Wind Power
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/wind_power
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Wind power: worldwide installed capacity 1996-2008
Wind power is the conversion of wind energy into a useful form of energy, such as using wind
turbines to make electricity, wind mills for mechanical power, wind pumps for pumping water or
drainage, or sails to propel ships.
At the end of 2009, worldwide nameplate capacity of wind-powered generators was 159.2 gigawatts
(GW).[1] (By June 2010 the capacity had risen to 175 GW.[2]) Energy production was 340 TWh, which
is about 2% of worldwide electricity usage;[1][3] and has doubled in the past three years. Several
countries have achieved relatively high levels of wind power penetration, such as 20% of stationary
electricity production in Denmark, 14% in Ireland[4] and Portugal, 11% in Spain, and 8% in Germany
in 2009.[5] As of May 2009, 80 countries around the world are using wind power on a commercial
basis.[3]
Large-scale wind farms are connected to the electric
power transmission network; smaller facilities are used to
provide electricity to isolated locations. Utility companies
increasingly buy back surplus electricity produced by
small domestic turbines. Wind energy, as an alternative
to fossil fuels, is plentiful, renewable, widely distributed,
clean, and produces no greenhouse gas emissions
during operation. However, the construction of wind
farms is not universally welcomed because of their visual
impact but any effects on the environment are generally
among the least problematic of any power source.
The intermittency of wind seldom creates problems when
using wind power to supply a low proportion of total
demand, but as the proportion rises, increased costs, a
need to upgrade the grid, and a lowered ability to
supplant conventional production may occur.[6][7][8] Power
management techniques such as exporting and importing
power to neighboring areas or reducing demand when
wind production is low, can mitigate these problems.
Burbo Bank Offshore Wind Farm,
at the entrance to the River Mersey
in North West England.
History
Humans have been using wind power for at least 5,500
years to propel sailboats and sailing ships. Windmills have
been used for irrigation pumping and for milling grain since
the 7th century AD in what is now Afghanistan, India, Iran
and Pakistan.
Medieval depiction of a wind mill
In the United States, the development of the "water-pumping windmill" was the major factor in
allowing the farming and ranching of vast areas otherwise devoid of readily accessible water.
Windpumps contributed to the expansion of rail transport systems throughout the world, by pumping
water from water wells for the steam locomotives.[9] The multi-bladed wind turbine atop a lattice tower
made of wood or steel was, for many years, a fixture of the landscape throughout rural America.
When fitted with generators and battery banks, small wind machines provided electricity to isolated
farms.
Windmills are typically installed in
favourable windy locations.
In the image, wind power
generators in Spain
near an Osborne bull
In July 1887, a Scottish academic, Professor James Blyth, undertook wind power experiments that
culminated in a UK patent in 1891.[10] In the United States, Charles F. Brush produced electricity
using a wind powered machine, starting in the winter of 1887-1888, which powered his home and
laboratory until about 1900. In the 1890s, the Danish scientist and inventor Poul la Cour constructed
wind turbines to generate electricity, which was then used to produce hydrogen.[10] These were the
first of what was to become the modern form of wind turbine.
Small wind turbines for lighting of isolated rural buildings were widespread in the first part of the 20th
century. Larger units intended for connection to a distribution network were tried at several locations
including Balaklava USSR in 1931 and in a 1.25 megawatt (MW) experimental unit in Vermont in
1941.
The modern wind power industry began in 1979 with the serial production of wind turbines by Danish
manufacturers Kuriant, Vestas, Nordtank, and Bonus. These early turbines were small by today's
standards, with capacities of 20–30 kW each. Since then, they have increased greatly in size, with the
Enercon E-126 capable of delivering up to 7 MW, while wind turbine production has expanded to
many countries.
Wind energy
Further information: Wind
Map of available wind power for the United States.
Color codes indicate wind power density class.
The Earth is unevenly heated by the sun, such that
the poles receive less energy from the sun than the
equator; along with this, dry land heats up (and cools
down) more quickly than the seas do.
