Solubility Rules: ID the 6 rules to memorize
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Polyatomics:
ID 19 anions & 1 cation
Acids:
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-HCl = hydrochloric
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-H2SO4 = sulfuric
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-HNO3 = nitric
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-CH3COOH = acetic
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-H3PO4 = phosphoric
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-H2CO3 = carbonic
Matter is
Substance is
Mixture is
Homogenous Mixture has ________composition throughout (solution)
Physical Properties: observed or measured
Heterogeneous Mixture does not
Chemical Properties: ability to undergo chemical change
Law of Conservation of Mass:
Extensive Properties: mass and volume
Intensive Properties: composition
Solid: definite shape, volume, not easily compressed Liquid: indefinite shape, definite volume, not easily compressed
Gas: indefinite shape, volume, easily compressed
*Particles are always moving in S, L, G
Indications of Chemical Reaction:
Qualitative give descriptions, no numbers
Quantitative number-based
Accuracy is how close to a single measurement
Error = |
–
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Precision is how close several measurements are together
% Error = |expt-accepted|/accepted * 100 Percent Yield = expt/theoretical * 100
micro=106
1 kilo(unit) = _____(unit) 1 (unit) = ____milli
1 (unit) = ____centi
K=
BP=373KDensity = mass/volume
C=
H2O FP=273K
Sig Figs: For addition & subtraction use ___________
Density of H2O = 1 g/mL
/ For Multiplication & Division use _______________
Dalton’s Atomic Theory: 1)
2)
3)
4)
Proton = pos., change = radioactivity
nano=109
Neutron = neutral, change = isotope
Electron = neg., change = ion
AMU = atomic mass unit = 1/12th Carbon 12 atom (average atomic mass appears on Periodic Table)
Electrons found in electron cloud, move around in orbital, movement creates electricity
Quantum Mechanical Model: atom has no definite shape, increase in # of electrons = increase in size & energy
Energy Levels (n) = 1,2,3,4,5,6,7 (rows on PT)
Sublevels = s (max 2e-), p (max 6e-), d (max 10e-), f (max 14e-)
Aufbau Principle:
Pauli Exclusion:
Hund’s Rule:
**Exceptions based on Aufbau principle; due to stable electron-electron interactions; now unstable
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Frequency = Speed of Light/Wave Length
Speed of Light = 3.0 x 108 m/s or 3.0 x 1010 cm/s
Atomic Spectra Principles:
1) Light is a form of energy called Electromagnetic Radiation
2) Waves have wavelength and frequency
3) Electromagnetic Radiation includes broad spectrum of radiant E
4) Speed of wave = wavelength x frequency 5) Energy is directly proportional to frequency; freq. & w.l. are inversely
*When you excite electrons you increase energy which is given off as heat and light = atomic spectra
Dmitri Mendeleev arranged elements by ATOMIC MASS
Periods are rows / energy levels (1-7)
Henry Moseley arranged by ATOMIC NUMBER
Groups are vertical columns (18); A = representative elements, B = transitions
Periodic Law states
Noble Gases –
Halogens –
Alkali Metals –
Transitions –
Alkaline Earth Metals –
Lanthanides (inner transition)
& Actinides (inner transition)
Atomic & Ionic Radii –
Ionic Size –
Ionization Energy –
Electronegativity –
*Flourine (F) has highest __________ & _________
*Francium (Fr) has greatest ________ & _______
Cations give up electrons (metals)
Anions take electrons (nonmetals)
Molecular Compounds: composed of
Ionic Compounds: composed of
Monary Cmpd. – 1 element Binary Cmpd. – 2 elements Ternary Cmpd. – 3 elements Diatomics:
Prefixes:
Endings: -ide = periodic table -ite/ate: polyatomic
Ionic bonding –
Ions bond to complete their Octet Rule (have full outer electron shell)
Seen through Lewis Dot Diagram
Metallic bonding – a more specific type of ionic bonding
Salts – metal cation + halogen; most are solid at STP, in 3D pattern, conduct electricity as liquid, ductile & malleable
Law of Definite Properties – masses of elements are in SAME PROPORTIONS within same compound
Law of Multiple Proportions – can compare masses of same element between similar compounds via small #d ratios
Covalent bonding –
Nonbonding Sites: IA (1; 1 valence e), IVA (4; 4 valence e), VA (3; 5 valence e), VIA (2; 6 valence e), VIIA (1; 7 valence e)
Coordinate Covalent –
Resonance –
Paramagnetism –
Dimagnetism –
VSEPR Theory – valence shell electron pair repulsion theory; e- repel each other so bond angles adjust
Trigonal Planar =120 deg. Tetrahedral =109.5 deg. Trigonal Bipyramidal =90 & 120 deg.Linear =180 deg. Bent =120 deg.
