Virginia Review of Asian Studies
Volume 16 (2014): 184-192
Liu: Teaching Japanese
TEACHING JAPANESE AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE IN A
SOCIOCULTURAL CONTEXT
XUEXIN LIU
SPELMAN COLLEGE
Introduction
The Acculturation Model (Schumann, 1978a, 1978b, 1978c) is one of the most prominent
socio-cultural models established to account for the acquisition of a second language (L2) by
immigrants in majority language settings. It specifically excludes learners who receive formal
instruction or learn a foreign language (FL) in a non-target language (TL) speaking environment
(e.g., learning Japanese in the United States or other non-Japanese speaking countries).
Schumann sees ‘acculturation’ as governing the extent to which learners achieve TL norms or
TL competence. As Schumann puts it:
Second language acquisition is just one aspect of acculturation and the degree to which a
learner acculturates to the target-language group will control the degree to which he
acquires the second language (1978a: 34).
In other words, acculturation is a process of becoming adapted to the target-culture in order for
the learner to successfully acquire the TL knowledge and skills as embedded in and driven by the
target-culture. In fact, Schumann (1986) distinguishes two types of acculturation, depending on
whether the learner views the TL group (e.g., those speaking English as their native language
(NL)) as a reference group or not. Both types involve social interaction and therefore contact
with the second language group, but the first type of learners wish to assimilate fully into its way
of life, whereas the second do not. Schumann argues that both types of acculturation are equally
effective in promoting second language acquisition.
This model recognizes the developmental nature of second language acquisition (SLA)
and seeks to explain differences in learners’ rate of development and also in their ultimate level
of achievement in terms of the extent to which they adapt to the TL culture. In his early writings,
Schumann suggested that acculturation affects SLA by its effect on the amount of contact
learners have with TL speakers. The greater the contact, the more acquisition takes place.
Subsequently, Schumann (1986) suggests that acculturation may also affect the nature of the
verbal interaction that learners take part in and thus the quality as well as the quantity of L2
input. The Acculturation Model, however, does not specify the internal processes that are
involved in acquisition (cf. Ellis, 1994).
In SLA research, there have been mixed results, and one of the reasons for these mixed
results is that the difficulty of measuring acculturation. Apart from the problem of obtaining
reliable measures of each social factor, there is no principled way of weighting the different
variables. Since the hypothesis of the Acculturation Model can only be tested in SLA, it is
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obvious that this model cannot be applied to foreign language acquisition (FLA). The relevance
of this model to FLA lies in the relation between language learning and socio-culture learning.
That is, learning an L2 or FL without the TL or FL socio-culture learning, the degree of success
in language learning will be rather limited. In other words, the knowledge of target or foreign
socio-culture is an indispensable part of language learning. What makes FLA more complicated
or difficult lies in the fact that FLA takes place in a non-TL speaking environment and learners
have multiple reasons for acquiring an FL. This study describes some outstanding characteristics
of FL learners and sources of their TL deficiency, highlights the characteristics and advantages
of a summer study abroad program, explains why the Acculturation Model can be applied to
FLA, and offers some pedagogical suggestions.
Portraits of the foreign language user
An FL user is any person who uses another language other than his or her first language
(L1) or NL. In other words, such a language user is anyone who uses any FL for various reasons
in an environment where the TL is being learned as an FL. For example, American learners learn
Japanese in the United States in order to acquire Japanese language knowledge and skills for
educational and/or communicative purposes. In the United States some learners study Japanese
(or other FLs) in the classroom or on their own for diverse reasons set by themselves or by their
educational system. In the United States learning Japanese as a FL is getting poplar in colleges,
and students are required to reach more advanced levels of FL proficiency throughout their
graduate studies.
For the purpose of the present study, listed below are the general characteristics of
American college students as Japanese users as observed in their Japanese performance in
various academic settings:
1. They are able to acquire most commonly used Japanese lexical items, especially those
equivalent in their NL.
2. They are able to acquire most commonly used Japanese grammatical constructions,
including morphological realization patterns such as surface word order and
conjugations.
3. They are able to use Japanese for basic communication with other learners, their
instructors, and native speakers of Japanese, and their use of Japanese is mainly for
translating certain equivalent expressions into the TL.
4. They are able to read and understand basic Japanese texts and translate them between
English and Japanese.
5. They acquire knowledge and skills of the TL mainly through classroom learning and
technologies, such as language labs and Japanese learning websites.
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6. They do not have direct contact with native speakers of the TL and thus do not
receive natural FL input.