The differential heating drives a global atmospheric convection system reaching from the Earth's
surface to the stratosphere which acts as a virtual ceiling. Most of the energy stored in these wind
movements can be found at high altitudes where continuous wind speeds of over 160 km/h (99 mph)
occur. Eventually, the wind energy is converted through friction into diffuse heat throughout the
Earth's surface and the atmosphere.
The total amount of economically extractable power available from the wind is considerably more
than present human power use from all sources.[11] The most comprehensive study as of 2005[12]
found the potential of wind power on land and near-shore to be 72 TW, equivalent to 54,000 MToE
(million tons of oil equivalent) per year, or over five times the world's current energy use in all forms.
The potential takes into account only locations with mean annual wind speeds ≥ 6.9 m/s at 80 m. The
study assumes six 1.5 megawatt, 77 m diameter turbines per square kilometer on roughly 13% of the
total global land area (though that land would also be available for other compatible uses such as
farming). The authors acknowledge that many practical barriers would need to be overcome to reach
this theoretical capacity.
The practical limit to exploitation of wind power will be set by economic and environmental factors,
since the resource available is far larger than any practical means to develop it.
Distribution of wind speed
Distribution of wind speed (red) and energy (blue)
for all of 2002 at the Lee Ranch facility in Colorado.
The histogram shows measured data, while the
curve is the Rayleigh model distribution for the
same average wind speed.
The strength of wind varies, and an average value
for a given location does not alone indicate the
amount of energy a wind turbine could produce
there. To assess the frequency of wind speeds at a particular location, a probability distribution
function is often fit to the observed data. Different locations will have different wind speed
distributions. The Weibull model closely mirrors the actual distribution of hourly wind speeds at many
locations. The Weibull factor is often close to 2 and therefore a Rayleigh distribution can be used as a
less accurate, but simpler model.
Because so much power is generated by higher wind speed, much of the energy comes in short
bursts. The 2002 Lee Ranch sample is telling;[13] half of the energy available arrived in just 15% of the
operating time. The consequence is that wind energy from a particular turbine or wind farm does not
have as consistent an output as fuel-fired power plants.[14]
Electricity generation
Typical components of a wind turbine (gearbox, rotor
and brake assembly) being lifted into position
shaft
In a wind farm, individual turbines are interconnected with
medium voltage (often 34.5 kV), power collection system
communications network. At a substation, this mediumvoltage electric current is increased in voltage with a
transformer for connection to the high voltage electric
power transmission system.
a
and
The surplus power produced by domestic
microgenerators can, in some jurisdictions, be fed into the network and sold to the utility company,
producing a retail credit for the microgenerators' owners to offset their energy costs. [15][16]
Grid management
Induction generators, often used for wind power, require reactive power for excitation so substations
used in wind-power collection systems include substantial capacitor banks for power factor correction.
Different types of wind turbine generators behave differently during transmission grid disturbances, so
extensive modelling of the dynamic electromechanical characteristics of a new wind farm is required
by transmission system operators to ensure predictable stable behaviour during system faults (see:
Low voltage ride through). In particular, induction generators cannot support the system voltage
during faults, unlike steam or hydro turbine-driven synchronous generators. Doubly-fed machines
generally have more desirable properties for grid interconnection[citation needed]. Transmission systems
operators will supply a wind farm developer with a grid code to specify the requirements for
interconnection to the transmission grid. This will include power factor, constancy of frequency and
dynamic behavior of the wind farm turbines during a system fault.[17][18]
Capacity factor
Since wind speed is not constant, a wind farm's annual energy production is never as much as the
sum of the generator nameplate ratings multiplied by the total hours in a year. The ratio of actual
productivity in a year to this theoretical maximum is called the capacity factor. Typical capacity factors
are 20–40%, with values at the upper end of the range in particularly favourable sites.[19] For example,
a 1 MW turbine with a capacity factor of 35% will not produce 8,760 MW·h in a year (1 × 24 × 365),
but only 1 × 0.35 × 24 × 365 = 3,066 MW·h, averaging to 0.35 MW. Online data is available for some
locations and the capacity factor can be calculated from the yearly output.[20][21]
Unlike fueled generating plants, the capacity factor is limited by the inherent properties of wind.
