Q. For a named volcano, describe the effects of an eruption on people and the surrounding
environment [7]
On 18th May 1980, Mount St Helens, a volcano in the Cascades mountain range in Washington State, USA,
erupted killing a total of 61 people. Most people were killed by the poisonous gasses which were released
during the eruption. The national park itself was closed and a number of logging camps were destroyed by the
blast. Farming in the surrounding area was devastated with crops ruined by ash and the livelihoods of loggers
were devastated with all trees within the 250km2 forest and in the 25km blast zone being flattened and
destroyed. Large numbers of wildlife were killed by the blast with nothing surviving in the blast zone itself.
Water temperatures in rivers and lakes was raised by falling ash killing all fish, including the loss of valuable
salmon and trout rivers. Spirit lake was filled in by mud flows and the channel of the Toutle River was blocked
by log jams from the flattened trees. The resulting flooding and mud flows washed away road and rail bridges.
Services in the area were also cut off as electricity and telephone wires were damaged.
Q. For a named area you have studied, describe how coastal erosion is affecting the human and
physical environment (7)
The Holderness Coast, just south of Scarborough in the NE of the UK is under severe threat by coastal
erosion. As the base of the cliffs are eroded a sequence of landforms are created, including wave-cut notches
and caves. The soft boulder clay is easily eroded with an estimated 1.5 million tonnes of clay per year eroded
and carried out to sea.The coastline is retreating at a rate of 2-3m per year and since Roman times a 4km strip
of land has been lost to the sea, including the loss of many villages and farms. Existing towns such as
Withernsea and Hornsea are under threat from cliff collapse and tourist facilities, caravan sites and golf
courses are all at risk from the cliff collapse taking place. The North Sea gas terminal situated on the clip-top at
Easington is also greatly at risk, a real concern as it plays an essential role in the UK’s energy supply
infrastructure.
Q. What factors will influence the choice of which coastal management scheme to use in an area? (4
marks)
In making the decision as to what coastal management technique to use, cost is a key factor for consideration.
This includes not only the cost effectiveness of the proposed technique in relation to the value of the land
under threat but also the cost of maintaining the defence scheme in the future. The value of the land itself and
the extent to which it is under threat is also important. The most valuable land, particularly that which attracts
large numbers of tourists and thus is important to the economy of the area, will require the most effective
schemes available. Likewise however it is also important in these situations to minimise visual impact of the
defence scheme and some techniques such as sea walls and gabions are more intrusive than others. The
susceptibility of the stretch of coastline as a whole also needs to be considered as some techniques such as
groynes can increase erosion further down the coast if not carefully planned.
Q. Name an area you have studied where an earthquake has taken place. Describe its effects on people
and the local economy (7 marks)
San Francisco, California (USA) was hit by an earthquake measuring 6.9 on the richter scale on 17th October
1989. The quake lasted 15 seconds and struck without warning. A total of 6000 homes were destroyed or
damaged in the quake. Many of the older (50-100 year old) buildings which were not designed to withstand
earthquakes and were most severely damaged. Low rise buildings were worse as taller buildings which
swayed with the quake / ground motions. The worst hit area was the Marina district, where the houses were
built on reclaimed land. As a result of the weak sub-surface sediments, liquefaction occurred during the
earthquake resulting in reduced strength and causing buildings to collapse due to lack of support. As electricity
cables snapped and gas mains burst, fires also swept through the area. The two tier Nemitz highway bridge. A
number of roadways were damaged during the earthquake, including the collapse of the upper tier of the
double-deck er Nimitz Highway (Interstate 80) onto the lower deck, killing and trapping motorists in their cars.
The quake resulted in massive economic costs, businesses were closed and lost profits, office buildings were
severely damaged and the collapsed bridges stopped people getting to work. The economic costs of the quake
totaled $4.4 billion.
Q.Explain why both earthquakes and volcanoes occur at constructive plate margins (4 marks)
At a constructive plate margin (for example the Mid-Atlantic Ridge), two plates move apart due to convection
currents. The plate boundary is a line of weakness through which molten magma is able to rise and fill the gap
creating new oceanic crust on the edge of the diverging plates, resulting in the widening of the ocean floor and
the creation of volcanoes. As the plates move, friction results in the build up of pressure, the release of this
pressure results in earthquakes at these boundaries
Q. Explain why both earthquakes and volcanoes occur at destructive plate boundaries (4 marks)
At a destructive boundary (e.g. between the Nazca and South American plate), an oceanic and continental
plate move together due to convection currents in the mantle below. As the plates collide, the denser oceanic
plate is subducted underneath the continental plate. As the plate is subducted (forced down), it creates friction
and pressure generating heat, this heat and that from the hot mantle below results in the melting of the plate
and the creation of molten magma. This newly created molten magma rises to the surface and escapes
through a weakness in the curst in the form of a volcanic eruption. Earthquakes may occur due to the rising
magma and due to the sudden release of pressure built up during friction between the two plates when they
collide.