7. Their knowledge of the FL is typically not identical to that of a native speaker, and
few FL users can pass for native speakers: their grammar, their accent, their
vocabulary give away that they are non-native speakers. Their use of Japanese tends
to be unnatural, non-idiomatic or non-native like.
FL learners’ ‘weaknesses’ are commonly observed in most learning settings where the TL is
taught and learned as a foreign rather than second language (cf. Cook, 2002).
Summer study abroad program as a compensatory solution
To improve and strengthen FL learning outcomes, many American universities and
colleges offer study abroad programs. Spelman College has offered its Japanese language
students the opportunity to participate in the summer study abroad program hosted by Josai
International University for several years. The 4-week intensive Japanese language and culture
summer program is designed to enable students to comprehend spoken Japanese at natural speed
and to communicate naturally in Japanese. Students are exposed to spoken Japanese at natural
speed from the very beginning. This program is intended to give students the opportunity to
make the most of their chances to speak and interact in Japanese with native speakers of
Japanese. In addition, this program adopts the acculturation approach to Japanese language
learning by offering students abundant opportunities to understand and experience Japanese
culture and customs. Two particular courses are designed to meet students’ real interests and
needs:
1. Japanese Language Skills (intermediate level, textbook: GENKI) contains two
closely related parts: ‘classroom teaching’ and ‘language activities’. Classroom
teaching focuses on Japanese language knowledge and performance skills, and
language activities include field trips to exchange with native Japanese students,
blocks of time to interact with conversation partners to improve Japanese
communication skills, and opportunities to learn and practice with Japanese mentors.
2. Japanese Society and Culture also contains two closely related parts:
‘lectures’ and ‘culture activities’. Lectures cover topics on Japanese literature, living
in Japan as a foreigner, Japanese society, Japanese manga and animation, Japanese
corporate culture, and gender studies, and culture activities include Japanese tea
ceremony, visiting a traditional Japanese house, homestay in a Japanese home to
experience Japanese culture and customs, Tokyo tour, experiencing Japanese food,
martial arts, and calligraphy & Haiku.
It seems obvious that the program has three closely related characteristics:
(1) Its acculturation approach emphasizes the relationship between language and culture
and situates FL leaning in social and cultural contexts.
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(2) It relates classroom teaching and learning to actual language use in natural exchange
and interaction, which offers students abundant opportunities to practice using their
FL skills in a meaningful and effective way.
(3) Through various field trips and culture activities, students have abundant
opportunities to learn and experience Japanese society and culture, observe natural
language use in real situations, and communicate with native speakers.
Based on the evaluative reports of the student participants, some achievements of this
program stand out for our reference:
(1) Throughout this intensive Japanese language and culture program, the student
participants were able to use their Japanese language skills in various real
communication settings. Their Japanese language skills were greatly improved to the
extent that they could express themselves in a natural and idiomatic way.
(2) The student participants became cognitively aware of the indispensable relationship
between language and culture, and between language and thought. It was the
acculturation approach which enhanced effective FL learning and produced desirable
learning outcomes.
(3) The student participants received natural language input through direct and frequent
exchange and interaction with native speakers of Japanese, which significantly
improves and strengthens their Japanese language skills.
(4) Through Japanese culture studies, the student participants learned and experienced
Japanese society, traditional culture, customs and people, which provided them with
valuable cross-cultural engagement and openness to cultural differences.
Testimonies
The achievements of the summer study abroad program in 2013 are supported by the
representative testimonies cited from some students’ reflexive essays:
Native speakers of Japanese pretty much rely on facial expressions, tones of voice and
postures to tell them how someone feels. The context in which something is said affects
the meanings of the words. Therefore, it is imperative to understand the situation to fully
appreciate the response.
I think that earning a language in America is one thing but learning it in that particular
country is awesome. You are forced to use Japanese wherever you go which of course
makes progress.
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Liu: Teaching Japanese
I could barely form a complete sentence in Japanese. My grammar was all wrong and I
barely understood what I way saying. It made me realize that I had come a long way. I
guess my progress in the language was the best experience.
I held one conversation with a student who came with use on our weekend trip to
Kamogawa that I will forever cherish. Ayumi and I, along with my roommate, spoke for
about 45 minutes in Japanese, full comprehension and response it was beautiful. I felt an
amazing rush of pride and accomplishment.
Japan and America have a lot of similarities that would not necessarily be thought of if I
had never studied abroad there this summer. That is the beauty of travel because you have
the opportunity to see the world through the eyes of the people you’re studying. This way
you get a clearer and more precise answer to your question and maybe even receive the
answer to some questions that you might not have ever thought to ask.