Capacity factors of other types of power plant are based mostly on fuel cost, with a small amount of
downtime for maintenance. Nuclear plants have low incremental fuel cost, and so are run at full
output and achieve a 90% capacity factor. Plants with higher fuel cost are throttled back to follow
load. Gas turbine plants using natural gas as fuel may be very expensive to operate and may be run
only to meet peak power demand. A gas turbine plant may have an annual capacity factor of 5–25%
due to relatively high energy production cost.
In a 2008 study released by the U.S. Department of Energy's Office of Energy Efficiency and
Renewable Energy, the capacity factor achieved by the wind turbine fleet is shown to be increasing
as the technology improves. The capacity factor achieved by new wind turbines in 2004 and 2005
reached 36%.[22]
Penetration
Wind energy "penetration" refers to the fraction of energy produced by wind compared with the total
available generation capacity. There is no generally accepted "maximum" level of wind penetration.
The limit for a particular grid will depend on the existing generating plants, pricing mechanisms,
capacity for storage or demand management, and other factors. An interconnected electricity grid will
already include reserve generating and transmission capacity to allow for equipment failures; this
reserve capacity can also serve to regulate for the varying power generation by wind plants. Studies
have indicated that 20% of the total electrical energy consumption may be incorporated with minimal
difficulty.[23] These studies have been for locations with geographically dispersed wind farms, some
degree of dispatchable energy, or hydropower with storage capacity, demand management, and
interconnection to a large grid area export of electricity when needed. Beyond this level, there are few
technical limits, but the economic implications become more significant. Electrical utilities continue to
study the effects of large (20% or more) scale penetration of wind generation on system stability and
economics.[24][25][26][27]
At present, a few grid systems have penetration of wind energy above 5%: Denmark (values over
19%), Spain and Portugal (values over 11%), Germany and the Republic of Ireland (values over 6%).
But even with a modest level of penetration, there can be times where wind power provides a
substantial percentage of the power on a grid. For example, in the morning hours of 8 November
2009, wind energy produced covered more than half the electricity demand in Spain, setting a new
record.[28] This was an instance where demand was very low but wind power generation was very
high.
Wildorado Wind Ranch in Oldham County in the Texas
Panhandle, as photographed from U.S. Route 385
Variability and intermittency
Main article: Intermittent Power Sources.
See also: Wind Power Forecasting.
Electricity generated from wind power can be highly
variable at several different timescales: from hour to hour, daily, and seasonally. Annual variation also
exists, but is not as significant. Related to variability is the short-term (hourly or daily) predictability of
wind plant output. Like other electricity sources, wind energy must be "scheduled". Wind power
forecasting methods are used, but predictability of wind plant output remains low for short-term
operation.
Because instantaneous electrical generation and consumption must remain in balance to maintain
grid stability, this variability can present substantial challenges to incorporating large amounts of wind
power into a grid system. Intermittency and the non-dispatchable nature of wind energy production
can raise costs for regulation, incremental operating reserve, and (at high penetration levels) could
require an increase in the already existing energy demand management, load shedding, or storage
solutions or system interconnection with HVDC cables. At low levels of wind penetration, fluctuations
in load and allowance for failure of large generating units requires reserve capacity that can also
regulate for variability of wind generation. Wind power can be replaced by other power stations during
low wind periods. Transmission networks must already cope with outages of generation plant and
daily changes in electrical demand. Systems with large wind capacity components may need more
spinning reserve (plants operating at less than full load).[29][30]
Pumped-storage hydroelectricity or other forms of grid energy storage can store energy developed by
high-wind periods and release it when needed.[31] Stored energy increases the economic value of
wind energy since it can be shifted to displace higher cost generation during peak demand periods.
The potential revenue from this arbitrage can offset the cost and losses of storage; the cost of storage
may add 25% to the cost of any wind energy stored, but it is not envisaged that this would apply to a
large proportion of wind energy generated. The 2 GW Dinorwig pumped storage plant in Wales evens
out electrical demand peaks, and allows base-load suppliers to run their plant more efficiently.
