Aug. 22, 2011
Zoology
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greek word "zoon"= animal & "logos"= study of
scientific study of animals
Science is guided by natural laws
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it is explanatory by reference to Natural Laws
science is both testable and based on observations
it is neutral relative to religion its conclusions are not absolute
new discoveries can revise previous conclussions
it is falsifiable
Scientific Method
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observation
hypothesis
test hypothesis ( experiment and further observations)
conclussion
Major Scientific Theory
Germ theory
germs cause infectious disease
Atom Theory
matter is made of atoms
Gene Theory
genes on chromosomes determine heredity
Cell Theory
all living things are made of cells
Theory of Evolution
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populations change overtime
change results in new species with common ancestors
Aug. 24, 2011
Hierarchy of Taxonomic Levels:
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Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
Domain
Bacteria
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cyanobacteria, heterotrophic bacteria
Archaea
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halophiles, thermophiles
Eukaryota
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animals, fungi, plants, chromists, alveolates
Kingdoms
Monera= Prokaryotes
Protista= Eukaryotes
Fungi= obtain food by absorption
Plantae= Plants that are multi-cellular (true plants)
Animalia= both vertebrates and invertebrates which are heterotrophic
Age of earth and origin of life
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Earth is ~4.5 billion yrs. old
3.5 billion yrs. ago bacteria (chemoautotrophs) originated
these chemoautotrophs use inorganic substances as sources of energy
2.5 billion yrs. ago photosynthesis started to occur
2.2 billion yrs. ago oxygen came into place
1.0 billion yrs. ago Metazoa and Protozoa originated
Evolution is considered scientific fact
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scientific fact may be defined as a theory that has been repeatedly confirmed and never refuted
evolution fits this description, but that doesn't mean new evidence could not change it
Pre-Darwin
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Greeks
o Aristotle suggests a transition between living and non-living, and theorizes that in all
things there is constant desire to move from lower to the higher, finally becoming the
divine
Carolus Linnaeus 1707-1787
Lamarck 1744-1829
o first hypothesis for evolution
o saw species as not being fixed and immutable, but rather in a constant changing state
 Inheritance of acquired characteristics
Charles Lyell
o In Principles of Geology (1830-1833) documented the fact that earth must be very old
and it has been subject to the same sort of natural processes over time.
Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace
o independently developed the idea of the mechanism of natural selection
o populations of organisms change over time
o changes result in new species that share a common ancestor
Evolution is both fact and theory
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Fact
o evolution is documented in the fossil record and has been observed in our lifetime
theory
o how evolution happens
scientists no longer ask if evolution occurs, they study how it occurs
evolution is the major theory that guides research in zoology
Organisms share a common genetic history
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termed the evolution of species
evolution is the unifying theory of biology
evidence for evolution
o diversity of living and extinct species
o fossil record
o comparative embryology
o study of DNA and its relatedness between species
Aug. 26, 2011 - Dr. Juliana Notarnicola
Animal Ecology
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behavior, physiology, genetics and evolution of the animals
habitat= physical space organism lives in
organisms are influenced by the environment: sunlight, heat, water, other organisms, competitors.
Abiotic/biotic factors
Niche= the role that the organism plays within its environment, the parameters they live within
Populations
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Properties
o birth rates
o mortality
o sex ratio
o growth rates
characteristics
o age structure
o survivorship
o population growth
Parasites
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Infrapopulation
o population of parasites within an individual host
Component population
o population of parasites within all hosts
Suprapopulation
o all life cycle stages of a single species of parasites within a given ecosystem
Communities
o populations of different species co-occurring in the same area and interacting in
complex associations
o Properties
 species richness = # of species
 diversity = # and proportion of species living in a community
Infracommunity
o multiple species of parasites living within a single host
Component community
o all species of parasites within all hosts
Intensity
o # of parasites of a single species in a host
Animal Architecture
Hierarchical organization of animal complexity
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Bacteria
Archaea
Eukaryota
Eukaryota
 levels of complexity
1. Protoplasmatic level
o all life functions are confined within the boundaries of a single cell
2. Cellular level
o aggregation of cells that are functionally different. a division of labor is evident
3. Cell-Tissue level
o group of cells organized to perform a common function
4. Tissue Organ level
o aggregation of tissue into organs. animals at this level have well defined organs such as
eye spots, a digestive tract and reproductive organs
5. Organ system level
o organs work together to perform a function
Embryonic development
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Segmentation
o zygote cleavage to blastula
 blastula = ball of cells with a cavity inside
Gastrulation
o Blastula to Gastrula
 forms a second layer of cells to form a gut
Embryonic Layers
o Ectoderm = epidermis, nervous system
o Endoderm = Gastrodermis, digestive system
o Mesoderm = muscles, glands
 origin of mesoderm: the cell 4d of the embryo or derived from pouches of the
gut
Egg Cleavage
o Spiral = blastomeres divide oblique
o Radial = blastomeres divide perpendicular
Origin of Coeloma
o Schizocoely = originates by splitting the mesoderm bands- uses 4d cell
o Enterocoely = originates from dorsal pouches of the gut
Origin of mouth
o Protostomes = blastopore originates the mouth
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o Deuterostomes = blastopore originates the anus
Acoelomates = no body cavity
Coelomates = have a body cavity
Animal Symmetry Concept
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Radial symmetry = can be divided into similar halves by more than two planes passing through
the longitudinal plane
Bilateral symmetry = only one plane (sagittal plane) divides equally
Lophotochozoa
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trocophora larvae
lophophoro
o have tentacles in mouth to move water through mouth to gather food
Edysozoa
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Ecdysis = molt/shed their skin during development
Aug. 31, 2011
Aristotle first thought of binomial naming system
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Scale Naturae
Organized organisms based on complexity
1) vegetative (plants)
2) Sensitive (animals)
3) Rational (humans)
Birth of Museums 1700's
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"a freak show"
collection of interesting specimens to show off