Q. For a named river which you have studied in an MEDC describe fully the different causes of flooding
(7 marks)
The rivers East and West Lyn running through Lynmouth in Devon flooded on August 15th 1952. A very wet
start to August, with rain on 12 out of the first 14 days led to saturated conditions in the drainage basin. On the
15th of August Torrential rain and thunderstorms from a frontal depression produced one of the 3 heaviest
rainfalls experienced in the UK. Saturated ground and the impermeable rock of Exmoor (near the source)
resulted in large amounts of surface runoff. Due to a small catchment basin and narrow, steep-sided valleys
this water reached the rivers quickly, river levels rose quickly and the channel capacity was unable to cope.
The situation was made worse as the river had been diverted and the channel itself narrowed as hotels were
built in the area. As the river transported large boulders and debris, bridges became dammed causing further
flooding.
You can write about flooding in Bangladesh in an LEDC
Q. What are the arguments for and against coastal management? Develop the points you make (6
marks)
Coastal management is needed to protect roads, farmland homes and other developments along the coast,
such as nuclear power stations which are at risk from coastal erosion. By reducing cliff recession and
protecting the coastline, coastal management can safeguard tourism and protect valuable habitats. It is likely
that coastal management is going to become increasingly important as sea levels continue to rise due to global
warming. However coastal management techniques such as sea walls are very expensive. The decision has to
made whether it is cost effective to protect certain areas or whether nature should be allowed to take its
course. Many also argue that these protection schemes look ugly and unnatural, spoiling the environment. In
some instances management techniques such as groynes may increase erosion further down the coast by
starving areas beyond the groynes of beach material.
Q. Describe one or more natural features which are formed as a result of coastal deposition and
explain their formation. You should use labelled diagrams. (7 marks)
Answer:
Spits are long narrow accumulations of sand and shingle sticking out into the sea with one end attached to the
land. They form due to a combination of the transport and deposition of coastal material. Sand and shingle
may be moved along a coastline by longshore drift, moving up the beach in the swash at an angle controlled
by the prevailing wind and moving straight back down the beach due to gravity in the backwash. Where the
coastline changes direction it leaves a shallow sheltered area of water (for example that sheltered by a
headland), the sand and shingle is deposited and further longshore drift and deposition enables the feature to
build up and outwards into the sea. Many spits have hooked ends (known as recurved laterals) due to a
secondary wind. Salt marshes often form in the sheltered areas behind the hooked end. The presence of a
river estuary may limit the length of a spit preventing further deposition. If a spit continues to grow across two
headlands it may form a bar, or where it grows out to connect the mainland to an island it forms a tombolo.
You must include a labelled diagram here in order to access the full marks!
Q. Many people continue to live near to active volcanoes. Why can they be more confident of their own
safety in the 21st century? (4 marks)
People living close to active volcanoes are becoming more confident of their safety due to the studying and
monitoring of active volcanoes. Techniques such as thermal mapping, tilt meters, seismographs and the
measuring of gas emissions are used to monitor active volcanoes and identify increases activity, enabling
greater predictions of eruptions. Hazard mapping can also be used to identify areas likely to be most affected
by an eruption enabling focused evacuation. Action plans are in place to provide warnings and to ensure
evacuations are carried out successfully. Emergency services are also well trained to deal with such situations.
Q. Describe the main features of a river meander. Explain by referring to river processes, how such
features have been formed. You may draw a labelled diagram as part of your answer. (7 marks)
Meanders are bends in the river found in the middle and lower courses of a river. Meanders gradually shift
across a flood plain as their change their shape and position. As water flows through the river channel, it is
diverted due to the outer bend of a meander, the lower friction and faster current on the outer bend results in
undercutting through the erosion processes of corrosion and hydraulic action. Over time the undercutting
causes a river cliff to form on the outer bend. On the opposite bend of the river there is less water and
increased friction resulting in slow flow. This loss of energy results in deposition and the development of a slip
of slope. Overtime meanders become more extreme as they migrate across the flood plain and the neck of a
meander may gradually narrow.