Bond Polarity – polar = unequal pulling, nonpolar = equal pulling
Bond Dissociation Energy – energy to break bond (kJ)
Intermolecular Attractions – Ionic > Hydrogen > Dipole > Dispersion
Van der Waals –
Dispersion Forces –
Dipole Interactions –
Hydrogen Bonds –
Avogadro’s Number = 6.02 x 1023 representative particles
THE MOLE ROAD:
Moles  Grams =
Moles  Rep. Particles =
Moles  Volume @ STP =
Grams  Moles =
Rep. Particles  Moles =
Volume @ STP  Moles =
Percent Composition:
1. Determine MM of each compound
2. Determine % of each element in compound
Percentage  Formula:
1. Assume % = grams
2. Convert grams to moles of each element
3. Divide all mole values by smallest mole value to get “multiplier” for each element
Empirical  Molecular:
1. Find Empirical Formula MM
2. MF mm/EF mm = multiplier
**Know how to balance equations
Types of Reactions: 4 base and 2 special = 6 total
Reactants  Products
1. Synthesis –
2. Decomposition –
3. Single Replacement –
4. Double Replacement –
5. Acid-Base –
6. Combustion – 2 types; only thing that changes is hydrocarbon
COMPLETE: Hydrocarbon +
INCOMPLETE: Hydrocarbon +
Solubility Constants and Rules
1-H2O is always a liquid
2-Gases are anything that says “gas”, diatomics, noble gases
3-Solids are all metals except Hg
4-Acids & Bases are always aqueous
Net Ionic Equations –
1. Break apart aq compounds
2. Eliminate spectator ions
3. Rewrite and balance
Stoichiometric Calculation Steps
1. Change GIVEN/HAVE into moles (reactants)
2. Convert HAVE of first reactant into NEED of second reactant via mole to mole ratio from balanced equation
HAVE > NEED =
HAVE < NEED =
3. Take the moles of LR and convert to moles of the specified product then change moles of product into grams
This is the THEORETICAL YIELD
4. Determine Percent Yield
(Actual Yield/Theoretical Yield) * 100
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Molarity – tells concentration of ions in an aqueous solution
M=
Kinetic Energy – tiny particles are in constant motion; particle movement affected by volume, pressure, temperature
Evaporation = LG
Vaporization = LG
Condensation = GL
Sublimation =
Glass =
Plasma =
[ex: Aurora Borealis – the Northern Lights]
To speed up kinetic energy = get faster movement = heat it up
To slow down = become stationary = solidification
Measures entropy (measure of randomness)
For gases, collisions are elastic
Pressure: atm, kPa, mmHg, Tprr [1 atm = 101.3 kPa = 760 mmHg] result of collisions, no collisions in a vacuum
Temperature: Celsius, Fahrenheit, Kelvin; incr. temp = incr KE
Volume: mL or L
Overall Relationship: only 2 change at a time; P&V are inversely proportional; T changes in same direction but ½ rate
Avogadro’s Hypothesis:
Real vs. Ideal Gases: ideal is hypothetical
Boyle’s Law:
Charles’ Law:
Combined Gas Law:
Dalton’s Partial Pressure:
Ideal Gas Law:
P = pressure [atm (R=0.0821) or kPa (R=8.31)]
V= volume
n = moles
T = Kelvin
**Know Exothermic and Endothermic Reaction Graphs
Energy transferred through the form of HEAT – determined by changes in temp
Exothermic = ∆H is _______, heat ________ the system
Endothermic = ∆H is_______, heat _______ the system
Calorimeter – device that contains the heat within a unit, includes a lid and insulated holding device (Styrofoam cup)
Q = C x M x ∆T
q=
M=
∆T =
C = specific heat constant – 4.18 joules for water, 1 calorie for water
∆Hfus = molar heat of fusion
∆Hcond = molar heat of condensation
∆Hsolid = molar heat of solidification
∆Hsoln = molar heat of solution
**Know heat to mole ratio
**Know Hess’s Law of Summation
Arrhenius (looks): Acid = H+ or H3O+; Base = OH-
∆Hvap = molar heat of vaporization
Bronsted-Lowry (behaves): Acid = Donates H+; Base = Accepts H+
Acids - # of Hs indicate strength of acid; more Hs means it can ionize more than once
HCl = monoprotic  ionize once H2SO4 = diprotic  ionize twice
H3PO4 = triprotic  ionize thrice
Bases - # of OHs tell solubility of base in water; more OHs means less soluble
pH = -log [H+]
pOH = -log [OH-]
Neutralization Reactions – Acid + Base  H2O + Salt
Saturated –
**Solubility Graph!!!
Unsaturated –
pH + pOH = 14
[H+][OH-] = 1 x 10-14
Titration – process of neutralizing an acid or base
Supersaturated –