Although pumped storage power systems are only about 75% efficient, and have high installation
costs, their low running costs and ability to reduce the required electrical base-load can save both fuel
and total electrical generation costs.[32][33]
In particular geographic regions, peak wind speeds may not coincide with peak demand for electrical
power. In the US states of California and Texas, for example, hot days in summer may have low wind
speed and high electrical demand due to air conditioning. Some utilities subsidize the purchase of
geothermal heat pumps by their customers, to reduce electricity demand during the summer months
by making air conditioning up to 70% more efficient;[34] widespread adoption of this technology would
better match electricity demand to wind availability in areas with hot summers and low summer winds.
Another option is to interconnect widely dispersed geographic areas with an HVDC "Super grid". In
the USA it is estimated that to upgrade the transmission system to take in planned or potential
renewables would cost at least $60 billion.[35]
In the UK, demand for electricity is higher in winter than in summer, and so are wind speeds.[36][37]
Solar power tends to be complementary to wind.[38][39] On daily to weekly timescales, high pressure
areas tend to bring clear skies and low surface winds, whereas low pressure areas tend to be windier
and cloudier. On seasonal timescales, solar energy typically peaks in summer, whereas in many
areas wind energy is lower in summer and higher in winter.[40] Thus the intermittencies of wind and
solar power tend to cancel each other somewhat.
The Institute for Solar Energy Supply Technology of the University of Kassel pilot-tested a combined
power plant linking solar, wind, biogas and hydrostorage to provide load-following power around the
clock, entirely from renewable sources.[41]
A report on Denmark's wind power noted that their wind power network provided less than 1% of
average demand 54 days during the year 2002.[42] Wind power advocates argue that these periods of
low wind can be dealt with by simply restarting existing power stations that have been held in
readiness or interlinking with HVDC.[43] Electrical grids with slow-responding thermal power plants and
without ties to networks with hydroelectric generation may have to limit the use of wind power.[42]
Three reports on the wind variability in the UK issued in 2009, generally agree that variability of wind
needs to be taken into account, but it does not make the grid unmanageable; and the additional
costs, which are modest, can be quantified.[44] A 2006 International Energy Agency forum presented
costs for managing intermittency as a function of wind-energy's share of total capacity for several
countries, as shown:
Increase in system operation costs, Euros per MW·h, for 10% and 20% wind share[7]
10%
20%
Germany
2.5
3.2
Denmark
0.4
0.8
Finland
0.3
1.5
Norway
0.1
0.3
Sweden
0.3
0.7
Capacity credit and fuel saving
Many commentators concentrate on whether or not wind has any "capacity credit" without defining
what they mean by this and its relevance. Wind does have a capacity credit, using a widely accepted
and meaningful definition, equal to about 20% of its rated output (but this figure varies depending on
actual circumstances). This means that reserve capacity on a system equal in MW to 20% of added
wind could be retired when such wind is added without affecting system security or robustness. But
the precise value is irrelevant since the main value of wind (in the UK, worth 5 times the capacity
credit value[45]) is its fuel and CO2 savings.
According to a 2007 Stanford University study published in the Journal of Applied Meteorology and
Climatology, interconnecting ten or more wind farms can allow an average of 33% of the total energy
produced to be used as reliable, baseload electric power, as long as minimum criteria are met for
wind speed and turbine height.[46][47]
Wind farms
Landowners in the United States typically receive $3,000 to
$5,000 per year in rental income from each wind turbine, while
farmers continue to grow crops or graze cattle up to the foot of
the turbines.[48]
Main article: Wind farm
A wind farm is a group of wind turbines in the same location
used for production of electric power. A large wind farm may
consist of several hundred individual wind turbines, and cover an
extended area of hundreds of square miles, but the land between the turbines may be used for
agricultural or other purposes. A wind farm may also be located offshore.
Many of the largest operational onshore wind farms are located in the USA. As of November 2010,
the Roscoe Wind Farm is the largest onshore wind farm in the world at 781.5 MW, followed by the
Horse Hollow Wind Energy Center (735.5 MW). As of November 2010, the Thanet Offshore Wind
Project in United Kingdom is the largest offshore wind farm in the world at 300 MW, followed by
Horns Rev II (209 MW) in Denmark.