Q. Choose one of the following landforms – waterfall, flood plain, oxbow lake. With the aid of a diagram
or series of diagrams explain how the landform has been formed. (7)
Answer:
3 sample answers are provided below for the different features you could have chosen
1. Waterfalls
Waterfalls form were rivers meet a band of soft, less resistant rock having travelled over harder more resistant
rock. The softer rock is eroded more quickly resulting in the formation of a ‘step’ in the bed of the river over
which the water flows, forming a plunge pool below. The softer rock continues to erode through erosion
processes such as hydraulic action, undercutting the overlying harder rock (known as a cap rock). Eventually
undercutting weakens the cap rock causing the overhang to collapse. The rock fragments are then swirled
round in the plunge pool, deepening it through abrasion processes. The process is then repeated and the
waterfall gradually retreats upstream leaving behind a steep sided gorge.
Remember - diagram needed to access the full marks!
2. Flood Plains
Flood plains are created as a river widens the valley floor through lateral erosion. Rivers carry material in
suspension and at times of high flow, large amounts of energy enable large amount of material to be carried.
When the river overflows its banks, the water spreads out over the surrounding flat land and the increased
friction results in a reduction in water velocity. This loss of energy results in the material carried by the water
being deposited as a fine layer of silt. Floodplains are gradually constructed as layers of silt build up with
subsequent flood events. As the largest material is deposited first (due to requiring the greatest energy for
transport), levees (natural embankments) may be formed next to the river.
Remember - diagram needed to access the full marks!
3. Oxbow Lakes
Oxbow lakes are formed by the continued development of meander bends. Erosion on the outside of meander
bends due to high velocities results in undercutting and the development of river cliffs, whilst on the inside
bends, slow flowing water results in deposition and the formation of slip off slopes. As meanders become more
extreme and the neck of meander narrows, eventually erosion and undercutting on the two outside bends
causes the neck to be cut through usually in times of flood or high flow. The river now takes its straightest
course and deposition due to areas of slow flow seal off the old meander bend.
Remember - diagram needed to access the full marks!
Q. Why do some people live near active volcanoes? (5 marks)
Volcanic soils are very fertile due to the weathering of volcanic ash and lava releasing valuable nutrients and
minerals making volcanic areas ideal for growing crops and supporting large populations. In Italy large
numbers live on the slopes of Vesuvius and Etna (one in five Sicilians are believed to live on the slopes of
Etna) due to the fertile soils which provide rich opportunities for growing products such as Olives and fruit.
Volcanic areas also provide geothermal energy which can be harnessed to produce electricity. In Iceland,
geothermal power is used to power central heating and in farming areas around Reykjavik is also used to heat
greenhouses enabling the growing of fruit, vegetables and flowers. Volcanoes, are particularly popular with
tourists due to their spectacular and unique scenery, providing huge economic benefits due to the resulting
multiplier effect. Tourist attractions e.g. Blue Lagoon, Iceland, attract custom for hotels, cafes etc. creating jobs
and improving the local economy. Volcanic areas are also excellent for mining with minerals such as copper,
gold and silver creating economic activities through job opportunities and the value of the mined minerals,
encouraging people to live in these areas. In many volcanic areas people have always lived there and do not
want to move away (e.g. Harry Truman who died in the Mount St Helens 1980 eruption).
Q. How might rivers be controlled to try to prevent flooding? (4 marks)
Methods to control rivers and prevent flooding include the building of raised banks (levees) to increase channel
capacity. Afforestation in the drainage basin increases interception and reduces the amount of water entering
the channel. Dams have been built on some rivers to control river levels. Some rivers have been straightened
to increase efficiency and enable rivers to transfer water quickly reducing the likelihood of flooding. Dredging of
channels has also been used to increase channel capacity and enable more water to be transported within the
river.
Q. With reference to a named river basin which you have studied, give the causes and effects of a river
flood
Bangladesh, (SE Asia) was hit by devastating floods between July and September 1998. The country is prone
to floods as it lies on the huge flat delta of the Rivers Ganges and Brahmaputra with 70%of the land less than
1m above sea level. The 1998 floods were caused by heavy monsoon rains and extensive spring snowmelt
from the Himalayas resulting in the rivers exceeding their capacity. Deforestation in Nepal had reduced
interception and the deposition of silt from runoff resulting in soil erosion, raised the river beds reducing
capacity. The flooding led to 30 million people being made homeless and a great loss of belongings. 1,070
people were killed by drowning in the flood waters and health problems resulting from the contamination of
water supplies increased the death toll, with the spread of cholera and typhoid. Food supplies were affected as
rice stocks were destroyed by the flooding. The country was also hit by the impact on the already poor
economy with export industries seeing a 20decrease in production and the closure of 400 clothing factories..
