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Marci Swank
Professor Westerhoff
Composition I FD10
22 April 2010
The Men Responsible for the French Revolution
During the 18th Century in France, a citizen could witness such a situation as a boy
accused of tearing down a crucifix and reading Book of Voltaire sentenced to death. Not just
simple quick death but having his tongue pulled out with hot irons, beheaded, and finally having
his body thrown into flames alongside Voltaire’s work (Darrow n.pag.). The 18th Century is the
time when people were starting to stand up for themselves throughout the world. Jean-Jacques
Rousseau and Voltaire are two men blamed for the ideas and guidance for revolting against the
controllers of France. The monarchy was starting to lose control and was taking the church
down with them. This is why the 18th Century is referred to as the Enlightenment Period. The
Enlightenment Period involves new ideas for society due to detailed thoughts of Jean-Jacques
Rousseau and Voltaire.
The power in France during the 18th Century was inherited and enforced by the
monarchy. The king in the early 1770’s was King Louis XVI, who was a weak and wavering
ruler. His parliament consisted of thirteen aristocrats who were able to manipulate and control
the king’s weak rule (Dowd 12). The king and his cohorts ruled over twenty-six million
Frenchmen, but didn’t understand the people and their needs (Dowd 13). The king ruled a
country that was made up of three social classes. The top class was the aristocrats which were
able to only hold high army and navy ranks and parliament (Dowd 13). The second class
consisted of the nobility, which the king had many ministers for himself. And the lowest class
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contained all that were not aristocrats or clergy, better known as the middle class. Of these
classes, 400,000 held public offices, and the working class who were peasant and laborers made
up about twenty-four million (Dowd 13). The biggest complaint at this time was taxes. The
monarchy went as far as having a poll tax, which was a tax due to the right to be alive. The
reason for these taxes was because of the
royalty being bankrupt as a result of two
major wars and the extravagant lifestyle
the royalty had grown accustomed to.
Finally parliament stood up to the king
claiming not to pay anymore taxes until
some cuts were made to the budget.
There were boycotts and protests
performed throughout the arguments.
Parliament finally returned to Versailles
located right outside of Paris when Louis
Fig. 1. Throughout history, Versailles was home for
many kings, along with a place of very important
meetings. Today Versailles is a major tourist
attraction (Swank).
XVI agreed to summon the estates general in 1788 (Dowd 24). Figure One illustrates The Hall
of Mirrors located within Versailles, which expresses the extravagant and lavish home for kings
in France which the people were paying for through taxes. Thanks to Parliament the people were
slowly starting to gain control with the monarchy, but still not enough.
If the monarchy was not a big enough issue for the people and France as a whole, the
Church was not any better. The Catholic Church was too closely tied with the monarchy and
power that people were unable to not be Christians. The Church decided the outcome of
people’s actions and decided who was sinning and who was not. The Catholic Church made
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people pay to earn their way to heaven with scaring them into thinking they were sinning. The
Church claimed to be the source of honesty, and shunned all who did not believe so. Due to this
trust the Church had acquired, people would do as they say, and pay what they were told they
had to pay in order to be content with their afterlives. France was dealing with people wanting to
break away from centuries of the same rules and issues.
“The Enlightenment” movement took place in the 18th Century, but its roots date back to
centuries before. This movement is a historical movement that named itself. This is because
certain writers and thinkers in London and Paris believed they deserved more than, but knew
more than, their rulers (Brians 1). These people believed that human reason had major benefits
and could create a better way of life, the main targets being religion and power of royalty. The
goal of the Renaissance humanists was “to recapture some of the pride, breadth of spirit, and
creativity” of ancestors for success in the future (Brians 1). During this time, art was forming
and making a stand of its own. Through art such as poetry and writing, along with visuals and
theater, people were able to express different lifestyles and thoughts. These artists were also
rebelling against censorship during this time, and desired freedom of opinions.
Rousseau: The Revolutionist
Jean-Jacques Rousseau was born June 28, 1712 in Geneva. His mother died in childbirth
and Rousseau was later deserted by his father, who was a watchmaker. Throughout his
childhood, Rousseau could be described as a rebellious and dangerous criminal. His education
throughout the years was irregular, but he was always caught writing. He actually quit school at
the age of twelve and was raised by his aunt and uncle until running away at sixteen years of age
(Durant & Durant 19). He was raised as a Calvinist, and converted to Catholicism at the age of
sixteen (Durant & Durant 20). He was a Catholic for 14 years until converting to Deism (Durant
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& Durant 25). Even though Rousseau switched which Church he belonged to, he stayed a
Christian throughout his life.
Rousseau revived religion, transformed education, elevated morals of France, and
inspired the Romantic Movement along with the French Revolution (Andrews 8). He also was
pinned to have influenced Kant’s philosophy, and even Socialism of Marx. Mme. De Staël
explained Rousseau by claiming he “invented nothing, but he set everything on fire.” (qtd. in
Durant and Durant 887). Rousseau agreed with the people of France who were tired of restrains
of customs, conventions, manners, and laws. Rousseau wrote many books and thoughts, but was
obviously not permitted to officially publish his works as a result of the censorship regulations.