Wind power usage
Main article: Wind power by country
There are now many thousands of wind turbines operating, with a total nameplate capacity of
157,899 MW of which wind power in Europe accounts for 48% (2009). World wind generation
capacity more than quadrupled between 2000 and 2006, doubling about every three years. 81% of
wind power installations are in the US and Europe. The share of the top five countries in terms of new
installations fell from 71% in 2004 to 62% in 2006, but climbed to 73% by 2008 as those countries —
the United States, Germany, Spain, China, and India — have seen substantial capacity growth in the
past two years (see chart).
The World Wind Energy Association forecast that, by 2010, over 200 GW of capacity would have
been installed worldwide,[49] up from 73.9 GW at the end of 2006, implying an anticipated net growth
rate of more than 28% per year. Wind power accounts for approximately 19% of electricity use in
Denmark, 9% in Spain and Portugal, and 6% in Germany and the Republic of Ireland.[50]
Top 10 wind power countries[51]
Country
Total capacity Total capacity
end 2009
June 2010
(MW)
(MW)
United States
35,159
36,300
China
26,010
33,800
Germany
25,777
26,400
Spain
19,149
19,500
India
10,925
12,100
Italy
4,850
5,300
France
4,521
5,000
United Kingdom 4,092
4,600
Portugal
3,535
3,800
Denmark
3,497
3,700
Rest of world
21,698
24,500
Total
159,213
175,000
Growth trends
Worldwide installed capacity 1997–2020
[MW], developments and prognosis. Data
source: WWEA
Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC)
figures show that 2007 recorded an
increase of installed capacity of 20 GW,
taking the total installed wind energy
capacity to 94 GW, up from 74 GW in
2006. Despite constraints facing supply chains for wind turbines, the annual market for wind
continued to increase at an estimated rate of 37%, following 32% growth in 2006. In terms of
economic value, the wind energy sector has become one of the important players in the energy
markets, with the total value of new generating equipment installed in 2007 reaching €25 billion, or
US$36 billion.[52]
Although the wind power industry was impacted by the global financial crisis in 2009 and 2010, a
BTM Consult five year forecast up to 2013 projects substantial growth. Over the past five years the
average growth in new installations has been 27.6 percent each year. In the forecast to 2013 the
expected average annual growth rate is 15.7 percent.[53][54] More than 200 GW of new wind power
capacity could come on line before the end of 2013. Wind power market penetration is expected to
reach 3.35 percent by 2013 and 8 percent by 2018.[53][54]
Offshore wind power
Main article: Offshore wind power
Aerial view of Lillgrund Wind Farm, Sweden
Offshore wind power refers to the construction of wind
farms in bodies of water to generate electricity from
wind. Better wind speeds are available offshore
compared to on land, so offshore wind power’s
contribution in terms of electricity supplied is higher.[55]
Siemens and Vestas are the leading turbine suppliers for offshore wind power. Dong Energy,
Vattenfall and E.on are the leading offshore operators.[55] As of October 2010, 3.16 GW of offshore
wind power capacity was operational, mainly in Northern Europe. According to BTM Consult, more
than 16 GW of additional capacity will be installed before the end of 2014 and the United Kingdom
and Germany will become the two leading markets. Offshore wind power capacity is expected to
reach a total of 75 GW worldwide by 2020, with significant contributions from China and the United
States.[55]
Small-scale wind power
Further information: Microgeneration
This wind turbine charges a 12 V battery to run 12 V
appliances.
5 kilowatt Vertical axis wind turbine
Small-scale wind power is the name given to wind generation systems
with the capacity to produce up to 50 kW of electrical power.[56] Isolated
communities, that may otherwise rely on diesel generators may use wind
turbines to displace diesel fuel consumption. Individuals may purchase
these systems to reduce or eliminate their dependence on grid electricity
for economic or other reasons, or to reduce their carbon footprint. Wind
turbines have been used for household electricity generation in
conjunction with battery storage over many decades in remote areas.
