SOIL PHYSICO-CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
AS INFLUENCED BY HEAVY FLOODS IN
SELECTED SITES OF CHARSADDA AND
NOWSHEHRA DISTRICTS
Prof. Dr. Sajida Perveen
Dr. Dost Muhammad
DEPARTMENT OF SOIL & ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES
FACULTY OF CROP PRODUCTION SCIENCES
KPK AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY
PESHAWAR, PAKISTAN
i
PREFACE
The most devastating floods in the history of Pakistan which began in late July 2010
hit approximately one-fifth of Pakistan's total land and adversely affected about 20
million people mostly by inundating their property, livelihood and infrastructure with
a death toll close to 2,000. At least 723950 homes were submerged or damaged in
10,721 affected villages across the country in addition to destruction of 10,000 ha of
field crops in KPK and 567,000 ha in Punjab. The floods affected more people than
total of the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, the 2005 Kashmir and the 2010 Haiti
earthquakes.
After the flood, the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Agricultural University, Peshawar
established a task force of its scientists to assess and gauge the damages occurred to
agricultural infrastructure, field crops, orchards and soil resources and recommend
rehabilitation activities to restore the agricultural productivity of the flood affected
areas. Prof. Dr. Zahir Shah who was the member of the task force identified certain
sites that were badly affected.
In order to examine the problems of the affected soil created by the unprecedented
floods and to recommend strategies for the restoration of the soil productivity, the
chairperson, department of Soil and Environmental Sciences proposed to utilize the
services and competence of the B.Sc (Hons) students. Therefore, the chairperson
constituted a team of these students under the supervision of Dr. Dost Muhammad to
conduct survey and collect soil samples from these areas. Soil samples were collected
from six different villages, three each in district Charsadda and Nowshehra of
Peshawar valley. The report consist results and discussion of these samples along with
brief introduction, methodology, solid conclusions and recommendations to restore
the agricultural productivity in these areas. The report also includes one scholarly
comment from Prof. Dr. Riaz A. Khattak stating that how the nation should combat
such threats on flood in future.
Prof. Dr. Sajida Perveen
ii
Table of Contents
No.
Title
Page #
i.
Preface .......................................................................................................................
ii
ii.
List of tables ...............................................................................................................
iv
iii.
Acknowledgements....................................................................................................
vi
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY.........................................................................................................
1
1. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................
4
1.1 What is soil? ................................................................................................................
4
1.2 How flood occurs? .....................................................................................................
5
1.3 Floods in Pakistan .......................................................................................................
5
1.4 Heavy rainfall during July 2010 ...................................................................................
8
1.5 Location of the project area .......................................................................................
9
1.6 Objectives of the study ...............................................................................................
10
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS ................................................................................................
11
2.1 Site Selection...............................................................................................................
11
2.2 Soil sample collection .................................................................................................
12
2.3 Laboratory Analysis .....................................................................................................
15
2.3.1
3.
Soil samples preparation ............................................................................................
15
2.3.2 Saturation extract .........................................................................................................
15
3.3.3
Soil texture ..................................................................................................................
16
3.3.4
Soil pH ..........................................................................................................................
16
3.3.5
Electrical Conductivity .................................................................................................
17
3.3.6
Sodium by flame photometer .....................................................................................
17
3.3.7
Calcium and Magnesium by titration with EDTA .........................................................
17
3.3.8
Carbonate and bicarbonate by titration with acid ......................................................
17
3.3.9
Chloride by titration with silver nitrate .......................................................................
18
3.3.10 Sodium Adsorption Ratio .............................................................................................
18
3.3.11 Lime content ..............................................................................................................
18
3.3.12 Organic matter ............................................................................................................
19
3.3.13 Total nitrogen .............................................................................................................
19
3.3.14 Mineral nitrogen ...............................................................................................................
20
3.3.15 AB-DTPA extractable P, K, Cu, Zn, Fe, and Mn ............................................................
20
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .............................................................................................
21
3.1
Post flood physico-chemical characteristics of soils at Mianwala village district
Charsadda ............................................................................................................
21
3.1.1
Soil particle distribution ......................................................................................
21
3.1.2
Soil pH, EC and SAR .............................................................................................
21
3.1.3
Organic matter and lime ....................................................................................
24
iii
3.1.4
Total and mineral N and AB-DTPA extractable P and K .....................................
24
3.1.5
AB-DTPA extractable Zn, Cu, Fe and Mn ............................................................
27
Post flood physico-chemical characteristics of soils at Mohib Banda, Research
Farm and Banda Sheikh Ismail villages at district Nowshehra ............................
29
3.2.1
Soil particle distribution .....................................................................................
29
3.2.2
Soil pH, EC and SAR ............................................................................................
30
3.2.3
Total and mineral N and AB-DTPA extractable P and K .....................................
31
3.2.4
AB-DTPA extractable Zn, Cu, Fe and Mn .............................................................
33
Effect of flood on salt-affected areas of Majoke village district Charsadda ........
35
3.3.1 Soil pH and EC.......................................................................................................
35
3.2.1 Soil Ca+Mg, Na and SAR ......................................................................................
36
4.3.3 Soil CO3, HCO3, and Cl in saturation extract .......................................................
37
4. CONCLUSIONS .....................................................................................................................
39
5. RECOMMENDATION ............................................................................................................
40
6. COMBATING FLOODS IN FUTURE (By Prof. Dr. Riaz A. Khattak) .........................................
41
7. LITERATURE CITED ...............................................................................................................
44
3.2
3.3
iv
List of Tables
No.
Title
Page #
1.
Location, distance from river and depths of soil samples collected from flood
affected areas of Mianwala village, district Charsadda ...................................................... 13
2
Location, distance from river and depths of soil samples collected from flood
affected areas of the given villages in district Nowshehra ................................................. 14
3
Location and depth of soil samples collected from salt-affected areas after
continuous submergence for more than 30 d with flood water in Majoke village,
district Charsadda ................................................................................................................ 15
4
Soil particles distribution in a flood affected soil profile (alluvium layer, and
buried soil) as influenced by distance from the river at two sites in village
Mianwala, district Charsadda .............................................................................................. 22
5
Soil pH, EC and SAR in a flood affected soil profile (alluvium layer, and buried
soil) as influenced by distance from the river at two sites in village Mianwala,
district .................................................................................................................................. 23
6
Soil organic matter and lime contents in a flood affected soil profile (alluvium
layer, and buried soil) as influenced by distance from the river at two sites in
village Mianwala, district Charsadda................................................................................... 25
7
Soil AB-DTPA extractable P and K in flood affected soil profile (alluvium layer,
and buried soil) as influenced by distance from the river at two sites in village
Mianwala, district Charsadda .............................................................................................. 26
8
Soil AB-DTPA extractable Zn, Cu, Fe and Mn in flood affected soil profile
(alluvium layer, and buried soil) as influenced by distance from the river at two
sites in village Mianwala, district Charsadda ...................................................................... 28
9
Soil particles distribution in a flood affected soil profile (alluvium layer, and
buried soil) as influenced by distance from the river in Mohib Banda (site C),
Research Farm (site D) and Banda Sheikh Ismail (site E) located on river Kabul in
district Charsadda ................................................................................................................ 30
10
Soil pH, EC, and SAR a flood affected soil profile (alluvium layer, and buried soil)
as influenced by distance from the river in Mohib Banda (site C), Research Farm
(site D) and Banda Sheikh Ismail (site E) located on river Kabul in district
Charsadda ............................................................................................................................ 31
11
Soil total and mineral N and AB-DTPA extractable P and K of a flood affected soil
profile (alluvium layer, and buried soil) as influenced by distance from the river in
Mohib Banda (site C), Research Farm (site D) and Banda Sheikh Ismail (site E)
located on river Kabul in district Charsadda ....................................................................... 33
12
Soil AB-DTPA extractable Cu, Zn, Fe and Mn of a flood affected soil profile
(alluvium layer, and buried soil) as influenced by distance from the river in Mohib
Banda (site C), Research Farm (site D) and Banda Sheikh Ismail (site E) located
on river Kabul in district Charsadda .................................................................................... 34
13
Post flood soil EC in saturation extract of salt affected soils at village Majoke,
district Charsadda ................................................................................................................ 36
v
14
Post flood soil Ca+Mg, Na (mmol(+) L-1) and SAR in saturation extract of salt
affected soils at village Majoke, district Charsadda ............................................................ 37
15
Post flood soil CO3, HCO3 and Cl (mmol(-) L-1) in saturation extract of salt
affected soils at village Majoke, district Charsadda ............................................................ 38
vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The keen interest and initiative steps taken by the Vice Chancellor, Prof. Dr. Khan Bahadar
Marwat, KPK Agricultural University, Peshawar in making the task force to examine and
gauge the problems faced by the farming community in post-flood scenario and to
recommend strategies for restoring the agricultural productivity of the area is highly
acknowledged. Special gratitude is extended to Prof. Dr. Zahoor A. Swati Dean, FCPS for his
guidance and permission to conduct the survey in flood affected areas.
The report is the best example of team work where each member whether they were the
supervisors, the students Mr. Muhammad Arif, Mr. Attiq Qureshi, Mr. Abdul Samad, Mr.
Anwar Kamal and Mr. Zakaullah or the supporting staff Miss Shaheen Akhtar (Lab.