The perception of Japanese society is not very publicized and through lectures, weekend
trips, research, and conversations with professors and students, I was able to grasp the
concept and purpose of Japanese society. Japanese society has many layers yet is very
simple and I was very fortunate to be able to experience it.
And although the ongoing weekend excursions to the magnificent, more culture infused
areas of the country did play a major role in my education, I also learned a lot about
Japanese society and tradition within y culture classes. Here, my classmates and I were
introduced to a variety of ideas and facts surrounding Japan, for example, its politics,
popular culture, history and tradition.
Acculturation for foreign language competence
According to Schumann’s Acculturation Model (1986), the extent to which learners
acculturate depends on two sets of factors: their levels of social distance and psychological
distance. Social distance concerns the extent to which individual learners become members of
the TL group and, therefore, achieve contact with them. Psychological distance concerns the
extent to which individual learners are comfortable with the learning task and constitutes,
therefore, a personal rather than a group dimension. The social factors are primary. The
psychological factors mainly come into play where social distance is indeterminate (i.e., it is not
clear whether social factors cause a positive or negative influence on acculturation).
Schumann (1978b) discussed several factors affecting social and psychological distance
regarding acculturation in L2 acquisition. The factors affecting social distance most relevant to
the study of FLA may include social dominance (i.e. the FL group can be politically, culturally,
economically, or technically superior, inferior, or equal), integration pattern (i.e., the FL group
may assimilate, seek to preserve its lifestyle and values, or acculturate), cohesiveness (i.e., the FL
group is characterized by intra-group contacts (cohesive) or inter-group contacts (non-cohesive)),
cultural congruence (i.e., the culture of the FL group may be similar or different to that of the TL
group), and attitude (i.e., the FL group and TL group may hold positive or negative attitudes
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towards each other). The factors affecting psychological distance most relevant to the study of
FLA may include language shock (i.e., the extent to which FL learners fear they will look comic
in speaking the TL), culture shock (i.e., the extent to which FL learners feel anxious and
disoriented upon entering a new culture), motivation (i.e., the extent to which FL learners are
integratively or instrumentally motivated to learn the TL), and ego permeability (i.e., the extent
to which FL learners perceive their L1 to have fixed and rigid or permeable and flexible
boundaries and therefore the extent to which they are inhibited).
Schumann made two suggestions about the importance of acculturation in L2 acquisition.
The first is that acculturation affects L2 acquisition by its effect on the amount of contact
learners have with TL speakers. That is, the greater the contact, the more effective acquisition
takes place. The second is that acculturation affects the nature of the verbal interaction that
learners take part in. That is, the greater the contact, the better quality and more quantity of L2
input occur.
Though the Acculturation Model is originally proposed for L2 acquisition, its claim that
the degree to which learners acculturate to the TL group will determine the degree to which they
acquire the L2 also, even more relevantly, applies to FLA. Such a more relevant application of
the Acculturation Model to FLA lies in the fact that in FL learning settings, learners’ both social
distance and psychological distance from those of the TL group tend to be much ‘greater’ of
more ‘distant’ than those of L2 learners. The high level of social distance is caused by FL
learners’ lack of direct and frequent contact with the TL group and lack of direct and full access
to the TL society and culture. The high level of psychological distance is caused by FL learners’
incomplete knowledge and skills of the language being learned and unfamiliarity of the TL
cultural traditions. Thus, it becomes crucial for FL learners to lower the levels of both social
distance and psychological distance in order to be successful in FLA. In other words, FL
competence is much affected by both social and psychological distance, and the smaller the
distance, the more effective learning will take place.
Pedagogical suggestions
Based on the characteristics and achievements of the summer study abroad program in
Japan, and in consideration of the potential weaknesses of Japanese language programs in a nonJapanese speaking country in general and at Spelman College in particular, this study offers
some practical and feasible pedagogical suggestions.
The concept of social distance is an affective construct to give explanatory power to the
place of culture learning in L2 learning, and it is no exception in FL learning. Since social
distance refers to the cognitive and affective proximity of two cultures that come into contact
within an individual, and since the social distance between the FL and TL groups tends to be
greater, it becomes very necessary for the instructor to create a ‘good’ language learning
situation where the FL group is non-dominant in relation to the TL group, where the FL group
desires integration (or assimilation if possible), where the FL group is characterized by intra- and
inter-group contacts (i.e., cohesiveness), where the two cultures are congruent, and where the FL
group has positive attitudes toward the TL group.
