THEORETICAL BASIS OF TEACHING VOCABULARY TO EFL STUDENTS
Vocabulary is the knowledge about words and their meanings. As Steven Stahl [ ] puts it,
"Vocabulary knowledge is knowledge; the knowledge of a word not only implies a definition,
but also implies how that word fits into the world." A word’s definition is just the tip of the ice
berg! Teacher should help students ‘dive’ below the surface into extended word meanings.
Knowledge about vocabulary is not something that can be fully mastered; it is something that
develops and increases over the course of a lifetime. Instruction in vocabulary does not contain
only looking up words in a dictionary and using the words in a sentence. Vocabulary is acquired
by chance through indirect exhibition to words and intentionally through clear and outspoken
instruction in specific words and word-learning strategies. According to Michael Graves [ ],
there are four components of an effective vocabulary program:
1. wide or extensive independent reading to expand word knowledge
2. instruction in specific words to enhance comprehension of texts containing those words
3. instruction in independent word-learning strategies
4. word consciousness and word-play activities to motivate and enhance learning
There is no single research-based method for teaching vocabulary. It is recommended to use a
variety of direct and indirect methods of vocabulary instruction. Intentional vocabulary teaching
implies specific word instruction:
 Selecting words to teach
 Rich and robust instruction
Selecting words to teach is choosing a global style of learning. When one learner selects only
those words and phrases that he or she needs to understand the whole context. So does the
teacher while working with texts from the tutorials. He or she selects only the most important
vocabulary items that her or his students must learn and be able to recognize in the context.
Rich and robust instruction is referred to another learning style that is analytical one. The whole
text is important both for the leaner and the teacher. The list of words is rather long. While
preparing for new vocabulary presentation the teacher should remember to divide the list of new
words into so-called sections which should be given to the learners at different classes. It will
avoid loss of students’ motivation and their class overload.
Before starting to work with new vocabulary a learner may choose his or her own word-learning
strategy:
 Dictionary Use
 Morphemic Analysis
 Cognate Awareness
 Contextual Analysis
Clear and outspoken vocabulary instruction is greatly effective. To develop vocabulary
purposefully, students should be explicitly taught both specific words and word-learning
strategies. To develop students' knowledge of word meanings, specific word instruction should
be clear and reliable. Working on vocabulary in rich contexts from authentic texts, rather than in
isolated vocabulary drills, causes effective vocabulary learning. Such instruction often does not
begin with a definition, for the ability to give a definition is often the result of knowing what the
word means. Rich and efficient vocabulary instruction is far more than just definitional
knowledge; it gets students actively engaged in using and thinking about meanings of words and
in creating relationships among them.
There are more words to be learned than can be directly taught in even the most pretentious
program of vocabulary instruction. Explicit instruction in word-learning strategies gives students
aids for individually determining the meanings of unfamiliar words that have not been precisely
introduced in class. Since students face so many unfamiliar words in their reading, writing,
listening and speaking activities any help provided by such strategies can be useful.
Word-learning strategies include dictionary use, morphemic analysis, and contextual analysis.
For English language learners whose language shares are connected with English, cognate
awareness is also an important strategy. Dictionary use gives students multiple word meanings,
as well as it shows the importance of choosing the appropriate definition to fit the particular
context. Morphemic analysis is the process of deducing a word's meaning by analyzing its
meaningful parts, or morphemes. Such word parts include root words, prefixes, and suffixes.
Contextual analysis involves implying the meaning of an unfamiliar word by scrutinizing the text
surrounding it. Contextual analysis generally involves teaching students to employ both generic
and specific types of context clues.
A more general way to help students develop vocabulary is by fostering word consciousness,
encouraging an awareness of and interest in words. Word consciousness is not an isolated
component of vocabulary learning and teaching; it needs to be taken into account each and every
day [Scott and Nagy, 2004]. It can be always and variously developed: through encouraging
expert pronunciation, through word play, and through research on origins or histories of words.
According to Graves, "If we can get students interested in playing with words and language, then
we are at least halfway to the goal of creating the sort of word-conscious students who will make
words a lifetime interest."