Superintendent), Mr. Aurang Zeb, and Mr. Muhammad Arif (Lab. Assistants), all of them put
their valuable share to complete the task successfully.
Prof. Dr. Sajida Perveen
Dr. Dost Muhammad
vii
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
A survey type study was conducted after the heaviest floods in history occurred across
the country from Gilgit Baltistan to Sind and Balochistan during October, 2010. The
Village Mianwala located on the bank of River Swat in district Charsadda and two
villages in district Nowshehra i.e. Banda Sheikh Ismail and Mohib Banda located on
River Kabul that receives the River Swat water before entering into district Nowshehra
were selected for the purpose to evaluate the changes in fertility and soil-physicochemical properties as influenced by flood water through erosion and silting up of
sediments. One salt-affected area at village Majoke which remained submerged for
more than 30 days after flood was also selected to evaluate post flood effects on soil
salinity status of the area. As such the soil samples were collected from 6 different sites.
At each sampling point in a site, soil samples were collected from two depths i.e.
surface layer consisting of deposited sediments (Alluvium) and the underlying buried
soil (original soil). The results showed that the sediment deposited layer (alluvium
layer) through flood water decreased with increase in distance from the river at all sites.
With increase in distance at all sites the clay and silt fractions (percentage) increased
and sand fraction decreased indicating that sand particles settled first whereas the clay
and silt particles started settling when the flow of water was lower at larger distances
from the river. The Mianwala village in district Charsadda on river Swat where the flow
rate of water was very high, the sediments deposition had higher amounts of sands
whereas in district Nowshehra the sediments mainly consisted of silt and clay. When
compared with original buried soil, it was observed that near to river (less than 300 m)
the soil texture of upper soil changed to coarse layer (sandy) and beyond 400 m the soil
profile texture converted to fine soils in mianwala district Charsadda. Whereas in
Nowshehra the sediments consisted mainly of silt-loam and buried soil of sandy loam
irrespective of distance from the river. This shows that flood affected areas in
Charsadda will face higher nutrient leaching problems while in Nowshehra there would
be higher rate of soil compaction and crusting of the sediments deposited layer and
hence will require totally different management strategies.
Report prepared by Prof. Dr. Sajida Perveen & Dr. Dost Muhammad
Page 1
In flood deposited surface layer (alluvium layer), the soil organic matter and lime
increased with distance from the river at both sites (A and B) in village Mianwala,
district Charsadda. However, in the subsurface buried layer (original soil) the variation
in soil organic matter and lime with distance from the river was inconsistent. The
increase in soil organic matter and lime with increase in distance from the river could be
associated with increase in clay and silt content.
The soil pH, EC and SAR values of flood deposited sediment layer (alluvium layer) and
buried underlying soils of all the samples were in normal ranges for crop production. In
Charsadda soils, the EC and SAR decreased while in Nowshehra they increased with
increase in distance from the river in surface sediments deposited layer but such trends
were not observed for the underlying buried soils. This unpredicted variations in
underlying buried soils which could be associated to variations in native soil properties
and exposure to various cropping system and other agronomical practices in pre-flood
times. The Charsadda district had comparatively higher pH but less EC and SAR than
Nowshehra and EC and SAR values of sediments deposited layer were higher than
underlying buried soils that could be associated to soil particles distribution and
leaching of salts with percolating waters.
At mianwala district Charsadda, the soil AB-DTPA extractable P and K, concentrations
increased in both alluvium and buried soil with increase in distance from the river in
almost all samples indicating association with clay and organic matter which have been
increased with increase in distance from the river. All the soils were deficient in Zn,
marginal to adequate in P but sufficient in K, Cu, Fe and Mn. In Nowshehra districtk,
the total and mineral N and AB-DTPA P decreased while AB-DTPA K increased with
increase in distance in site C (Mohib Banda) while in the site E all these nutrients
increased with increase in distance from the river. It seemed that the E site (Banda
Sheikh Ismail village district Nowshehra) which is between the A & B (Mianwal village
district Charsadda) and C (Mohib banda village district Nowshehra) behaved like the
former where the nutrient concentrations in sediment deposition increased with increase
in distance from the river probably associated with the increase in silt and clay contents
in the sediment settled down on the upper surface of the soil. The N was deficient in all
samples whereas P and K ranged from marginal to adequate levels. The K
Report prepared by Prof. Dr. Sajida Perveen & Dr. Dost Muhammad
Page 2
concentrations which was marginal nearer to river especially in C site will require its
application for optimum crop production in future
The flood deposited sediments layer had higher AB-DTPA extractable Cu, Zn, Fe and
Mn as compared to underlying buried soils suggesting improvement in concentrations
of these micronutrients with flood waters. The Cu concentrations in the sediment
deposited layer in Nowshehra district was almost 2-3 times higher than underlying
buried soils with values ranging from 7.72 to 10.23 mg kg-1. In district Charsadda the
AB-DTPA extractable Cu, Zn, Fe and Mn concentrations increased in both alluvium
and underlying buried soil with increase in distance from the river where as in
Nowshehra such trends was not observed. However, when compared with not flooded
soils it was observed that all Cu, Zn, Fe and Mn were substantially higher in flooded
areas suggesting addition of these nutrients with flood waters. Concentrations of
micronutrients when compared with critical values revealed that Zn and Fe ranged from
marginal to adequate while Cu and Mn were higher in all the samples.
The study on evaluating the effects of sedimentation and submergence of the soils with
flood water at village Majoke, district Charsadda revealed remarkable reduction in
salinity status of the soil. It was observed that sediment deposition by flood and
submerging of the area with flood waters for more than 30 days significantly decreased
the soil pH, EC, SAR and anions concentrations as compared to the pre-flood analyses
with more pronounced effect in treated areas as compared to non treated area. This
shows that flood water resulted in dilution of salts through leaching and through surface
washing (horizontal flashing) from the area in spite of the poor drainage condition.
Report prepared by Prof. Dr. Sajida Perveen & Dr. Dost Muhammad
Page 3
1.
1.1
INTRODUCTION
What is soil?
Soil is a basic natural non renewable recourse, playing a major role in the development,
prosperity and even in the existence of a nation as narrated by Albert Fallou in 1826
(Schroeder, 1984:3). Agriculturally, soils are the media supporting plant life and from
which plant obtain their required essential nutrients and mechanical support. Each soil
has its own set of physical, chemical and biological properties and the agricultural
productivity to a great extent depends on these properties.
Soil is an open bio-geo system, where the environmental conditions bring about
changes in its physical, chemical and biological properties and hence alter its fertility
and productivity capabilities. Important management decisions such as type and time of
tillage operations, appropriate crop rotation, fertilizer application and other agronomical
practices requires knowledge of soil properties.
The recent floods occurred in October 2010, altered both the physical and chemical
properties through erosion and sediments deposition. In some areas a huge erosion of
the top surface occurred making it partially or completely barren while on the same time
a thick layer of sediments was deposited elsewhere. The ions concentrations and
composition of soil solution was expected to be changed from pre-flood situation,
where a huge amounts of native ions/nutrients were either lost form the system with
runoff and percolating water or new ions/nutrients were added with flood water and
sediments deposition. Resultantly this process would have changed the native soil soil
physical, chemical and biological properties. The soil surface was badly disturbed
making it difficult to apply water and conduct other agronomic practices smoothly.
This research was initiated with the objective to determine the post flood soil physicochemical properties for better management and suitable agronomic practices in severely
flood affected areas of Charsadda and Nowshehra districts of Peshawar valley.
Report prepared by Prof. Dr. Sajida Perveen & Dr. Dost Muhammad
Page 4
1.2
How flood occurs?
Floods occur when the ground
can't hold any more rain and
the rivers and lakes crest over
their banks. This normally
happens during the very heavy
rain seasons that occur in most
places where there is no place
Figure 1 View of river Swat at Mianwala village district Charsadda after
flood
for the water to go like after
severe thunderstorms, monsoons, hurricanes and typhones (Asri., 2009). The waters recede
once the rains stop and sun comes out to help with evaporation however the recession of
the waters takes days and weeks. Flooded soils occur with complete water saturation of
soil pores, and generally result in anoxic conditions of the soil environment. Flooded soil
environments may include such ecosystem as: rice paddies; wetlands (swamps, marshes,
and bogs); compacted soils; and post-rain soils (Inglett et al., 2005).
Additionally, similar redox conditions (where oxygen is lacking) can also be found within
soil aggregates and along pollutant plumes.
Cruzado et al. (2002) investigated the
characteristics of the last 45 km of the Ebro River in NE Spain, in terms of physiographic
conditions, river discharges and hydro chemical and biological environment, and provided
a good estimate of the overall amounts of nutrients discharged to the coastal environment.
Nitrogen regeneration took place in the lower river waters during fall. The sudden
phosphorus contribution due to the wash out of the salt-water wedge whenever the river
flow increases to pre-flood conditions (>400 m3 s-1) may be significant (2% of the overall
P load).
