Language Theories, Chapter One
Teacher’s Handbook: Contextualized Language Instruction, 4th Edition
Shrum and Glisan
Behaviorist Theory of Language – “people learn through habit formation by repeatedly associating a
stimulus with a response, imitation, practice, and positive reinforcement were thought to be key components of
learning a language (Skinner, 1957)”. P13
Noam Chomsky - humans have a “language acquisition device” .
Performance (the ability to produce
language) is distinct from Competence (intuition knowledge of grammar and syntax). This idea later expanded
to “Communicative Competence” – The ability to function in a communicative setting using not only
grammatical knowledge bud also gestures, intonation, circumlocution, risk taking… P13
More recently, discourse competence (Celce-Murcia, Dörnyei, & Thurrell) addresses the way language is
used to express a coherent idea on a particular topic. Other associated competences are sociocultural
(knowledge about context and appropriateness); linguistic (making meaning by control of language elements);
and actional (matching linguistic form with the speaker’s intent); strategic competence (compensating for
deficiencies). pp13-14
Elements of Stephen Krashen’s Monitor Model, p15
1.
2.
Acquisition is the subconscious “picking up” of rules. Learning is a conscious focus on the rules.
The Monitor Hypothesis: speakers who know rules will self-edit their language when they have
time.
3. The Natural Order Hypothesis: Rules are acquired in a predictable sequence.
4. The Input Hypothesis: Acquisition happens when learners are exposed to interesting and
comprehensible input that is a little beyond their current level (i +1). This should not be confused with
Vygotsky’s scaffolding approach as Krashen’s theory here referes to individual learning, not group effort.
5. The affective filter hypothesis: Anxiety needs to be low in order for input to be effective.
Intake theories (Van Patten, 2004) suggest that learners need activities that focus on meaning while they
practice form in order to build linguistic systems. Other research supports this.
Automated versus controlled processes (Ellis, 2005).
Language that learners use automatically without a
focus on form becomes a part of spontaneous conversation. Controlled processes describe language that the
student needs to think about to use.
U-Shaped Behavior (Lightbown, Segalowitz) p. 19.
Learners may use a grammar concept well in class, only to
use it incorrectly later. This later can be corrected as the old idea is incorporated with new information.
Interlanguage Theory (Selinker), p20 .
Learners’ developing language shows great variability because of a
number of factors: intereference from L1, effects of instruction, overgeneralization of grammar rules, individual
learning strategies used, individual communication strategies used.
Long’s Interaction Hypothesis, pp20-21.
“Input” becomes comprehensible in three ways:
1. simplifying – using familiar structures & vocabulary.
2. using familiar linguistic structures, background knowledge, gestures
3. modifying the interactional structure of the conversation (negotiation of meaning).
Swain’s Output Hypothesis, pp21-22.
Input is not enough – learners need to have opportunities to
produce output in order to achieve higher levels of language competence. Output helps learners to see the gap
between what they can say and what they want to say and provides opportunities to try out new rules/concepts,
as well as reflect on what they know about the target language.
Sociocultural theory, p23 – language is linked to the “Cultural, institutional and historical settings in which it
occurs” (Wertsch, 1991). Learning is as much social as cognitive.
Vygotsky- Zone of Proximal Learning (ZPD). “The learner’s language performance with others exceeds
what the learner is able to do alone.” What learners can do with assistance today, they will be able to do on their
own tomorrow. p24.
Interactional competence – interactional classroom environments (Hall, 1995) pp30-31.
Interactional competence is the ability to manage discussions/conversations in relevant ways.
To create an interactional classroom environment, teachers must do more than provide simplified syntax and
repetition. In addition it involves creating opportunities for “real” communication. For example:
 “¿Cómo te fueron las vacaciones?” “¿Qué hiciste este fin de semana?” topics of real/true interest.
 Ellipsis – no always using complete sentences (characteristic of grammar practice). Instead, encouraging
the shorter, logical answer that is more typical of real conversation. “¿Qué necesitas?” “Un lapis”.
 Related lexical items occur in topic-specific discourse. Grouping words to address real language needs.
 Using expressive reactions (not merely IRE-type responses like “muy bien”). Instead – “No lo creo” o
“¿Qué quieres decir?” “Qué interesante – qué piensas de… “
Motivation, according to Dörnyei and Skehan (2003) is reflected in students’
1)choice of a particular behavior
(i.e. homework, practice), 2) their persistence with it, and 3) the amount of effort expended on it. p.31.
1) Instrumental motivation – learning for an extrinsic
reward like satisfying an academic requirement, getting a better job in the future and 2) Integrative
motivation – learning in order to fit in with native speakers of the language.
Gardner posits two kinds of motivation (1985)
MacIntyre (2007) found that most people want to learn language for integrative motivations. Shaaban and
Ghaith (2000) found that people working for integrative motives worked harder. p32.
Wong-Filmore, 1985 and Young, 1990 – language learning is affected by individual personality or cognitive styles
such as willingness to take risks, openness to social interactions, and attitude toward the target language and/or
its users. (p.33).
Scarcella and Oxford, 1992 – Language anxiety affects progress. Students with fears of speaking in front of others,
those with weaker oral-aural skills, etc.
Task-oriented motivation (Wen, 1997): What students think about their own abilities and the usefulness of
learning activities matters. “When learners think that learning experiences will lead to certain meaningful results,
they exert more effort. “ p.33.