Grid-connected wind turbines may use grid energy storage, displacing
purchased energy with local production when available. Off-grid system
users can either adapt to intermittent power or use batteries, photovoltaic
or diesel systems to supplement the wind turbine. Equipment such as
parking meters or wireless Internet gateways may be powered by a wind
turbine that charges a small battery, replacing the need for a connection
to the power grid.
In locations near or around a group of high-rise buildings, wind shear generates areas of intense
turbulence, especially at street-level.[57] The risks associated with mechanical or catastrophic failure
have thus plagued urban wind development in densely populated areas,[58] rendering the costs of
insuring urban wind systems prohibitive.[59] Moreover, quantifying the amount of wind in urban areas
has been difficult, as little is known about the actual wind resources of towns and cities.[60]
A new Carbon Trust study into the potential of small-scale wind energy has found that small wind
turbines could provide up to 1.5 terawatt hours (TW·h) per year of electricity (0.4% of total UK
electricity consumption), saving 0.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide (Mt CO2) emission savings. This
is based on the assumption that 10% of households would install turbines at costs competitive with
grid electricity, around 12 pence (US 19 cents) a kW·h.[61]
Distributed generation from renewable resources is increasing as a consequence of the increased
awareness of climate change. The electronic interfaces required to connect renewable generation
units with the utility system can include additional functions, such as the active filtering to enhance the
power quality.[62]
Economics
Cost trends
Brazos Wind Ranch in Texas.
Wind power has negligible fuel costs, but a high capital cost.
The estimated average cost per unit incorporates the cost of
construction of the turbine and transmission facilities, borrowed
funds, return to investors (including cost of risk), estimated
annual production, and other components, averaged over the
projected useful life of the equipment, which may be in excess of twenty years. Energy cost estimates
are highly dependent on these assumptions so published cost figures can differ substantially. A
British Wind Energy Association report gives an average generation cost of onshore wind power of
around 3.2 pence (between US 5 and 6 cents) per kW·h (2005).[63] Cost per unit of energy produced
was estimated in 2006 to be comparable to the cost of new generating capacity in the US for coal and
natural gas: wind cost was estimated at $55.80 per MW·h, coal at $53.10/MW·h and natural gas at
$52.50.[64] Other sources in various studies have estimated wind to be more expensive than other
sources. A 2009 study on wind power in Spain by the Universidad Rey Juan Carlos concluded that
each installed MW of wind power led to the loss of 4.27 jobs, by raising energy costs and driving
away electricity-intensive businesses.[65] However, the presence of wind energy, even when
subsidised, can reduce costs for consumers (€5 billion/yr in Germany) by reducing the marginal price
by minimising the use of expensive 'peaker plants'.[66]
The marginal cost of wind energy once a plant is constructed is usually less than 1 cent per kW·h.[67]
In 2004, wind energy cost a fifth of what it did in the 1980s, and some expected that downward trend
to continue as larger multi-megawatt turbines were mass-produced.[68] However, installed cost
averaged €1,300 a kW in 2007,[52][not in citation given] compared to €1,100 a kW in 2005.[69][clarification needed]
Not as many facilities can produce large modern turbines and their towers and foundations, so
constraints develop in the supply of turbines resulting in higher costs.[70]
Incentives
Some of the more than 6,000 wind turbines at Altamont Pass, in California, United States. Developed
during a period of tax incentives in the 1980s, this wind farm
has more turbines than any other in the United States.[71]
Wind energy in many jurisdictions receives financial or other
support to encourage its development. Wind energy benefits
from subsidies in many jurisdictions, either to increase its
attractiveness, or to compensate for subsidies received by
other forms of production which have significant negative
externalities.
In the United States, wind power receives a tax credit for each
kW·h produced; at 1.9 cents per kW·h in 2006, the credit has a yearly inflationary adjustment.
Another tax benefit is accelerated depreciation. Many American states also provide incentives, such
as exemption from property tax, mandated purchases, and additional markets for "green credits".
Countries such as Canada and Germany also provide incentives for wind turbine construction, such
as tax credits or minimum purchase prices for wind generation, with assured grid access (sometimes
referred to as feed-in tariffs). These feed-in tariffs are typically set well above average electricity
prices. The Energy Improvement and Extension Act of 2008 contains extensions of credits for wind,
including microturbines.