Carolus Linnaeus
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organized organisms based on morphology
1732 published "Systems Naturae"
before him there was no standard scientific names
names should be standardized
o binomial nomenclature
o Genus species
zoologists and botanists don't agree
o ICZN = International Code for Zoological Nomenclature
o ICBN = International Code for Botanical Nomenclature
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ICZN
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Priority in Nomenclature goes to who ever published first gets to name the species
Evolution
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mutation
o change overtime
o Lamarckism
competition
o carrying capacities
o struggle for survival
natural selection
gene flow (migration)
variation within a population
Darwinism
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he only recognized change over time, natural selection, competition
Mendel
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offspring inherit traits from parents
1900 evolutionary synthesis
o scientists tried to explain origin of species
Sept. 1, 2011
Taxonomy
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naming
classification
alpha taxonomy = description of new species
Systematics
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describe
preserve
evolutionary history
study adaptations
ecology
Phylogeny
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the evolutionary development and history of a species or higher taxonomic grouping of
organisms
Binomial Nomenclature
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species name takes its form depending on if genus is "male" "female" or "neutral"
how do you define these taxonomical orders
o a group develops a new niche then it deserves a higher classification
Typological Species Concept
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type species
holotype = one single reference
syntype = other samples from collection
Allotype = other sex of reference
Evolutionary Species concept
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a single lineage of ancestor descendent populations that maintains its identity
Morphological Species concept
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comparing morphology of organisms
Phylogenetic Species concept
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comparing evolutionary histories
Cladistics
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branch of phylogeny
method of classifying species into groups of clades, which consist of an ancestor organism and
all its descendents
Apomorphic characteristic
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derived characteristic
Plesiomorphic
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ancestral trait
Sister Taxa
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taxa on clade that are the closest related
Root or Outgroup
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ancestral state
Sept. 7, 2011 - Dr. Gardner returns
Experimental Science
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makes hypothesis then tests it
Comparative Science
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in the field: compare organisms from around the planet
hypothesis tested with observations
1. Description
 new species (hypothesis)
 defining new taxa
2. Historical Reconstruction
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description of history of species under study
Cladistics
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reconstructing history of life with phylogenetic trees
behavioral, morphological, or genetic traits can be used to build phylogenetic trees
phylogenetic systematics
3. Distributional History
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zoogeography = how organisms got to where they are found now
o continental drift
o Wegener 1900's
o Von Linstow
o Von Ihering
 same species of organisms found on multiple continents
Sept. 12, 2011
Reference: Daniel Brooks The Nature of Diversity: An Evolutionary Voyage of Discovery
Monophyletic
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all species and ancestors in a group (natural group)
Paraphyletic
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a mistake in classification
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Species stays the same overtime, but accumulates some genetic change
Change through time without speciation
Protista:
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single celled animals
function as "proto-animals"
o motile
o eat or produce food
o reproduce
size range: 25-500𝜇𝑚
50-60k have been described
Amoebas
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Entamoeba gingivalis
o feeds on bacteria in your mouth
o as you age you have more in your mouth
Phylum Dinoflagellida
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Red tides in oceans
toxin can collect in filter feeders
Planktonic
o move through the ocean on tides and currents
Sept 14, 2011
Autapomorphy
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unique trait for a certain taxa
Symplesiomorphy
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shared, primitive character from ancestor
Synapomorphy
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derived trait shared by more than one taxa
Poikilothermy
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heterotherm, they cannot regulate their own internal temp.
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Punnett square for recessive mutation
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Rr x Rr = 3/4 R_ and 1/4 rr
RR and Rr both express dominant phenotype
RR has no resistance to Plasmodium falciparum
rr expresses recessive phenotype (sickle cell), death from sickle cell
Rr = resistance to Plasmodium, their traits are passed more successfully because they are more
resistant to the deadly Plasmodium.
o they have sickle cell
Sept. 21, 2011
We still have Malaria in N. America because people travel to other countries and become infected, then
they return to America where Anapheles feeds on them and becomes an intermediate host. It infects
other people when it feeds on them.
Coccidian
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Eimeria = occurs in almost all mammals
o have a direct life cycle
cryptosporidium = occurs in calves and people who have compromised immune systems
Levels of organization
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cellular
tissues
organs
organ systems
Sponges
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Phylum Porifera
most basic body plan of metazoa
can re-organize themselves after tissues have been separated due to basic tissue level
3 classes of sponges
o Calcarea = Spicules of CaCO3, shallow Marine habitat
o Hexactinellida = Spicules of SiO3 (glass), Deep Marine habitat
o Demospongae = (bath sponges) Protein structure No hard spicules, Shallow Marine
 being over-harvested, in decline
Choanocytes
o flagellated cells of sponge
o moves water through sponge
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water moves through ostia and out of osculum
Phylum Cnidaria
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mostly Marine
cnidocytes = defense and feeding cells
Class Hydrozoa
o polyp is dominant
o sessile = anchored to the bottom
o Physalia Man-O-War
 Pelagic= animal that lives in the open ocean
 Has CO2 filled sail to capture wind and move on ocean surface
 it is a colonial Hydroid
 has Zooids for feeding, defense, and reproduction
o Obelia
 2 forms Sessile and Pelagic
 sessile form is asexual
 strobilization = forms a series of medusoid forms
Class Scyphozoa
o all medusoid (medusa only)