: just as the movement of
mediation is likewise still objective for it. BB 2013: It is of the essence of consciousness
understanding itself according to the categories of Consciousness that it not understand
(make explicit to itself) it's own role, but project that into objective reality.
8. 144. Within this inner truth, as the absolute universal which has been purged of the
antithesis between the universal and the individual and has become the object of the
Understanding, there now opens up above the sensuous world, which is the world of
appearance, a supersensible world which henceforth is the true world, above the
vanishing present world there opens up a permanent beyond; an in-itself which is the first,
and therefore imperfect, appearance of Reason, or only the pure element in which the truth
has its essence.
9. 145. Our object is thus from now on the syllogism which has for its extremes the
inner being of Things and the Understanding, and for its middle term, appearance; but
the movement of this syllogism yields the further determination of what the
Understanding descries in this inner world through the middle term, and the experience
from which Understanding learns about the close-linked unity of these terms.
10. 149. The absolute flux of appearance becomes a simple difference through its relation to
the simplicity of the inner world or of the Understanding. The inner being is, to begin with,
only implicitly the universal; but this implicit, simple universal is essentially no less
absolutely universal difference, for it is the outcome of the flux itself, or the flux is its
essence; but it is a flux that is posited in the inner world as it is in truth, and consequently it is
received in that inner world as equally an absolute universal difference that is absolutely at
rest and remains selfsame. In other words, negation is an essential moment of the universal,
and negation, or mediation in the universal, is therefore a universal difference. This
difference is expressed in the law, which is the stable image of unstable appearance.
Consequently, the supersensible world is an inert realm of laws which, though beyond the
perceived world—for this exhibits law only through incessant change—is equally present in
it and is its direct tranquil image.
11. 150. This realm of laws is indeed the truth for the Understanding, and that truth has its
content in the law. At the same time, however, this realm is only the initial truth for the
Understanding and does not fill out the world of appearance. In this the law is present, but is
not the entire presence of appearance; with every change of circumstance the law has a
different actuality. Thus appearance retains for itself an aspect which is not in the inner
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world; i.e. appearance is not yet truly posited as appearance, as a superseded being-for-self.
This defect in the law must equally be made manifest in the law itself. What seems to be
defective in it is that while it does contain difference, the difference is universal,
indeterminate. However, in so far as it is not law in general, but a law, it does contain
determinateness; consequently, there are indefinitely many laws. But this plurality is itself
rather a defect; for it contradicts the principle of the Understanding for which, as
consciousness of the simple inner world, the True is the implicitly universal unity.
12. 153. There is still another form than that just indicated in which the indifference of law
and Force, or of Notion and being, is to be found. In the law of motion, e.g., it is necessary
that motion be split up into time and space, or again, into distance and velocity. Thus, since
motion is only the relation of these factors, it—the universal—is certainly divided in its own
self. But now these parts, time and space, or distance and velocity, do not in themselves
express this origin in a One; they are indifferent to one another, space is thought of as able to
be without time, time without space, and distance at least without velocity—just as their
magnitudes are indifferent to one another, since they are not related to one another as positive
and negative, and thus are not related to one another through their own essential nature. The
necessity of the division is thus certainly present here, but not the necessity of the parts as
such for one another. But it is just for this reason that that first necessity, too, is itself only a
sham, false necessity. For motion is not itself thought of as something simple, or as a pure
essence, but as already divided; time and space are in themselves its independent parts or
essences, or, distance and velocity are modes of being or ways of thinking, either of which
can well be without the other; and motion is, therefore, only their superficial relation, not
their essence. If it is thought of as a simple essence or as Force, motion is no doubt gravity,
but this does not contain these differences at all.
13. [154] Force is constituted exactly the same as law;
14. 155. In this tautological movement, the Understanding, as we have seen, sticks to the
inert unity of its object, and the movement falls only within the Understanding itself, not
within the object.
15. [156] The Understanding thus learns that it is a law of appearance itself, that differences
arise which are no differences, or that what is selfsame repels itself from itself; and similarly,
that the differences are only such as are in reality no differences and which cancel
themselves; in other words, what is not selfsame is self-attractive. And thus we have a second
law whose content is the opposite of what was previously called law, viz. difference which
remains constantly selfsame; for this new law expresses rather that like becomes unlike and
unlike becomes like.
16. 157. Through this principle, the first supersensible world, the tranquil kingdom of
laws, the immediate copy of the perceived world, is changed into its opposite. The law was,
in general, like its differences, that which remains selfsame; now, however, it is posited that
each of the two worlds is really the opposite of itself. The selfsame really repels itself from
itself, and what is not selfsame really posits itself as selfsame. In point of fact, it is only when
thus determined that the difference is inner difference, or the difference in its own self, the
like being unlike itself, and the unlike, like itself. This second supersensible world is in this
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way the inverted world and, moreover, since one aspect is already present in the first
supersensible world, the inversion of the first. With this, the inner world is completed as
appearance. For the first supersensible world was only the immediate raising of the perceived
world into the universal element; it had its necessary counterpart in this perceived world
which still retained for itself the principle of change and alteration. The first kingdom of laws
lacked that principle, but obtains it as an inverted world.