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1. To create such a ‘good’ language learning situation, the instructor should design
his/her curriculum which includes sociocultural studies of the TL group in order for
the FL group to be knowledgeable about, or to be familiar with at least, the society
and culture of the TL group. For example, the instructor may introduce Japanese
society, cultural traditions and customs, social manners of Japanese people, and so on
by using films, DVDs, pictures, CDs, etc. in relation to particular parts of Japanese
language learning in the classroom setting.
2. To create such a ‘good’ language learning situation, the instructor should organize
various Japanese cultural events and activities for students to experience Japanese
culture, and find opportunities for students to be in direct contact with native speakers
of Japanese for cultural exchange and mutual understanding. Cross-cultural
experience and communication will certainly promote students’ understanding of the
TL culture and narrowing the perceived social distance.
The greater the social distance between two cultures, the greater the difficulty the learner
will have in learning the TL. One of the instructor’s roles should be to create such a language
learning situation where learners have good opportunities to change the perceived social distance
into an optimal one.
The concept of psychological distance is another affective construct to emphasize the
relationship between L2 or FL learning and L2 or TL culture learning. The process of
acculturation runs even deeper when language is brought into the picture. Culture is a deeply
ingrained part of the very fiber or our being, but language, the means for communication among
members of a culture, is the most visible and available expression of that culture. Thus, an L2 or
FL learner’s world view, self-identity, and systems of thinking, acting, feeling, and
communication can be disrupted by a change from one culture to another. The factors like
language shock, culture shock, motivation, and ego permeability (or language ego) may affect
learners’ psychological distance. The instructor may do the following to help learners to reduce
the level of their psychological distance for meaningful and effective FL learning.
3. To create a ‘good’ language learning situation, the instructor can use techniques that
promote cultural understanding. For example, the instructor can use role-play in FL
classrooms as a means of helping students to overcome cultural confusion or fatigue.
Role-play can promote the process of cross-cultural dialog while at the same time it
provides opportunities for oral communication (cf. Brown, 1994).
4. To create such a ‘good’ language learning situation, the instructor can use numerous
other materials and techniques, such as culture readings, films, simulation games,
culture assimilators, etc. to assist learners in the process of acculturation in the
classroom.
5. To create such a ‘good’ language learning situation, the instructor should relate FL
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knowledge to its cultural background and relate FL use to its social and interactive
aspects. To do this, the instructor should teach knowledge about vocabulary items,
grammatical constructions, and idiomatic expressions in terms of language and
thought (i.e., cognitive aspects of the language being learned), and design language
practice exercises for language use in various TL communicative contexts (i.e.,
language use in society).
Culture is really an integral part of the interaction between language and thought. Since
cultural patterns, customs, and ways of life are expressed in language, and since culture-specific
world views are reflected in language, it becomes compulsory for the instructor to create such a
‘good’ language learning situation to overcome the potential, possibly serious, weaknesses of
FL teaching and learning for better outcomes.
Conclusion
This study introduces the Acculturation Model as one of the approaches to improve and
strengthen FL teaching, such as teaching Japanese in a non-TL speaking environment. It
considers the strengths and advantages of the summer study abroad program in Japan as an
compensatory solution to the potential weaknesses of Japanese as a FL program. In order to offer
some practical and feasible pedagogical suggestions, it fully considers some outstanding
characteristics of American college students as Japanese users and their potential weaknesses as
caused by certain unfavorable learning settings. The key points as discussed in this study are
highlighted as follows.
1. The Acculturation Model can be applied to FL teaching and learning as an integral
part of FLA. The degree of acculturation governs the extent to which learners achieve
FL norms or FL competence. That is, acculturation and FL learning are interrelated,
and the former enhances the latter.
2. The summer study abroad program is a valuable compensatory solution to FL
learners’ lack of contact with the TL group, their society, culture, and life. It offers
good opportunities for FL learners to learn and use the TL for real-life
communication in natural settings.
3. In a non-TL speaking environment, extracurricular events and activities can offer
learners opportunities to increase their awareness of cross-cultural similarities and
differences and to experience the foreign culture and language.
4. Acculturation as a means of FL learning should be designed into the FL curriculum,
and the instructor should use all available materials and techniques to create a good
FL learning situation. To improve and strengthen learners’ FL competence, it
becomes necessary for the instructor to help students acquire cross-cultural
knowledge so as to reduce the levels of their social distance and psychological
distance from the TL group.
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