One principle of effective vocabulary learning is to provide multiple expressions to a word's
meaning. There is great improvement in vocabulary when students encounter vocabulary words
often, students probably have to deal with a word more than once to place and store it firmly in
their long-term memories. "This does not mean mere repetition or drill of the word," but
encountering the word in different and multiple contexts. In other words, it is important that
vocabulary instruction provide students with opportunities to encounter words repeatedly and in
more than one context.
It is often supposed that when students do not learn new vocabulary items, they simply need to
practice the words some more. However, it is often the case that students simply do not
understand the teacher’s task involved. Rather than paying attention to only the words
themselves, teachers should be certain that students fully understand the tasks [Schwartz and
Raphael, 1985]. The restructuring of learning materials or strategies in different ways often can
cause increased vocabulary acquisition, especially for low-achieving or at-risk students.
According to Kamil, "once students know what is expected of them in a vocabulary task, they
often learn rapidly."
The most of vocabulary is acquired by chance through indirect encountering with words.
Students can acquire vocabulary incidentally by engaging in rich speaking experiences at home
and at school, listening to books read aloud to them, and reading widely on their own. Reading
volume is very important in terms of long-term vocabulary development [Cunningham and
Stanovich, 1998]. Kamil and Hiebert consider that extensive reading gives students repeated or
multiple exposures to words and is also one of the tools by which students see vocabulary in rich
contexts. Cunningham recommends providing structured read-aloud and discussion sessions and
extending individual reading experiences outside school hours to encourage vocabulary growth
in students. There is no one right way to teach vocabulary. Using a variety of techniques or
approaches increases students’ vocabulary knowledge, such as categorization, semantic feature
analysis, making analogies, structural analysis, following Frayer model, word or concept map,
content core word groups, by means of illustration, miming, synonyms (antonyms/gradable
items), definition, translation and context.
Categorization
Categorization (placing the words into categories) is one of the most well-spread ways to work
with words and its meanings. If one sees the connection among familiar words and new words,
he or she is able to connect new information and prior knowledge together. While categorizing
words we also develop our thinking skill of classifying. The activity (like “Animals” or
“Vegetables”) can be applied here, where one thinks of an item and the others try to guess what
is it by at first determining the general category and then asking “yes” or “no” questions about it.
If the item is not guessed in a certain number of questions, the questioner had failed, the other
volunteers identify the item and then think of another item, and the activity starts again. This
activity can be done in the classroom with new vocabulary terms being mixed up with familiar
words.
The items may also be grouped into classifications such as animate and non-animate, movable
and stationary, etc. The teacher should lead the learners to discuss reasons for grouping that they
develop, pointing out common characteristics. At first the teacher may name the categories into
which items must be placed, but in the end the children should come up with the categories
individually.
The same sequence could be applied with word lists in reading. The teacher may also provide a
category (without providing items to place), and allow the children suggest appropriate items.
For example, teacher asks learners to suggest things that grow from the list given below: hair,
animal, street, today, child, window, cat, etc. Also teacher can use this kind of activity that can
be enjoyable for learners and can promote vocabulary development at the same time. In the
activity a word is written vertically on the left side of the paper or the blackboard as shown in the
table (see Appendix). Categories are placed in a row across the top of the paper or the
blackboard. The learners are challenged to use reference books or dictionaries to help them fill in
the resulting grid with examples for each category that start with each letter on the left.
Semantic Feature Analysis
This strategy is effective in helping students visualize the connections among concepts. It is
designed to provide a systematic process for establishing categories and developing significant
dependence among new words and concepts. Semantic feature analysis is a very interactive
process. The graphic organizer (chart) helps students understand the meaning of the term by
comparing features and characteristics. The characteristics are listed across the top of the
organizer and students place a check mark or X in the box if the concept term has that feature.
Semantic feature analysis is another efficient way to guide word study. In it a number of words
are classified in relationship to several characteristics. For instance, musical instruments might
be placed under such classifications as string, woodwind, brass, percussion, mouthpiece, bow
and others. The more considered features, the more knowledge the learners have to display about
the target words for completing the table. If the features included are enough, two or more items
might have exactly the same pattern. For example, timpani and snare drum have the same
characteristic, but the addition of snares to the list of features would differentiate the two items.