Secondary market forces also provide incentives for businesses to use wind-generated power, even if
there is a premium price for the electricity. For example, socially responsible manufacturers pay utility
companies a premium that goes to subsidize and build new wind power infrastructure. Companies
use wind-generated power, and in return they can claim that they are making a powerful "green"
effort. In the USA the organization Green-e monitors business compliance with these renewable
energy credits.[72]
Full costs and lobbying
A House of Lords Select Committee report (2008) on renewable energy in the UK reported a "concern
over the prospective role of wind generated and other intermittent sources of electricity in the UK, in
the absence of a break-through in electricity storage technology or the integration of the UK grid with
that of continental Europe".[73]
Commenting on the EU's 2020 renewable energy target, Helm is critical of how the costs of wind
power are cited by lobbyists.[74] Helm also says that wind's problem of intermittent supply will probably
lead to another dash-for-gas or dash-for-coal in Europe, possibly with a negative impact on energy
security.[74]
In the United States, the wind power industry has recently increased its lobbying efforts considerably,
spending about $5 million in 2009 after years of relative obscurity in Washington.[75]
Environmental effects
Main article: Environmental effects of wind power
A passing bus near Canoa Quebrada, Brazil, demonstrates the
size of modern wind turbines.
Livestock ignore wind turbines,[76] and continue to graze as they
did before wind turbines were installed.
Compared to the environmental effects of traditional energy sources, the environmental effects of
wind power are relatively minor. Wind power consumes no fuel, and emits no air pollution, unlike
fossil fuel power sources. The energy consumed to manufacture and transport the materials used to
build a wind power plant is equal to the new energy produced by the plant within a few months of
operation.[77][78] Garrett Gross, a scientist from UMKC in Kansas City, Missouri states, "The impact
made on the environment is very little when compared to what is gained." The initial carbon dioxide
emission from energy used in the installation is "paid back" within about 2.5 years of operation for
offshore turbines.[79]
Danger to birds and bats has been a concern in some locations. American Bird Conservancy cites
studies that indicate that about 10,000 - 40,000 birds die each year from collisions with wind turbines
in the U.S. and say that number may rise substantially as wind capacity increases in the absence of
mandatory guidelines.[80] However, studies show that the number of birds killed by wind turbines is
very low compared to the number of those that die as a result of certain other ways of generating
electricity and especially of the environmental impacts of using non-clean power sources. Fossil fuel
generation kills around twenty times as many birds per unit of energy produced than wind-farms.[81]
Bat species appear to be at risk during key movement periods. Almost nothing is known about current
populations of these species and the impact on bat numbers as a result of mortality at windpower
locations. Offshore wind sites 10 km or more from shore do not interact with bat populations. While a
wind farm may cover a large area of land, many land uses such as agriculture are compatible, with
only small areas of turbine foundations and infrastructure made unavailable for use.
Aesthetics have also been an issue. In the USA, the Massachusetts Cape Wind project was delayed
for years mainly because of aesthetic concerns. In the UK, repeated opinion surveys have shown that
more than 70% of people either like, or do not mind, the visual impact. According to a town councillor
in Ardrossan, Scotland, the overwhelming majority of locals believe that the Ardrossan Wind Farm
has enhanced the area, saying that the turbines are impressive looking and bring a calming effect to
the town.[82]
Noise has also been an issue. In the United States, law suits and complaints have been filed in
several states, citing noise, vibrations and resulting lost property values in homes and businesses
located close to industrial wind turbines.[83] With careful implanting of the wind turbines, along with
use of noise reducing-modifications for the wind turbines however, these issues can be
addressed.[citation needed]
In turn, environmental changes can affect wind power generation; a decline of wind speeds would
reduce energy yield.[84] A model reported in the November 2010 issue of the Journal of Renewable
and Sustainable Energy suggests that average wind speed over China could decline and cause a
14% loss of energy production by the latter part of the 21st century. Wind speeds may be declining
due to climate change, increased forest growth, or the shadowing effect of wind farms themselves.
References
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