1.3
Floods in Pakistan
The most ruinous floods in the history of Pakistan began in late July 2010 after heavy
monsoon rains across the country. Approximately one-fifth of Pakistan's total land area
equals to 159220 km2 came underwater during the two months long spell of the flood
water beginning from upper parts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Gilgilt Baltistan and
Report prepared by Prof. Dr. Sajida Perveen & Dr. Dost Muhammad
Page 5
Figure 2 Map showing the flood affected areas of Pakistan
Baluchistan and running through Indus Basin plains of Khyber Pakhunkhwa, Punjab,
Baluchistan and Sind (Wikepedia, 2010, Goodwin, 2010). According to Government of
Pakistan the floods affected about 20 million people mostly by destruction of property,
livelihood and infrastructure with a death toll or close to 2,000 (Singapore Red Cross,
2010). According to factsheet issue by United Nation Pakistan (Humanitarian
Communication Group, 2010) at least 723950 homes were destroyed or dameds in 10,721
affected villages across the country. The report further says that at least 10,000 ha of field
crops have been destroyed in KPK and 567,000 ha in Punjab with at least 8,000 pieces of
livestock have perished in KPK alone.
The UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon while asking for generous donation from the
world noted that the flood was the worst disaster he had ever seen (Al-Jazeera TV, 2010).
The Khyber Pakhtunkhwa provincial minister of information, Mian Iftikahr Hussain said
"the infrastructure of this province was already destroyed by terrorism. Whatever was left
was finished off by these floods (Witte et al., 2010). He also called the floods “The worst
Report prepared by Prof. Dr. Sajida Perveen & Dr. Dost Muhammad
Page 6
calamity in our history”.
The Pakistan economy
was harmed by extensive
damage to infrastructure
and crops (MacFarquhar,
2010).
Damage
to
structures was estimated
to exceed 4 billion US
dollar and wheat crop
Figure 3 Flood affected Sugarcane field at Mobib Banda district Nowshehra
damages were estimated
to be over 500 million US dollar (Dawn News, 2010) Total economic impact may have
been as much as 43 billion US dollar (Ball State University Center for Business and
Economic Research, 2010). By mid-August, according to the governmental Federal Flood
Commission (FFC), the floods had caused the deaths of at least 1,540 people, while 2,088
people had received injuries, 557,226 houses had been destroyed, and over 6 million
people had been displaced (Ahmadani, 2010). One month later, the total was risen to
1,781 deaths, 2,966 people with injuries, and more than 1.89 million homes destroyed
(Singapore Red Cross, 2010). Estimates from rescue-service-officials suggested the deathtoll up to 3,000 whereas more than 20 million were affected from these massive floods
which is more than the combined total of the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, the 2005
Kashmir earthquake and the 2010 Haiti earthquake. The disaster also did major harm to
struggling Pakistani economy due to extensive damage to infrastructure and crops
(Wikipedia, 2010)
According to Wikipedia (2010), the floods have submerged 17 million acres (69,000 km2)
of Pakistan's most fertile crop land, have killed 200,000 herds of livestock and have
washed away massive amounts of grain. A major concern is that farmers will be unable to
meet the fall deadline for planting new seeds in 2010, which implies a massive loss of food
production in 2011, and potential long term food shortages. The agricultural damages are
more than 2.9 billion dollars, according to recent estimates, and include over 700,000 acres
(2,800 km2) of lost cotton crops, 200,000 acres (810 km2) of sugar cane and 200,000 acres
Report prepared by Prof. Dr. Sajida Perveen & Dr. Dost Muhammad
Page 7
(810 km2) of rice, in addition to the loss of over 500,000 tones of stocked wheat,
300,000 acres (1,200 km2) of animal fodder and the stored grain losses.
1.4
Heavy rainfall during July 2010
Heavy rainfall of more than 200 mm (7.9 in) were recorded during the four days wet spell
from 27 July to 30 July, 2010 in the provinces of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Punjab based
on data from the Pakistan Meteorological Department.
City
Rainfall (mm)
Rainfall (in)
Province
Risalpur
*415
16.3
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
Islamabad
394
15.5
Capital Territory
Murree
373
14.6
Punjab
Cherat
*372
14.6
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
Garhi Dopatta
346
13.6
Azad Kashmir
Saidu Sharif
*338
13.3
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
Peshawar
*333
13.1
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
Kamra
308
12.1
Punjab
Rawalakot
297
11.7
Azad Kashmir
Muzaffarabad
292
11.5
Azad Kashmir
Lahore
288
11.3
Punjab
Mianwali
*271
10.6
Punjab
Jhelum
269
10.6
Punjab
Lower Dir
263
10.3
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
Kohat
*262
10.3
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
Balakot
256
10.0
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
Sialkot
255
10.0
Punjab
Pattan
242
9.5
Azad Kashmir
DIR
231
9.10
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
Gujranwala
222
8.7
Punjab
Dera Ismail Khan
220
8.6
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
Rawalpindi
219
8.6
Punjab
* Exhibited new record.
Report prepared by Prof. Dr. Sajida Perveen & Dr. Dost Muhammad
Page 8
1.5
Location of the project area
The study was conducted in districts Charsadda and Nowshehra, located in the central zone
of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province. A web of five rivers naming River Swat, Sardaryab,
Jendi, Shahalam and Naguman after passing through the Charsadda district combine and
make the River Kabul which after going through the Nowshehra district enters into the
Indus River at Kund park. A good canal irrigation system prevails in the area and soils of
both the districts are generally considered the most fertile, having potential to grow various
crops. The soils are alluvial deposits of the River Kabul and River swat. The major crops
of the area are Sugarcane, Tobacco wheat, rice, maize, vegetable and orchards. The most
common trees in the district are Sissa (Shiwa), Tamarisk (Ghaz), Poplar (Supaidar) and
Eucalyptus (lachi), normally
grown on boundaries of the
fields
and
on
water
channels.
Two villages on river swat
in district Charsadda and
two on river Kabul
district
Nowshehra
in
were
selected for the study. One
other
area
Charsadda,
in
which
district
has
Figure 4 Flood affected orchards at Banda Sheikh Ismail village, district
Nowshehra
a
restricted drainage system and where the flood water kept standing for more than a month
after the flood was included in the study. This area of Majoke Mira near Charsadda City is
located on river jendi bank and the soils of this area are exclusive salt-affected and water
logged (Muhammad, 2009). A detail study has been conducted in the area (village majoke
district Charsadda) on salinity status and effect of various amendments on reclamation by
Muhammad (2009). However, the effect of recent spells of heavy rains (October, 2010)
which resulted in continuous flooding/submerged soil for about more than 30 days needed
evaluation. The flood water resulted in deposition of alluvial layer of varying depth from
few cm to > 30 cm which completely changed the soil phyico-chemical characteristic of
Report prepared by Prof. Dr. Sajida Perveen & Dr. Dost Muhammad
Page 9
the upper layer of the soil. Since the drainage conditions was very poor and flood water
remained standing for more than 30 days in the area, it was not certain that what would
have been occurred to the original salinity of the soil.
1.6
Objectives of the study
The main objective of the study was to evaluate the changes in soil physical and chemical
properties brought about by heavy floods and recommend managerial practices for better
crop growth. Specific objectives were:
1.
To find out the post flood physical and chemical properties of flood affected areas
in district Charsadda and Nowshehra
2.
To investigate the fertility status of these areas in post flood scenario
3.
To make recommendation for better crop and soil managements
Report prepared by Prof. Dr. Sajida Perveen & Dr. Dost Muhammad
Page 10
2.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
To evaluate the soil physico-chemical characteristics as influenced by the heavy floods
inception in the area, the following approach was adapted for sample collection and
laboratory analysis.
2.1 Site Selection
Soil samples were collected from six sites, three each in district Charsadda and
Nowshehra. Sites A and B in districts Charsadda were located in Mianwala village situated
on the bank of river Swat. Site A in this village was on the main river Swat and while B
was on the tributary/stream (Khawar) leading to river Swat. Sites C, D and E were selected
in Mohib Banda, Agric.
Research Farm near Mohib
Banda and Banda Sheikh
Ismail villages located on
left bank of river Kabul in
district Charsadda. All these
villages
were
severely
affected in the floods and
the flood water deposit a
heavy layer of sediments
Figure 5 Post flood view of a field at Mianwala village site B, district Charsadda
(Alluvium) on the agricultural lands. A sizable area on both sides of the river banks in
these village was drown with flood water, however, for the study soil samples were
collected only from those areas which received flood water and sediments were deposited
making a layer from few cm to > 30 cm. The original soils in these areas were buried by
the sediments and physico-chemical properties of the top sediment layer seemed to be
totally different than underlying buried native soils. Apart from these sites, Site F in
district Charsadda was salt-affected area in Majoke village situated on river Jendi near
main Charsadda bazaar. The soils in the area were poorly drained and flood waters kept
standing for more than 30 days in this area. These soils were predominantly salt affected
before the flood inception and belonged to Khati Khel soil series.
Report prepared by Prof. Dr. Sajida Perveen & Dr. Dost Muhammad
Page 11
Charsadda district is surrounded by Peshawar in south, Mardan in east Mohmand agency
and Malakand agency in north. The mean annual rain fall in the area is less than 500 mm
and most of area was waterlogged and salt affected before execution of SCARP activities.
In areas where there is no SCARP, still have water logging and salinity problems like
Mojoki and parrang villages in Charsadda. Such areas have problems of poor drainage,
restricted leaching, shallow water table and brackish under ground water used for
irrigation. The area becomes flooded and water logged during the moonsoon rains (soil
survey of Pak., 2007). Most of the rains are received during July –August in summer and
Feb-March in winter season. Mean annual temperature is 22.9oC with 44.5% mean relative
humidity in air.