Similarly, trumpet and trombone have also the same characteristic, but the adding of slide to the
list of features would change the category. Ranking words on one feature is one activity related
to semantic feature analysis. For example, words such as none, some, many and all could be
categorized on the basis of amount.
Making Analogies
Making analogies is another way to learn about the words, as well as to develop mental skills
referred to classification, comparison and contrast. English learners will start learning the skill
necessary for making analogies when they are busy with categorization activities, for successful
analogy construction requires the recognition of the relationships among words. With young
learner the teacher may say “A sock goes on your foot like what goes on your hand?” The
learners are led to see that both relationships are the same type. Little by little the analogies come
to be stated as “Sock is to foot as ________ is to hand.” Analogies can be developed on the basis
of a multitude of possible relationships: synonym, antonym, homonym, member-organization,
etc. Older learners can be introduced to the symbols related to analogies, as the analogies
become “Sock-foot, ____ - hand”. Learners enjoy competing to complete such analogies and
also creating their own ones. Such activities require the use of higher-order thinking skills.
Structural Analysis
It involves learning to recognize and differentiate common word parts, such as prefixes, suffixes,
endings, parts of compound words and contractions parts, and relating meaning with these word
parts. Knowledge of structural analysis is a powerful tool for students in learning the meanings
of new words that they meet. Learners also develop their skill in analytical thinking as they learn
how to understand and use parts of words. Prefixes and suffixes are common word parts that
influence the meanings of the words. Prefixes are letters grouped and attached to the beginnings
of words that change the meanings of the words (e.g. tie-untie/завязать-развязать). Suffixes
are letters grouped and added to the endings of words that may alter their meanings or parts of
speech (e.g. act-action/действовать-действие). Endings are letters or letter groups added to
the endings of words that may modify the tense (e.g. look – looked/смотрю-смотрел) or person
(e.g. go – goes/иду-идёт) of the verb, the number (e.g. girl – girls/девушка-девушки), case (e.g.
Jack – Jack’s), gender of the noun (e.g. host-hostess/хозяин-хозяйка), or degree of the adjective
(e.g. big – bigger/большой-больше). Compound words are words formed of two or more smaller
words that blend to produce a new meaning (e.g. houseboat-плавучий дом). Sometimes
compound nouns consist of two separate nouns (e.g. police officer-полицейский).
Contractions are formed by joining two words together, excluding one or more letters and
replacing them with the apostrophe (e.g. he would – he’d). Some learners have difficulties
differentiating between contractions and possessives, which are also formed with apostrophes.
Teaching prefixes and suffixes by presenting lists of the word parts and their meanings is not a
good practice. The word parts will be remembered and learned best if they are taught in the
context of words for which the learners can see some in their class activities. Emphasizing the
effects that the endings have on words is also important.
Frayer’s Model
This tool helps students develop and increase vocabulary knowledge by studying a term in a
manner of relations. Students write a word in the center circle and then list characteristics,
examples, non-examples, and a definition in the quadrants of the box. The Frayer Model is an
adaptation of the concept map. The framework of the Frayer Model includes: the concept word,
the definition, characteristics of the concept word, examples of the concept word, and non
examples of the concept word. It is important to include both examples and non examples, so
students are able to identify what the concept word is and what the concept word is not. First,
the teacher assigns the concept word being studied, and then talk about the steps involved in
completing the chart.
Word or Concept Map
This strategy helps students understand a concept of definition for content area words. This
strategy emphasizes the use of context clues and previous knowledge in determining a words
meaning. Concept mapping provides a framework for organizing conceptual information in the
process of defining a word. The concept map also supports vocabulary and concepts learning by
helping students master a strategy for defining and clarifying the meaning of unknown
words. Students write the concept word or target word being studied in the center, and then
work outward into the boxes writing words that describe the key word. The framework of the
concept map contains: category/class the concept or key word belongs, properties of the concept
word or key, and examples of the concept or key word.