His most recognized and famous works include Confessions was also named The Bible of Age
and Feeling, and his Encyclopédie known as The New Testament of Age of Reason (Durant and
Durant 889). Due to Rousseau’s publications and works, Kant declared him the “Newton of the
moral world” (Durant and Durant 890). Rousseau was very much a moderate yet emotional
speaker and actually opposed dramatic theater productions in how to get his words across. He
chose to emphasize on emotions and always stuck with his original thoughts, he did not try to
conceive and corrupt his followers. Rousseau wanted the Church to not have complete power,
and be more level-headed. He believed the church should be a place to attend for guidance and
love, not a place of judgment. He thought that having an unequal country would allow no
chance at a decent government, and argued for democratic revolution. As a result of this belief,
Rousseau was quoted throughout the French Revolution.
Voltaire: The Vivacious Speaker
Voltaire was born Francious-Marie Arouet on November 21, 1694 in Paris, France (Elliot
123). His father was a well-off notary and his mother was a housewife. His mother happened to
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be the daughter of an official of Parliament, but passed away when Voltaire was only seven years
old. Voltaire’s education consisted of being taught by Jesuits at the College Louis-Le-Grand
(Elliot 140). Throughout his life he was twice imprisoned at the Bastille along with being exiled
from Paris two times. The reasons for being exiled and imprisoned dealt with his works of plays,
books, poems, pamphlets, and letters. All of these expressed the desire to obtain tolerance and
freedom of speech in which England had at this time. Voltaire resented religion and the
government. He was a Christian and even had his own minister towards the end of his life, but
he did not believe in the way France was expressing such beliefs. He thought attacking the
Church would believed in everything the aristocrats were allow for a much easier break up than
attacking the government first. When asked about emotions and religion he stated, “I suffer
much but I suffer with patience and resignation, not as a Christian-but as a man (qtd. in Andrews
512 ).” Voltaire personally thought the educated and sophisticated people were the only ones
able to handle and change the world’s issues and create improvements. He argued equality was
impossible and firmly doing. He had no
faith in ordinary people and also had no
desire to reinvent the discredited
democracy of France. Voltaire was able to
get his thoughts and ideas across from the
publications of plays he created. He
produced theater that dealt with real life
issues, and no one else had attempted to do
so before him. The works were usually
Fig. 2. Voltaire’s Ferney was a home to many
people, and was set up how he believed France
should be (Chateau).
banned after the opening night and caused him a lot of enemies, especially since most of the
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royalty attended and enjoyed theater. Due to being exiled from Paris so many times; he built his
own mansion three miles from Geneva. This place was named Ferney, and over the years was
turned into a mini-town of its own (Fig. 2.). Voltaire took in everyone, and gave them all jobs so
they could eventually start their own. Before the time of his death, people were begging to see
his plays and wanted to know how to follow him. Close to the end of his life, Voltaire was able
to gain some supporters in the Parliament in France.
Subtle versus Intense
Voltaire and Rousseau were both very open and nonchalant about resenting each other.
What neither of them would admit was they had more in common than most people would
believe. They were both blamed for the French Revolution obviously, and were hated by the
leaders in Paris, and were banned for years of their lives. Even though they went about stating
their thoughts and ideas, they both believed the absolute monarchy was a dangerous and wrong
element to France. They also both rejected the Orthodox Christianity and the Church in France.
The Renaissance had taken place many years before their time, but people were still unable to
establish and express their thoughts. Voltaire and Rousseau stood up to this issue and were not
going to allow France to continue with the time of their ancestors. France’s rulers were
unwilling to change with the times, and these men saw this. They could and did try to destroy
the Church and Monarchy, but they also banished the caste system. This allowed people of
France to gain the confidence and ability to attack the hierarchy of France together instead of
how they had been divided for years before. Voltaire died May 30 of 1778, and Rousseau
followed with passing away only a few days later on June 2 (Andrews 507). Luckily these men
had prepared the way for the people of France because both men died before the French
Revolution began in 1789.
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For France to be at the place it is in the world, many gruesome and intense revolts had to
take place. Rousseau and Voltaire, whether directly or indirectly, started these revolts. Their
thoughts and works implanted thoughts and encouragement into the people of France. After their
death, France dealt with the Revolution continued with the ending of the Reign of Terror. Even
though these men despised each other, they did appreciate and recognize each other. For
example, Rousseau was caught stating he enjoyed Voltaire’s ability to speak and entertain, just
did not believe everything he was claiming over the years. Throughout their lives they were both
misinterpreted and labeled as rebellious men, but really were the ones ahead of their times. On
account of Rousseau and Voltaire, people who did not previously have a voice could finally
speak and express themselves.
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Works Cited
Andrews, Stuart.“Boswell, Rousseau and Voltaire.” History Today 28.8 Aug. 1978: 507-515.
MAS Ultra-School Edition. Web. 23 Mar. 2010.
Brians, Paul. “The Enlightenment.” Washington State University, 2000. Web. 22 Mar. 2010.