The Majoke village which has the salinity problem mainly because of restricted leaching
and poor drainage (Muhammad, 2009) is situated at the back of Chasadda Paper Mill,
Charsadda with geographical location of 34˚07’ 13˝ N and 71˚45’ 35˝ E and had an
elevation of 295 m from sea level. The soils belongs to Khati Khel soil series that
comprises 5970 ha area in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa dominated by saline-sodic soil with silt
loam or very fine sandy loam texture (Khan, 1993). The soil is classified as Coarse loamy,
mixed, hyperthermic Aeric Halaquepts comprising redopisted loess material (Soil Survey
of Pak., 2007). The area has concave basin topography with level to nearly level position
on the fringes of basins and channels in the redeposited loess plains and has poor drainage.
2.2
Soil sample collection
In each village several
sampling points based
on the area and extent
of the problem were
selected
for
soil
sampling.
In
each
sampling
point,
soil
sample was collected
from two depths i.e.
Figure 6 Soil samples collection from flood affected areas
Report prepared by Prof. Dr. Sajida Perveen & Dr. Dost Muhammad
Page 12
surface layer consisting of deposited sediments (alluvium) and the underlying buried soil
profile (original soil). The composite soil sample was made for each layer and sampling
point by taking soils from 3-4 places for each point through soil augar. Composite soil
sample of about one kg packet was collected in plastic bag and was properly labeled
indicating depth of the soil sampling, name of the farmer and name of the village from
which the sample was collected. Samples were then transported to the laboratory of soil
and environmental sciences, KPK Agricultural University Peshawar for analysis. After
drying up at room temperature in open air under shade, the soil was ground with wooden
hammer and sieved through 2 mm sieve.
Table 1
Site
Location, distance from river and depths of soil samples collected from
flood affected areas of Mianwala village, district Charsadda
North
East
Underlying
buried soil
Elevation
Distance
from
river
Sediment
deposited
layer
----m----
---m---
--------- cm ----------
---------------GPS Location-------------
A1
34 17 13
71 36 53
339
100
0-30
Nil
A2
34 17 20
71 36 55
343
200
0-15
15-30
A3
34 17 20
71 36 59
338
300
0-11
11-30
A4
34 17 19
71 37 04
338
400
0-8
8-30
A5
34 17 22
71 37 07
341
500
0-6
6-30
B1
34 17 25
71 37 12
341
100
0-3
3-30
B2
34 17 21
71 37 45
337
200
0-40
Nil
B3
34 17 16
71 37 48
342
300
0-10
10-30
B4
34 17 12
71 37 47
344
400
0-60
Nil
B5*
34 17 26
71 37 50
352
100
0-30
Nil
* Not-flooded soil samples for comparison.
Sample from A1 to A5 located on main river Swat
Samples from B1 to B5 located on tributary that enters into river Swat
Report prepared by Prof. Dr. Sajida Perveen & Dr. Dost Muhammad
Page 13
Table 2
Location, distance from river and depths of soil samples collected from
flood affected areas of the given villages in district Nowshehra
GPS Location
Site
Village
North
East
Underly
ing
buried
soil
Distan
ce
from
Elevation river
Sedim
ent
deposi
ted
layer
----m----
---m---
------ cm ----------
C1
Mohib Banda
34 02 59
71 46 56
280
100
0-40
Nil
C1
Mohib Banda
34 02 59
71 47 46
285
200
0-30
30-45
C3
Mohib Banda
34 03 01
71 47 36
285
300
0-30
30-45
C4
Mohib Banda
34 02 59
71 47 31
284
400
0-15
15-30
C5
Mohib Banda
34 02 58
71 47 26
288
500
0-15
15-30
D1
Res Farm
34 03 17
71 45 33
285
300
0-03
03-15
E1
Banda Sheikh Ismail
34 04 46
71 45 50
280
100
0-45
45-50
E2
Banda Sheikh Ismail
34 04 43
71 45 49
279
200
0-26
26-40
E3
Banda Sheikh Ismail
34 04 38
71 45 04
272
300
0-30
30-40
E4*
Banda Sheikh Ismail
34 03 57
71 45 10
276
400
0-20
* Not-flooded soil samples for comparison.
Report prepared by Prof. Dr. Sajida Perveen & Dr. Dost Muhammad
Page 14
Table 3
Location and depth of soil samples collected from salt-affected areas after
continuous submergence for more than 30 d with flood water in Majoke
village, district Charsadda
Sample
Sample description
Depth of samples (cm)
Sediment
deposited
layer
Underlying buried
soil
F1
Previously treated with amendments
> 40
-
F2
Previously treated with amendments
> 40
-
F3
Previously treated with amendments
20
20-50
F4
Not treated
15
15-50
F5
Not treated
03
3-50
2.3
Laboratory Analysis
2.3.1
Soil samples preparation
Each soil sample was air dried at room temperature for 3 to 5 days. The samples were then
ground and sieved through a 2 mm mesh. The samples thus prepared were placed in
labeled plastic bags for different analysis.
2.3.2
Saturation extract
Saturated soil with moisture was prepared by taking appropriate amount of air dried soil
(about 250 g soil) in a 500 mL plastic beaker (Gardner, 1986). Distilled water was added
while stirring with a spatula to make saturated paste. It was ensured, that paste had the
characteristic of clayey shining and was flowed off from the spatula easily. It maintained
its level when tampered with tapping the beaker gently and there was no standing water on
the paste surface when kept for some time. The paste was then kept for overnight while
Report prepared by Prof. Dr. Sajida Perveen & Dr. Dost Muhammad
Page 15
properly covered to reduce
loss of any water through
evaporation. The saturation
extract
was
obtained
through a vacuum pressure
apparatus. The paste was
transferred to the suction
funnel with filter paper in
place
and
applied
the
Figure 7 Composite soil sample collection
vacuum to suck water from
paste into the underlying tubes. The extract was collected in clearly labeled plastic bottles
and saved for analysis. Few drops of toluene were added to stop microbial activity in the
solution.
2.2.3
Soil texture
Texture of soil sample was determined by the bouyoucos hydrometer method (Gee and
Bauder, 1986). Fifty g soil was taken in a dispersion cup and added with 10 mL of 1N
Na2CO3 and sufficient water. After dispersing the soil mechanically for 10 minutes, the
suspension was transferred to 1000 mL cylinder and hydrometer readings were noted after
40 seconds and 2 hours for silt +clay and clay, respectively. Sand was calculated bu
subtracting silt and clay contents from the total weight of soil. Soil textural class was
calculated using USDA textual triangle.
2.3.4
Soil pH
The pH in soil saturation extract was determined by Thomas (1996) with the help of pH
meter (InoLab, WTW, Germany). The pH meter was calibrated with standard buffer
solutions before taking reading of samples. Electrode of the pH meter was rinsed with
distilled water each time before inserting in new sample.
Report prepared by Prof. Dr. Sajida Perveen & Dr. Dost Muhammad
Page 16
2.2.5
Electrical conductivity
The ECe in saturation extract was determined by Rhoades (1996) using ECe meter (WTW,
Germany). Before analyzing samples, the ECe meter was calibrated against 0.1 N and 0.01
N KCL solutions.
2.2.6
Sodium by flame photometer
The Na in soil saturation extract was analyzed by flame photometry (Jenway PFP-7). The
machine was calibrated with standards of Na before running the samples.
2.2.7
Calcium and Magnesium by titration with EDTA
One mL from soil saturation extract was taken in china dish or wide mouthed porcelain
crucible. Ten drops of NH4Cl plus NH4OH and 2-3 drops of Eriochrome Black-T were
added to it and titrated against 0.01 N EDTA until the color changed from wine red to blue
or green. The normality of EDTA was standardized against standard solution of Ca+Mg
(US Salinity Staff, 1954).
𝐶𝑎 + 𝑀𝑔 =
2.2.8
(𝑚𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝐷𝑇𝐴 ∗ 𝑁 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝐷𝑇𝐴) ∗ 1000
𝑚𝐿 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑜𝑡
[𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑐 𝐿−1 ]
Carbonate and Bicarbonate by titration with acid
One mL from soil saturation extract was taken in china dish or wide mouthed porcelain
crucible. Whenever, the solution turned pink with few drop of phenolphthalein indicator, it
showed the presence of CO3. Using 10 mL micro-burette, 0.01 N H2SO4 was added dropwise to the sample solution until the color disappeared. This burette reading was
designated as y. in the second step whenever the sample was not change into pink color or
the pink color was disappeared by adding with H2SO4 . 2-3 few drops of methyl orange
were added and titrated to the first orange color. The new burette reading designated as z,
represented amount of HCO3 in the sample (US Salinity Staff, 1954).
𝐶𝑂3 =
(2𝑦 ∗ 𝑁 𝑜𝑓 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 ) ∗ 1000
𝑚𝐿 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑜𝑡
Report prepared by Prof. Dr. Sajida Perveen & Dr. Dost Muhammad
[𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑐 𝐿−1 ]
Page 17
𝐻𝐶𝑂3 =
2.2.9
(𝑧 − 2𝑦 ∗ 𝑁 𝑜𝑓 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 ) ∗ 1000
𝑚𝐿 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑜𝑡
[𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑐 𝐿−1 ]
Chloride by titration with silver nitrate
One or 0.5 mL of sample was taken in china dish and added with four drops of 5%
potassium chromate solution. While stirring sample solution was titrated under bright light
with 0.005 N AgNo3 from a 10 mL micro-burette to the first permanent reddish brown
color (US Salinity Staff, 1954).