Content Core Word Groups
This strategy involves content area teachers sharing a combined list of core subject specific
words. These words can be general terms that will carry over for vertical adjustment of
terminology.
Illustration
This is very useful for more concrete words (dog, rain, tall) and for visual learners. It has its
limits though, not all objects can be drawn. Plastic models of people, animals, vehicles and
buildings can also be a good aid for the learners as the basis for classification activities. The
teacher may put the items on a table in an order that all of the items except one could fit into a
common category (for example: people). The learners are given the task to find and remove the
odd item and to tell why they have chosen that item in the Russian or English language.
Mime
This lends itself particularly well to action verbs and it can be fun and memorable. It can be used
as a guessing game. While carrying out this wordless activity the learners tend to talk quite
naturally. One mimes a word (e.g. action verb) and the others try to guess what it is. This activity
provides further practice of a wider variety of lexical and grammatical units. For example, one
student chooses a job and mimes a particular activity that it involves. The other students ask
“yes” and “no” questions and try to guess the exact word. The student miming provides just
nonverbal prompts to help the rest of the class.
Synonyms/Antonyms/Gradable items
Using the words a student already knows can be effective for getting meaning across. Synonyms
are words that mean close to the same thing, rather than exactly the same thing. Ranking the
synonyms on one feature is a helpful activity. For example, the words smell, odor and stench
might be rated according to intensity.
Definition
The teacher should make sure that the definition to the word that he or she chooses is clear (it is
better to check it in a learner dictionary before the lesson if there are any doubts). The teacher
should remember to ask questions to check the students have understood the definition properly.
This activity requires rather high level of English but the teacher may adopt this task according
to the level of her or his class and the type of the task.
Translation
If the teacher knows the students' native language, then this way is fast and efficient. But anyway
the teacher must remember that not every word has a direct translation. For example, elementary
learners should be provided with word translation at once or asked to find it in the dictionary.
Advanced learners usually do the opposite task (they may translate the word from Russian into
English) or ,at first, work with word definition, guess the meaning and translate it.
Context
As it has been mentioned before that the words are better learned in the given context than
isolated. The teacher in this case must think of a clear context when the word is used and either
describe it to the students or give them example sentences to clarify meaning further. The
students in turn may guess the right meaning precisely from the context even without looking the
word up in the dictionary.
Again the teacher’s choice of the strategy or way of teaching vocabulary depends on the item he
or she is presenting. Some strategies and ways are more suitable for particular words. Often a
combination of them can be both helpful and memorable
References
1. Eken, D. K. (1996). Ideas for using songs in the English language classroom. English
Teaching Forum, 34(1), 46-47.
2. Griffee, D. T. (1990). Hey baby! Teaching short and slow songs in the ESL classroom.
TESL Reporter, 23(4), 3-8.
3. Lems, K. (1996). For a song: Music across the ESL curriculum. Paper presented at the
annual convention of Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Chicago. (ED
No. 396 524)
4. Maess, B., & Koelsch, S. (2001). Musical syntax is processed in Broca's area: An MEG
study. Nature Neuroscience 4, 540-545.
5. Moi, C. M. (1994). Rock poetry: The literature our students listen to. Journal of the
Imagination in Language Learning, 2, 56-59.
6. Moriya, Y. (1988). English speech rhythm and its teaching to non-native speakers. Paper
presented at the annual convention of Teachers of English to Speakers of Other
Languages. Chicago. (ED No. 303 033)
7. Murphey, T. (1992).The discourse of pop songs. TESOL Quarterly, 26(4), 770-774.
8. Poppleton, C. (2001). Music to our ears. American Language Review, 5(1), 23-26.
9. Puhl, C. A. (1989). Up from under: English training on the mines. (Report on 1988
research project conducted at Gold Field Training Services). Stellenbosch, South Africa:
University of Stellenbosch. (ED No. 335 864)
10. Rauscher, F. H., Shaw, G., & Ky, K. (1993). Mozart and spatial reasoning. Nature, (365)
611.