Chateau of Ferney-Voltaire Card: Home of Voltaire. n.d. Zazzle. Web. 12 April 2010.
Darrow, Clarence. “Voltaire.” Voltaire, n.d. Web. 2 April 2010.
Dowd, David. The French Revolution. New York: American Heritage Publishing Co., Inc., 1965.
Print.
Durant, Will, and Ariel Durant. Rousseau and Revolution. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1967.
Print.
Elliot, Charles. French and English Philosophers. Vol. 34. The Harvard Classics. New York:
P.F. Collier & Son Corporation, 1965. Print.
Swank, Marci. Versailles: Hall of Mirrors. Photo. 20 June 2008.
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Annotated Working Bibliography
Andrews, Stuart.“Boswell, Rousseau and Voltaire.” History Today 28.8 Aug. 1978: 507-515.
MAS Ultra-School Edition. Web. 23 Mar. 2010.
This source is a short entry of a book from EbscoHost. It is credible because it has an
author from EbscoHost. The entry discusses the impact of Rousseau and Voltaire during
the history of France. It also analyzes the work of Rousseau.
Brians, Paul. “The Enlightenment.” Washington State University, 2000. Web. 22 Mar. 2010.
<http://www.wsu.edu/~brians/hum_303/enlightenment.html>.
This source is an article from a website. This site is credible because it is sponsored by
Washington State University. This article discusses the general idea and impact of The
Enlightenment.
Chateau of Ferney-Voltaire Card: Home of Voltaire. n.d. Zazzle. Web. 12 April 2010.
<http://www.zazzle.com/cheateau_of_ferney_voltaire_card.html>.
The source is a photo from a website. The photo is credible because it is actually the
front of a card sold at tourist spots in France. The photo is going to be able to show how
Voltaire lived in the later days of his life.
Darrow, Clarence. “Voltaire.” Voltaire, n.d. Web. 2 April 2010.
<http://www.positiveatheism.org/hist/darrow5.htm>.
This source is an organization website, but is still credible for the attention grabber used
in my paper. This site is still credible since it was a link on a credible source already
being used in the paper coming from a college website. The attention grabber will
successfully draw the audience in, and set the mood for the time period this paper takes
place.
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Dowd, David. The French Revolution. New York: American Heritage Publishing Co., Inc., 1965.
Print.
This source is a book source. The publishing date is over forty years old, but history does
not usually change over time so it is still credible. This book establishes what went in
France during the time this paper takes place.
Durant, Will, and Ariel Durant. The Age of Voltaire. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1965.
Print.
This source is a book source. Even though the date of this source is over forty years old,
it is still credible because the book’s purpose is to inform one of history. History does
not usually change so it is still reliable. The book discusses the various works and ideas
of Voltaire during his life.
Durant, Will, and Ariel Durant. Rousseau and Revolution. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1967.
Print.
This source is a book source. Just like the other source by these authors, the book is a
little out of date. But the source is still reliable and credible due to what the book is
about. The book discusses various works and thoughts of Rousseau during the time of
the French Revolution.
Elliot, Charles. French and English Philosophers. Vol. 34. The Harvard Classics. New York:
P.F. Collier & Son Corporation, 1965. Print.
This source is a print source. The book is credible due to it being part of the Harvard
Classics collection. The book shares information about Rousseau and Voltaire, along
with other philosophers.
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Fein, David. “French History Timeline.” The University of North Carolina at Greensboro. 2005.
Web. 22 Mar. 2010. <http://www.uncg.edu/rom/courses/dafein/civ/timeline.htm>.
This is a short entry from a website. This site is credible because it was prepared by a
professor at the University of North Carolina at Greensboro for his class. This source
will be helpful in putting things into prospective throughout my paper.
Lofts, Norah, Margery Weiner. External France: A History of France 1789-1944. New York:
Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1968. Print.
This source is a book source. The source is credible due to its contents on the history of
France, and not based off of the date of publication. This source will be helpful in
explaining what led to the actions of the people, along it the outcome in France during the
time my paper will be discussing.
Loomis, Stanley. Paris in the Terror: June 1793-July 1794. Philadelphia and New York: J.B.
Lippincott Company, 1964. Print.
This is a book source. It is credible due to its well respected author. The source is
another source that explains what occurred in France during the time of the Revolution
and the 18th Enlightenment, which is what my paper is about.
Swank, Marci. Versailles: Hall of Mirrors. Photo. 20 June 2008.
This is a photo source. The photo was taken by the writer of the paper while on a trip to
France. It is a credible source since it was taken by the one writing the paper and is a
personal photo. The photo captures the lifestyle of the kings and royalty’s workers
during the time period the paper is being written about.
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Vlaicu, Patriciu. “The Consequences of the Enlightenment, From the Prospective of the
Orthodox Communities in France.” International Review of Mission 95.378-379 Jul.-Oct.
2006: 297-300. Academic Search Elite. Web. 23 Mar. 2010.
This source is an article of a book from the database of EbscoHost. It is a credible source
because its author is a Romanian Orthodox priest who can first hand explain the impact
of the Orthodox communities. The article discusses the consequences of the
Enlightenment period as a human occurrence.