𝐶𝑙 =
(𝑚𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑔𝑁𝑂3 − 𝐴𝑔𝑁𝑂3 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑘) ∗ 0.005 𝑁 ∗ 1000
𝑚𝐿 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑜𝑡
[𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑐 𝐿−1 ]
2.2.10 Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR)
Once the concentrations of Na and Ca+Mg in soil saturation extract were known, SAR of
the soils was calculated using the formula. (US Salinity Staff, 1954)
𝑆𝐴𝑅 =
2.2.11
[𝑁𝑎+ ]
√[𝐶𝑎
2+
+ 𝑀𝑔2+ ]
2
[Na], [Ca] and [Mg]are in[mmolc L−1 ]
Lime content (US Salinity Staff, 1954)
The lime in soil was determined by acid-neutralization method. Five grams soil was
transferred into 150 mL flask and mixed with 50 mL of 0.5M HCl. The suspension was
heated for five minutes followed by filtering through Whatman No. 42 after cooling. The
filtrate was titrated against standardized 0.25 N NaOH by adding phenolphthalein as an
indicator till the pink color appeared as end point. The lime (CaCO3) was calculate as:
% CaCO3
=
(meq HCl added – meq NaOH used) x meq CaCO3 x 100
Wt of sample in grams
meq = milli equivalent = mmolc L-1 = volume in mL x normality
Report prepared by Prof. Dr. Sajida Perveen & Dr. Dost Muhammad
Page 18
2.2.12
Organic matter
Organic matter in soil was determined by the modified method of Walkely and Black
(Nelson and Sommers, 1996). In this method 1g of air dried finely ground sample (soil or
pressmud) was treated with 10 mL of 1N K2Cr2O7 solution and 20 mL of concentrated
H2SO4 for 1 minute. After cooling, 200 mL of distilled water was added and filtered.
Filtrate was titrated against 0.5N FeSO4.7H2O solution after adding 5-6 drops of orthophenophthroline indicator. The titration was stopped when the color changed from green to
dark brown. A blank was also run at the same time. The amount of organic matte was
calculated using the following formula:
(meq of K2Cr2O7 – meq of FeSO4.7H2O) x C.F.
Organic matter (%) =
wt of sample
C.F. = 0.69 which comes from (1) about 75% oxidation take place in this process
(ii) soil organic matter contains 58%C (iii) meq. wt of carbon is 0.003 and (iv)
percent conversion
meq = milli equivalent =m molc L-1 = volume in mL x normality
2.2.13
Total nitrogen
In this method 0.2g of soil/plant sample was digested with 3 mL of concentrated H 2SO4 in
the presence of digestion mixture containing K2SO4, CuSO4, and Se on block digester for
about 4-5 hours. The digestion was initially started from 50oC and then raised to 100, 150,
200, 250, 300 and finally to 350oC gradually, which was maintained at least for 1 hour (at
this stage the sample turned to light greenish or colorless). After cooling, the digest was
transferred quantitatively to a 100 mL volumetric flask and made the volume using
distilled water. Twenty mL of the digest was distilled in the presences of 5 ml of 40%
NaOH solution into 5 mL of boric acid mixed indicator solution. The distillate was then
titrated against standard 0.005 M HCl. Black was also run at the same time. The amount of
N was calculated as:
(mL sample – mL blank ) x N of HCl x meq N x vol. x100
(%) Nitrogen =
wt of sample x volume distilled
Report prepared by Prof. Dr. Sajida Perveen & Dr. Dost Muhammad
Page 19
Wherein:
2.2.14
N of HCl, Normality of HCl
meq of N, milli-equivalent of nitrogen
vol., volume made
volume distilled
=
=
=
=
0.005
0.014
100 mL
20 mL
Mineral nitrogen
To determine mineral N concentration, 20 g soil sample was shaken with 100 mL of 1 M
KCl for 1 hour on end-to-end shaker. After filtration, 20 mL of extract was distilled with
MgO and Devarda’s alloy to recover NH4+ + NO3- concentration. The distillate was
collected in 5 mL boric acid mixed indicator solution followed by titration against 0.005 M
HCl. Blank was run simultaneously.
Mineral N (mg kg-1) =
(sample –blank) x 0.005x 0.014 x 100x 1000000
weight of soil x 20
2.2.15
AB-DTPA extractable P, K, Cu, Zn, Fe, and Mn
AB-DTPA extractable P, K, Cu, Zn, Fe, and Mn were determined in soil (Soltonpour and
Schawab, 1977). AB-DTPA solution was prepared by dissolving 2 g DTPA (0.005 M) in
500 mL water having 4 mL of (1:1) ammonia solution to facilitate dissolution and prevent
effervesce. In another flask 134 g NaHCO3 was dissolved in 1200 mL of water. The two
solutions were mixed and pH adjusted to 7.6 by adding ammonia or HCl and volume was
made up to 2.0 L.
20 g soil sample was taken in flask, added with 40 mL AB-DTPA and shaken gently on
reciprocating shaker for 15 min while flasks were kept opened. Suspension was filtered
through Whatmann 42 and stored for analysis.
Phosphorus was determined by ammonium molybdate color complex measuring absotion
on 880 nm wavelength using spectrophotometer (Perkin Elmer, Lamda 35). The K was
determined by flame photometry while Cu, Fe, Zn and Mn were determined by atomic
absorption spectrophotometer (PerkinElmer 2380).
Report prepared by Prof. Dr. Sajida Perveen & Dr. Dost Muhammad
Page 20
3.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Post flood physico-chemical characteristics of soils at Mianwala
village, district Charsadda
3.1.1 Soil particle distribution
With
increase
in
distance at both sites
(A and B), the clay
fraction
(percentage)
remain uniform (2.9)
up to some distance
and then at distance of
500 m at site A (A5)
and 400 m at site B
Figure 8 Post flood view of agricultural fields at Mohibbanda, district Nowshehra
(B4) reached to 5.2 in
the alluvium layer while in the original buried soil it varied from location to location
irrespective of distance from river (Table 2). Similarly the silt content increased from
44.0 to 62.0 % at site A when the distance from the river increased from 100 to 500 m,
and at site B it increased from about 30 to 76 % at larger distance. The sand content in
contrary to clay and silt decreased with distance from water flow sources. These results
revealed that the larger particles (sand) silted up at high rate near the water flow and the
silt and clay deposited at the larger distance from the river. When compared with
original buried soil, it was observed that near to river (water flow source) less than 300
m, the soil texture of upper soil (sediments) changed to coarse layer (sandy) and beyond
400 m the soil profile texture converted to fine soils.
3.1.2
Soil pH, EC and SAR
Both the sediment deposition and underlying buried soils were slightly alkaline in reaction
with pH values ranging from 7.83 to 8.26 in saturation extract. The pH values showed
substantial increases with increase in distance from river at both sites A and B. The flood
Report prepared by Prof. Dr. Sajida Perveen & Dr. Dost Muhammad
Page 21
water seemed to have increased the alkalinity of soil showing comparatively higher pH
values both in sediments and underlying soils than the not-flooded soil (B 5). The increases
in pH values might be associated with CO3 and HCO3 values which also showed
increasing trends with distance from river.
The soil EC and SAR in saturated extraction solution showed that there was no sign of
salinity or sodicity neither in sediment deposition nor in buried soils. The soil EC and SAR
Table 4
Site
Soil particles distribution in a flood affected soil profile (alluvium layer,
and buried soil) as influenced by distance from the river at two sites in
village Mianwala, district Charsadda
Dist.
Clay
Silt
Sed.
Bur.
---m---
Sed.
Bur.
Sed.
Bur.
Sed.
Bur.
--------------------------- % ----------------------------
A1
100
2.9
-
12.0
-
85.1
-
LS
-
A2
200
2.9
2.9
22.0
44.0
75.1
53.1
LS
S.L
A3
300
2.9
10.9
22.0
56.0
75.1
33.1
LS
Si.L
A4
400
2.9
3.1
68.0
62.1
29.1
34.8
Si.L
Si.L
A5
500
5.2
5.2
80.0
62.0
14.8
32.8
Si. L
Si.L
B1
100
2.9
-
30.0
-
67.1
-
S.L
-
B2
200
2.9
-
28.0
-
69.1
-
S.L
-
B3
300
2.9
6.9
24.0
43.0
73.1
47.1
L.S
S.L
B4
400
5.2
7.2
76.0
60.0
18.8
32.8
Si.L
Si.L
B5*
100
2.9
64.0
Sand
Textural Class
33.1
Silt Loam
* Not-flooded soil samples for comparison.