The floodwaters also washed away roads and railways, hampering rescue operations and making it difficult to
distribute aid.
Name an area which you have studied where drought occurs. Describe the problems experienced by people living in
your chosen area. ( oct-nov 2008, Q=3 )
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Europe’s drought of 2003
Estimate for the death toll from the French heatwave in 2003 were as high as 30,000. Harvests were down between
30% and 50 % on 2002. France’s electric grid was also affected as demand for electricity soared as the population
turned up air conditionings and fridges. However, nuclear power stations, which generated around 75% of France’s
electricity, were operating at a much reduced capacity because there was less water available for cooling.
Portugal declared a state of emergency after the worst forest fire for 30 years. Temperatures reached 430C in Lisbon in
august 2003: 150C hotter than the average of the month. Over 1300 deaths occurred in the first half of August, and up
to 35,000 hectares of forest, farmland and scrub was burned. Some fires were in fact deliberately started by arsonists
seeking insurance or compensation money and more than 70 people were arrested. The prolonged heatwave left
some countries facing their worst harvest since the end of Second World War. Some countries that usually export food
were forces to import for the first time in decades. Across the EU, wheat production was down 10 million tonnes,
about 10%.
Name an area of tropical desert which you have studied. Describe and explain the main features of it’s climate. ( octnov 2008 Q=5 )
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The Nambi Desert
The Nambi desert occupies the costal edge of Namibia. Within the desert are several distinctive landscapes. The south
id dominated by the tallest dunes in the world, while further north sand gives way to a rocky desert of gravel plains
and bare, rugged hills. Here there is no surface water, except after rain, when after a short time streams flow into
inland basins, never reaching the sea.
The climate is arid with spares, unpredictable rainfall. Temperatures vary from west to east- cooler along the coast but
hotter inland. The most important climate feature in the coastal fog, which is the only source of reliable moisture in
the region. Rainfall is very low because of the combine effects of the rainshadow effect of the Drakensberg Mountains
and the cold, offshore Benguela current. The coastal fog and variation in the temperature are result of the interaction
between prevailing winds. Cold air from the Atlantic ocean reduces the effects of latitude at the coast but, island,
sinking air from the Drakensberg Mountains rises summer temperatures to high of 500C .
Many people live in areas where earthquakes are likely to occur. Explain why people still live in a named area which
you have studied which experiences earthquakes. (oct-nov 2009 Q =3)
Kobe Earthquake of Japan which occurred in the Kobe region of south central Japan on January 17th 1995. The
magnitude of the earthquake was 7.2 in the Richter scale & lasted for about 20 seconds. The impact of the earthquake
on the region was destructive. Thought people continue to live in this area. There are many reasons for this –
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People have always lived there and are willing to continue living in the same place.
Many people cannot afford the cost of moving away to a new place.
Many people were already employed in the area & could not let their jobs be lost.
People living in Kobe were confident of the support, the government will provide to them.
Many people living in the area thought that such severe earthquakes wont happen again.
Building design has improved and now people are confident that their house or workplace will withstand strong
earthquakes.
Kobe is an important centre for commerce, tourism, shipbuilding, & for manufacturing steel, rubber & textiles –
so there are many jobs available for people to be employed.
Kobe is a rich place and people wont easily decide to leave it.
Describe the advantages & difficulties for people of living on a river delta. You should refer to a delta which you have
studied. (may-june2010 Q=3)
ADVANTAGES OF LIVING IN MEKONG DELTA
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Plenty of water for fishing or aquaculture. This can feed families or provide an economic income.
Abundant drinking water
Water for cooking, washing, etc.
Tourism opportunities e.g. Mekong Delta
Houses can be built on water and are then transportable and they do not flood
Good transport links, possible to trade
Fertile land for farming, especially crops like rice
DISADVANTAGES OF LIVING IN MEKONG DELTA
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Hard to make transport links by roads - cost of bridges
Areas are at constant risk of flood
Vulnerable to rising sea levels
Water is often dirty and polluted (industry, agriculture, sewers)
Mosquitoes are attracted to water (Malaria, Dengue)
Storm surges from tropical storms
Cost of building defences