17. 158. According, then, to the law of this inverted world, what is like in the first world is
unlike to itself, and what is unlike in the first world is equally unlike to itself, or it becomes
like itself.
18. 160. From the idea, then, of inversion, which constitutes the essential nature of one aspect
of the supersensible world, we must eliminate the sensuous idea of fixing the differences in a
different sustaining element; and this absolute Notion of the difference must be represented
and understood purely as inner difference, a repulsion of the selfsame, as selfsame, from
itself, and likeness of the unlike as unlike. We have to think pure change, or think antithesis
within the antithesis itself, or contradiction. For in the difference which is an inner difference,
the opposite is not merely one of two—if it were, it would simply be, without being an
opposite—but it is the opposite of an opposite, or the other is itself immediately present in it.
Certainly, I put the 'opposite' here, and the 'other' of which it is the opposite, there; the
'opposite', then, is on one side, is in and for itself without the 'other'. But just because I have
the 'opposite' here in and for itself, it is the opposite of itself, or it has, in fact, the 'other'
immediately present in it. Thus the supersensible world, which is the inverted world, has at
the same time overarched the other world and has it within it; it is for itself the inverted
world, i.e. the inversion of itself; it is itself and its opposite in one unity. Only thus is it
difference as inner difference, or difference in its own self, or difference as an infinity.
19. 161. We see that through infinity, law completes itself into an immanent necessity, and
all the moments of [the world of] appearance are taken up into the inner world. That the
simple character of law is infinity means, according to what we have found, (a) that it is selfidentical, but is also in itself different; or it is the selfsame which repels itself from itself or
sunders itself into two. What was called simple Force duplicates itself and through its infinity
is law. (b) What is thus dirempted, which constitutes the parts thought of as in the law,
exhibits itself as a stable existence; and if the parts are considered without the Notion of the
inner difference, then space and time, or distance and velocity, which appear as moments of
gravity, are just as indifferent and without a necessary relation to one another as to gravity
itself, or, as this simple gravity is indifferent to them, or, again, as simple electricity is
indifferent to positive and negative electricity. But (c) through the Notion of inner difference,
these unlike and indifferent moments, space and time, etc. are a difference which is no
difference, or only a difference of what is selfsame, and its essence is unity. As positive and
negative they stimulate each other into activity, and their being is rather to posit themselves
as not-being and to suspend themselves in the unity. The two distinguished moments both
subsist; they are implicit and are opposites in themselves, i.e. each is the opposite of itself;
each has its 'other' within it and they are only one unity.
20. 162. This simple infinity, or the absolute Notion, may be called the simple essence of
life, the soul of the world, the universal blood, whose omnipresence is neither disturbed
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nor interrupted by any difference, but rather is itself every difference, as also their
supersession; it pulsates within itself but does not move, inwardly vibrates, yet is at rest. It is
self-identical, for the differences are tautological; they are differences that are none.
This self-identical essence is therefore related only to itself; 'to itself' implies relationship to
an 'other', and the relation-to-self is rather a self-sundering; or, in other words, that very selfidenticalness is an inner difference. These sundered moments are thus in and for
themselves each an opposite—of an other; thus in each moment the 'other' is at the
same time expressed; or each is not the opposite of an 'other' but only a pure opposite;
and so each is therefore in its own self the opposite of itself. In other words, it is not an
opposite at all, but is purely for itself, a pure, self-identical essence that has no
difference in it.
21. [163] “Infinity, or this absolute unrest of pure self-movement, in which whatever is
determined in one way or another, e.g. as being, is rather the opposite of this determinateness,
this no doubt has been from the start the soul of all that has gone before; but it is in the inner
world that it has first freely and clearly shown itself. Appearance, or the play of Forces,
already displays it, but it is as 'explanation' that it [BB: viz. infinity, the absolute unrest of
pure self-movement] first freely stands forth; and in being finally an object for consciousness,
as that which it is, consciousness is thus self-consciousness. The Understanding's
'explanation' is primarily only the description of what self-consciousness is.” This is the
rationale for the expository transition to Self-Consciousness: the holism of the infinite
Concept shows up on the side of subjectivity, in terms of our activity in drawing
consequences and extruding incompatibilities, i.e. in explaining. So that is where we must
look to understand it.
22. [163] talks about the progression from Appearance as the play of forces to the distinction
between Force and Law (a “difference that is no difference”).
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