Sample from A1 to A5 located on main river Swat
Samples from B1 to B5 located on tributary that enters into river Swat
Report prepared by Prof. Dr. Sajida Perveen & Dr. Dost Muhammad
Page 22
Table 5
Soil pH, EC and SAR in a flood affected soil profile (alluvium layer, and
buried soil) as influenced by distance from the river at two sites in village
Mianwala, district
Site
Distance
from river
Soil pH
Site
-----m-----
Sediment
---m---
---------------------
--------- dS m-1-------
----( mmolc L-1)1/2 -----
A1
100
8.01
Nil
0.75
Nil
0.97
Nil
A2
200
8.04
8.17
0.69
0.71
0.32
1.2
A3
300
8.09
8.23
0.64
0.71
0.73
1.03
A4
400
8.15
7.83
0.59
0.63
0.66
0.69
A5
500
8.23
7.94
0.55
0.61
1.07
1.08
B1
100
8.05
Nil
0.56
Nil
1.65
Nil
B2
200
8.11
Nil
0.44
Nil
0.85
Nil
B3
300
8.19
8.04
0.39
0.89
0.95
1.98
B4
400
8.26
8.15
0.34
1.1
1.01
0.8
B5*
100
7.88
EC
Buried
soil
Sediment
SAR
Buried
soil
0.83
Sediment
Buried
soil
1.29
* Not-flooded soil samples for comparison.
Sample from A1 to A5 located on main river Swat
Samples from B1 to B5 located on tributary that enters into river Swat
Report prepared by Prof. Dr. Sajida Perveen & Dr. Dost Muhammad
Page 23
of the sediments were comparatively lower than buried under soils at the given distance
from the rivers. It seemed that EC and SAR in the sediments decreased with increase in
distance from the river. As compared to not-flooded soil, the flood reduced the soil EC.
3.1.3
Organic Matter and lime
In flood deposited surface layer (alluvium layer), the soil organic matter and lime
increased with distance from the river at both sites (A and B) in village Mianwala,
district Charsadda. However, in the subsurface buried layer (original soil) the variation
in soil organic matter and lime with distance from the river was inconsistent. The soil
organic matter increased from 0.55 to 2.76 at site-A and 0.34 to 1.97% at site B when
the distance from river increased from 100 to 500 m. similarly the lime contents
increased from 6.50 at 100 m to 9.55% at 500 m distance in the same site-A (Table 3).
The increase in soil organic matter and lime with increase in distance from the river
could be associated with increase in clay and silt content (Table 2). The organic matter
colloidal in size could be expected to settle down at larger distance from the river where
the flow of water would have been down to deadly slow. The inconsistent variation in
organic matter and lime in buried original soil could be due to variation in agronomic
and other managerial factors applied to these soils in pre flood times.
3.1.4
Total and mineral N and AB-DTPA Extractable P and K
Both the soil mineral and total N increased with distance from the rivers in all samples.
The total N increased from 0.07 to 0.23 at site-A and 0.09 to 0.17 % at site-B in surface
layer with increase in distance from 100 to 400 m from river. Soil mineral N increased
from 24.5 to 34.1 at site-A and 21.0 to 31.5 mg kg-1 at site-B in surface layer with
increase in distance from 100 to 500 m from river. Nearer to river, the soil was deficient
in total N at both sites.
The soil AB-DTPA extractable P increased with increase in distance from river at both
sites and in both layers i.e. upper sediment layer and buried original layer (Table 7).
Report prepared by Prof. Dr. Sajida Perveen & Dr. Dost Muhammad
Page 24
Table 6
Soil organic matter and lime contents in a flood affected soil profile
(alluvium layer, and buried soil) as influenced by distance from the river at
two sites in village Mianwala, district Charsadda
Site
Distance
from river
Site
-----m-----
A1
Soil OM (%)
Lime (%)
Sediment
Buried soil
Sediment
Buried soil
100
0.55
Nil
6.50
Nil
A2
200
1.04
1.55
8.25
6.75
A3
300
2.76
0.06
8.75
7.75
A4
400
2.00
1.90
7.75
6.75
A5
500
2.76
2.48
9.25
8.00
B1
100
0.34
Nil
8.00
Nil
B2
200
0.35
Nil
8.00
Nil
B3
300
0.69
0.06
8.50
6.75
B4
400
1.97
2.10
9.50
9.00
B5*
100
0.897
10.0
* Not-flooded soil samples for comparison.
Sample from A1 to A5 located on main river Swat
Samples from B1 to B5 located on tributary that enters into river Swat
Report prepared by Prof. Dr. Sajida Perveen & Dr. Dost Muhammad
Page 25
Table 7
Soil AB-DTPA extractable P and K in flood affected soil profile
(alluvium layer, and buried soil) as influenced by distance from the
river at two sites in village Mianwala, district Charsadda
Distance
from
river
Total N
---m---
------ % -----
------------------------ mg kg-1---------------------
A1
100
0.07
Nil
28
-
1.84
Nil
94.5
-
A2
200
0.15
0.07
24.5
33.1
3.56
4.44
126.3
152.5
A3
300
0.17
0.09
23.6
31.5
3.04
4.62
153.0
169.5
A4
400
0.23
0.11
30.6
32.4
4.54
4.88
178.8
186.8
A5
500
0.17
0.20
34.1
29.8
4.73
4.93
238.5
284.0
B1
100
0.09
Nil
21.0
-
3.15
Nil
51.5
-
B2
200
0.07
Nil
20.1
-
3.47
Nil
75.8
-
B3
300
0.16
0.07
24.5
25.4
5.05
5.36
120.5
168.3
B4
400
0. 15
0.15
31.5
40.3
6.68
8.69
108.5
489.3
B5*
100
Site
Site
Sed.
Bur.
0.09
Mineral N
AB-DTPA P
AB-DTPA K
Sed.
Sed.
Sed.
Bur.
27.1
Bur.
1.90
Bur.
142.0
* Not-flooded soil samples for comparison.
Sample from A1 to A5 located on main river Swat
Samples from B1 to B5 located on tributary that enters into river Swat
Report prepared by Prof. Dr. Sajida Perveen & Dr. Dost Muhammad
Page 26
Similarly the K also increased with distance from the river in both layer and in both
sites. The AB-DTPA extractable P increased from 1.84 to 4.73 mg kg-1 with distance
from 100 m to 500 m at site-1 and 3.15 to 6.68 with increase in distance from 100 to
400 m at site-A in upper layer of sediment deposit. The increase in P and K could be
associated to increases in clay and organic matter content with increase in distances
from the river.
The table showed that in the site A, the sediments deposition was 20 % deficient and 80
% marginal while all the buried soils were marginal in P concentrations. In site B, the
sediment layer was marginal in P concentrations while that of buried soil was 50 %
marginal and 50 % adequate in P concentration. The soil sample not affected by the
flood was deficient in P and adequate in K concentration. The recent flood caused a
decrease in P and K concentrations especially nearer to rivers.
3.1.5
AB-DTPA extractable Zn, Cu, Fe and Mn
In site A, all the micronutrients Zn, Cu, Fe and Mn concentrations increased with
increase in distance from the river in both the sediments and underlying buried soil
while in site B, Zn and Mn concentrations increased and Fe decreased with respect to
distance from the river in both the alluvial and original buried soil while Cu
concentrations increased in buried soil but in alluvial layer it either increased or
decreased with respect to distance from the river (Table 5).
The values in the table showed that in site A both the alluvial and original buried soil
were totally deficient in Zn concentrations while in site-A the only sample located at
400 m was medium in Zn both at alluvium and buried soil while other samples were
deficient. However, all the soil samples either sediment or buried soil were adequate in
Cu, Fe and Mn when compared to the critical values. The recent flood caused recent
flood had caused an increased to the concentrations of both Fe and Mn in site A soils
while in site B, the Fe concentration was decreased and Mn concentration was
increased. The soil sample which was not affected by the recent flood (sample # 10)
was also high in Fe and Mn concentrations.
Report prepared by Prof. Dr. Sajida Perveen & Dr. Dost Muhammad
Page 27
The increase in concentrations in micronutrients with distance from the river could be
associated to high organic matter and clay contents which increased with distance from
the river.
Table 8
Soil AB-DTPA extractable Zn, Cu, Fe and Mn in flood affected soil
profile (alluvium layer, and buried soil) as influenced by distance from
the river at two sites in village Mianwala, district Charsadda
Site
Dist.
Zn
Cu
Site
---m---
Sed.
---m---
-------------------------------- mg kg-1-------------------------------------------
Bur.
Sed.
Fe
Bur.
Sed.
Mn
Bur.
Sed.
Bur.
A1
100
0.31
Nil
5.05
Nil
9.54
Nil
12.13
Nil
A2
200
0.52
0.34
7.72
6.44
11.05
10.03
18.14
13.05
A3
300
0.61
0.33
8.18
12.09
11.91
10.68
18.38
13.77
A4
400
0.51
0.48
8.40
6.06
12.85
11.87
17.31
17.10
A5
500
0.76
0.62
16.25
33.98
13.14
13.64
17.66
17.61
B1
100
0.27
Nil
4.68
Nil
11.67
Nil
10.55
Nil
B2
200
0.37
Nil
3.56
Nil
10.62
Nil
13.22
Nil
B3
300
0.43
0.23
7.71
3.56
9.00
9.10
17.95
13.22
B4
400
1.21
1.01
3.06
18.29
6. 54
10.36
19.13
18.61
B5*
100
0.30
7.78
5.11
11.02
* Not-flooded soil samples for comparison.
Sample from A1 to A5 located on main river Swat
Samples from B1 to B5 located on tributary that enters into river Swat
Report prepared by Prof. Dr. Sajida Perveen & Dr. Dost Muhammad
Page 28
3.2 Post flood physico-chemical characteristics of soils at Mianwala
village, district Charsadda
3.2.1 Soil particle distribution
The clay and silt fractions in
the sediment deposition from
flooded waters increased and
sand fractions decreased with
increase in distance from the
river in all the three sites C,
D and E. The clay fraction in
sediment deposited layer was
almost double than that of the
under lying buried soil while
Figure 9 Flood affect rice field at Banda Sheikh Ismail, district Nowshehra, the
crop showing water scarcity due to damages to irrigation channels
the silt factions in this layer increased by 20-30% as compared to the under lying soils,
suggesting high amounts of clay and silt deposition from flood water.
When compared to Charsadda soils, the clay and silt contents of the upper surface
sediment deposition was higher in Nowshehra soils. This could be associated to the flow
rate of flood water and rapid deposition of sand particles from the flood water. In
Charsadda when the flow rate of water was higher, the settling of sand size particles was
higher and very little amount of such particles carried to Nowshehra districts. It can be
concluded from this study, that with increase in flood water traveling from hilly areas of
Swat and Dir from the where the flood started, sand faction in flood water decreased with
distance.
The higher clay and silt deposition in the upper surface layer rendered the soil to transform
into finer textural classes especially in the upper deposited layer. This would result in
higher compaction and crusting of soil surface.
Report prepared by Prof. Dr. Sajida Perveen & Dr. Dost Muhammad
Page 29
Table 9
Site
Soil particles distribution in a flood affected soil profile (alluvium
layer, and buried soil) as influenced by distance from the river in
Mohib Banda (site C), Research Farm (site D) and Banda Sheikh
Ismail (site E) located on river Kabul in district Charsadda
Dist.
Clay
Sed.
---m---
Silt
Bur.
Sed.
Sand
Bur.
Textural Class
Sed.
Bur.
Sed.
Bur.
--------------------------- % ----------------------------
C1
100
12.8
7.2
58.0
40.4
29.2
52.4 SiL. L
S. Loam
C2
200
13.8
6.8
56.0
41.0
30.2
52.2 SiL. L
S. Loam
C3
300
15.8
7.8
66.0
46.0
18.2
46.2 SiL. L
S. Loam
C4
400
15.6
6.2
70.0
52.1
14.4
41.7 SiL. L
SiL. L
C5
500
15.2
5.2
69.8
49.0
15
45.8 SiL. L
S. Loam
D1
300
10.8
6.4
66.0
42.0
23.2
51.6 SiL. L
S. Loam
E1
100
13.6
8.2
68.0
42.8
18.4
49 SiL. L
S. Loam
E2
200
15.8
6.8
64.0
43.0
20.2
50.2 SiL. L
S. Loam
E3
300
14.2
7.2
76.0
40.0
9.8
52.8 SiL. L
S. Loam
E4*
400
5.8
-
28.0
-
66.2
S. Loam
* Not-flooded soil samples for comparison.
3.2.2
Soil pH, ECe and SAR values
In Table 2 the data showed that there was a direct relation between pH and distance from
the river in sediment deposited layers. As the distance from the river increased the pH also
increased while in buried soil profile it did not show such trend in all locations C, D and E.
Generally the pH of the area was slightly alkaline with pH range from 7.43 to 8.04. The
buried soil profile had a lower pH values than sediment deposited layer. Compared to notflooded soils, the sediment layer had higher pH suggesting alkalinity effect on the original
soil.
Report prepared by Prof. Dr. Sajida Perveen & Dr. Dost Muhammad
Page 30
Table 10
Soil pH, EC, and SAR a flood affected soil profile (alluvium layer, and
buried soil) as influenced by distance from the river in Mohib Banda
(site C), Research Farm (site D) and Banda Sheikh Ismail (site E)
located on river Kabul in district Charsadda
Site
Distance
from river
Soil pH
Site
-----m-----
Sed.
Bur.
Sed.
Bur.
Sed.
Bur.
C1
100
7.43
7.66
1.42
1.54
7.4
6.62
C2
200
7.46
7.76
1.39
1.45
5.53
5.42
C3
300
7.51
7.74
1.33
1.56
1.13
4.4
C4
400
7.54
Nil
1.23
Nil
4.06
Nil
C5
500
7.61
7.49
1.19
1.28
4.62
3.91
D1
300
7.75
7.78
1.35
1.39
4.95
3.68
E1
100
7.44
7.93
1.25
1.38
3.21
6.7
E2
200
7.58
8.05
1.21
1.49
5.13
6.25
E3
300
7.63
7.79
1.16
1.62
4.39
5.75
E4*
400
7.71
Nil
1.41
Nil
4.94
Nil
EC
SAR
* Not-flooded soil samples for comparison.
3.2.3
Total and miner N and AB-DTPA extractable P and K
The total and mineral N and AB-DTPA P decreased with increase in distance while ABDTPA K increased with increase in distance in site C while in the site E all these nutrients
increased with increase in distance from the river. It seemed that the E site (Banda Sheikh
Ismail village district Nowshehra) which is between the A and B (Mianwala village district
Charsadda) and C (Mohib banda village district Nowshehra) behaved like the former
where the nutrient concentrations in sediment deposition increased with increase in
Report prepared by Prof. Dr. Sajida Perveen & Dr. Dost Muhammad
Page 31
distance from the river probably associated with the increase in silt and clay contents in the
sediment settled down on the upper surface of the soil.
The concentration of N, P and K were higher in the sediment deposition as compared to the
underlying buried soil at the given distance from the river at all sites suggesting higher
dissolved nutrients and organic debris with the flood water which were then deposited on
the surface. The mineral N was deficient in all samples, P was marginal and K ranged from
marginal to adequate in the soil samples which would need proper attention. The K
concentrations which was marginal near to river especially in C site will require its
application for optimum crop production in future.
The higher total N in the alluvial soil could be attributed to higher amount of organic
residue been transported by flood from high altitude of the forest areas. Our results are in
agreements with the results of the Baldwin and Mitchell, (2000) who obtained the higher N
as a result of the flood deposition and were confirmed by Ogden et al (2007), Average over
sites, sediments deposition had 7.37% higher mineral N than buried soil, this improvement
in mineral N could be associated to the higher amount of total N in the sediments, which
on decomposition resulted in more mineral N (Mulholland 1981, Ogden et al ., 2007). Out
of the total sample only 44.4% were deficient in P, whereas 55.6% has marginal amount
of P for plant growth and development, however none of the soil sample was found in
excess amount of P based on the classification of the Rashid et al., (1994). Average over
sites, a net increase of 38.35% P was observed in the sediment deposition as compared to
the buried soil. This increase in the P concentration is associated to the deposition of P rich
soil been deposited by flood water carried from other areas (Baldwin and Mitchell, 2000).
Similarly, sediments had 4.71% higher K than the buried soil that could be due to already
presence of higher K in the native soil of the area (Mulholland, 1981).
Report prepared by Prof. Dr. Sajida Perveen & Dr. Dost Muhammad
Page 32
Table 11
Site
Site
Soil total and mineral N and AB-DTPA extractable P and K of a flood
affected soil profile (alluvium layer, and buried soil) as influenced by
distance from the river in Mohib Banda (site C), Research Farm (site
D) and Banda Sheikh Ismail (site E) located on river Kabul in district
Charsadda
Distance Total N
from
Sed.
river
Bur.
Mineral N
P
Sed.
Sed.
Bur.
K
Bur.
Sed.
Bur.
--m----
------% --------
---------------------- mg kg-1------------------------
C1
100
0.09
7.09
C2
200
0.09
0.08
6.96
5.78
4.75
3.20
116.0
102.0
C3
300
0.13
0.07
7.35
8.40
2.98
2.54
126.0
148.0
C4
400
0.06
0.06
7.74
6.04
3.89
2.45
148.0
136.0
C5
500
0.06
0.04
5.64
6.56
3.82
2.52
140.0
114.0
D1
300
0.09
0.09
10.89
8.27
3.15
2.33
146.0
142.0
E1
100
0.09
0.08
10.24
11.55
4.82
1.58
150.0
136.0
E2
200
0.13
0.08
10.50
7.88
4.35
2.60
174.0
156.0
E3
300
0.10
0.08
10.89
9.58
5.14
3.50
190.0
158.0
E4*
400
0.11
3.89
9.19
2.33
104.0
128.0
* Not-flooded soil samples for comparison.
3.2.4
AB-DTPA extractable Zn, Cu, Fe and Mn
The flood deposited sediments layer had higher AB-DTPA extractable Cu, Zn, Fe and Mn
as compared to underlying buried soils suggesting improvement in concentrations of these
micronutrients with flood waters. The Cu concentrations in the sediment deposited layer
was almost 2-3 times higher than underlying buried soils with values ranging from 7.72 to
10.23 mg kg-1 however the respective difference in Zn, Mn and Fe concentrations between
sediment and underlying layers at the given distance from river were small but still enough
to be considered. The Cu, Zn and Fe did not show any trend with increase or decrease in
distance from the river or with sites. The site D (Research farm) which received little flood
and had thinner sediment deposition (only 3 cm) had less amount of Cu but comparable
values of Zn, Fe and Mn to other sediment deposited layer in C and E sites suggesting that
Report prepared by Prof. Dr. Sajida Perveen & Dr. Dost Muhammad
Page 33
flood water mainly contributed in addition of Cu in these soils. When compared with not
flooded soils it was observed that all Cu, Zn, Fe and Mn were substantially higher in
flooded areas suggesting addition of these nutrients with flood waters. Concentrations of
micronutrients when compared with critical values (Rashid et al., 1994) revealed that Zn
and Fe ranged from marginal to adequate while Cu and Mn were higher in all the samples.
This higher Fe and Mn concentrations in the sediment deposited layers could be attributed
to the deposition of the soil been brought by flood from near about area (Mulholland, 1981,
Waite and Szymczak, 1993).
Table 12
Site
Site
Soil AB-DTPA extractable Cu, Zn, Fe and Mn of a flood affected soil
profile (alluvium layer, and buried soil) as influenced by distance from
the river in Mohib Banda (site C), Research Farm (site D) and Banda
Sheikh Ismail (site E) located on river Kabul in district Charsadda
Distance
from
river
Cu
Fe
--m--
------------------------- mg kg-1-----------------------------------
Zn
Sed.
Bur.
Sed.
Bur.
Mn
Sed.
Bur.
Sed.
Bur.
C2
100
10.23
-
0.46
-
7.09
-
9.42
-
C6
200
10.02
3.83
0.46
0.39
5.19
3.92
9.31
9.15
C4
300
10.11
4.80
0.49
0.36
4.60
2.56
9.89
9.62
C3
400
10.02
5.38
0.42
0.48
5.40
4.67
9.06
8.80
C1
500
9.45
4.60
0.52
0.48
3.00
3.85
8.71
9.96
D1
300
3.81
3.56
0.44
0.39
2.77
1.17
9.57
9.12
E1
100
10.00
3.69
0.39
0.45
4.82
4.68
9.32
8.46
E2
200
10.00
3.47
0.52
0.41
4.46
3.96
8.97
8.12
E3
300
7.72
5.02
0.54
0.52
5.10
4.98
9.84
9.09
E4*
400
5.01
-
2.33
0.34
1.41
* Not-flooded soil samples for comparison.
Report prepared by Prof. Dr. Sajida Perveen & Dr. Dost Muhammad
Page 34
3.3
3.3.1
Effect of flood on Salt-affected area of Majoke, district Charsadda
Soil pH and EC
The soil samples were
collected from previously
treated plots with H2SO4,
pressmud, gypsum and
FYM (Muhammad, 2009)
and not treated plots of
village
Majoke
district
Charsadda. The alluvial
Figure 10
Post flood view of salt-affected areas of Majoke village, distict
Charsadda
(flood sediments) deposit
layer varied from 3 to > 40 cm depending on the slope and elevation of soil in the area
(Table 3). The depressed area which was treated previously had more sediment deposition
as compared to comparatively elevated area which was not treated previously. The soil pH
both in the sediment deposition (upper alluvium layer) and underlying buried native soil
was highly alkaline with pH values more than 8.3. However, the upper sediment layer had
comparatively lower pH as compared to the underlying buried soil. Similarly the pH in
treated area was lower (F 1 to 3) to the untreated area (F4 and F5) which reflected the
effect of amendment application.
The post flood soil EC in saturation extract is given in Table 2. The soil EC in treated plots
(F1 to 3, Muhammad, 2009) was normal with EC values of 0.8 dS m-1 where as in nontreated plots (F4 and F5) it was above 3.0 dS m-1. In two samples A3 and A4 where the
sediments deposited layer was of appreciable depth (> 15 cm), it had lower ECe as
compared to the under lying buried soil where as in A5 where the alluvium deposition was
only 3 cm it had higher ECe than the under lying soil. In A5, the higher EC in upper layer
Report prepared by Prof. Dr. Sajida Perveen & Dr. Dost Muhammad
Page 35
might be due to capillary rise of salts after drying up of the soil. However, if the values are
compared with the previous values (Muhammad, 2009), the soil EC of all soils has
decreased significantly due to the flooding of soil.
Table 13
Sample
Post flood soil EC in saturation extract of salt affected soils at village
Majoke, district Charsadda
Sample description
Soil EC (dS m-1)
Soil pH
Sediment
Subsurface
Sediment
Subsurface
A1
Previously treated with
amendments
8.50
-
0.80
-
A2
Previously treated with
amendments
7.50
-
0.81
-
A3
Previously treated with
amendments
5.50
8.50
0.65
1.03
A4
Not treated
18.50
20.00
3.03
3.26
A5
Not treated
8.50
12.50
1.84
1.22
3.3.2
Soil Ca+Mg, Na and SAR
The post flood soil Ca+Mg and Na concentration (mmolc L-1) and SAR in saturation
extract is given in Table 3. Before the flooding and amendment application, the soils of the
areas were saline-sodic with with EC values ranging from 8.64 to 9.65 and SAR from 38.2
to 43.4 with silt loam texture (Muhammad, 2009). But like soil EC, the Ca+Mg, Na and
SAR values decreased with flooding and after flooding no sodicity problem was observed
in the area with SAR values < 2. However, the effect in treated areas where pressmud,
gypsum, sulfuric acid and FYM were applied was more pronounced as compared to non
treated plots where salinity problem up to certain limit was still existing (Table 2).
Report prepared by Prof. Dr. Sajida Perveen & Dr. Dost Muhammad
Page 36
Table 14
Sample
Post flood soil Ca+Mg, Na (mmol(+) L-1) and SAR in saturation extract of
salt affected soils at village Majoke, district Charsadda
----------Ca+Mg-------
-------------Na---------
---------SAR------
Sediment
Subsurface
Sediment
Subsurface
Sediment
Subsurface
A1
8.50
-
1.385
-
0.68
-
A2
7.50
-
1.154
-
0.59
-
A3
5.50
8.50
1.154
2.88
0.70
1.75
A4
18.50
20.00
14.42
14.54
2.14
2.01
A5
8.50
12.50
2.46
1.67
1.19
0.67
3.3.3
Soil CO3, HCO3 and Cl in saturation extract
The post flood soil CO3, HCO3 and Cl concentration (mmolc L-1) in saturation extract are
given in Table 4. Before the flooding and amendment application, the soils of the areas
were saline-sodic and have higher values of these anions (Muhammad, 2009) which
remarkably decreased with flooding and sediment deposition. The concentration of CO3
was lower than the HCO3 similar to other salt-affected soils but still its presence in such
appreciable amounts could be associated to higher soil pH (Richard, 1954). The difference
between the upper sediment deposited layer and uner lying buried soil were not consisted
in term of anion concentrations. In some place the the upper layer had more anion and vice
versa. However, it was certain that the treated soils had lowers anions concentrations as
compared to the non treated soils that could be associated to higher salinity in these areas.
Report prepared by Prof. Dr. Sajida Perveen & Dr. Dost Muhammad
Page 37
Table 15
Sample#
Post flood soil CO3, HCO3 and Cl (mmol(-) L-1) in saturation extract of
salt affected soils at village Majoke, district Charsadda
----------CO3-----------
--------HCO3------------
---------Cl--------------
Sediment
Subsurface
Sediment
Subsurface
Sediment
Subsurfac
e
A1
1.50
-
9.5
-
3.00
-
A2
2.00
-
8.5
-
2.25
-
A3
5.00
1.00
9.5
12.5
2.50
5.0
A4
1.50
8.00
16.5
10.5
16.50
23.25
A5
1.00
1.00
12.00
13.00
3.50
4.25
Report prepared by Prof. Dr. Sajida Perveen & Dr. Dost Muhammad
Page 38
4.
CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions were drawn from the study, for better management of flood
affected areas
1.
In Charsadda, the soils nearer to rive had coarser texture while areas farther from
the river had fine texture in the sediment deposited surface layer. All the soils
whether the surface alluvium layer or the buried layer were alkaline in reaction,
calcareous in nature but not saline. The EC, organic matter, lime, AB-DTPA
extractable P, K, Cu, Zn, Fe and Mn and mineral and total N increased with
increased in distance from the river. However, the soils were observed to be
deficient in Zn, marginal to adequate in P but sufficient in Cu, Fe, Mn and K.
2.
In Nowshehra the sediments consisted mainly of silt-loam and buried soil of sandy
loam irrespective of distance from the river. All the soils were invariably slightly
alkaline and had no sign of salinity. The soil EC and SAR were comparatively
higher and in contrast to Charsadda area increased with increase in distance from
the river but still well below the critical limits. The N and P decreased and K
increased with increase in one site while in another site all of them increased with
increase in distance from the river. The N was deficient and K ranged from
marginal to adequate levels. The K concentrations which was marginal nearer to
river especially in one site (Mohib Banda) will require its application for optimum
crop production in future.

In the salt-affected areas of Majoke village, the sediment deposition (alluvium
layer) by flood and submerging of the area with flood waters for more than 30
days significantly decreased the soil pH, EC, SAR and anions concentrations as
compared to the pre-flood analyses. However, the effect of flood in previously
treated plots with gypsum, sulfuric acid, pressmud and FYM were more as
compared to the non-treated plots.
Report prepared by Prof. Dr. Sajida Perveen & Dr. Dost Muhammad
Page 39
5.
RECOMMENDATIONS
The following recommendations were drawn from the study, for better management of
flood affected areas.
1.
Leveling of soil is suggested as the surface soil is badly affected and totally
disturbed by the flood.
2.
Mixing of upper surface sediment deposited layer (alluvium layer) and buried
soil (original soil) will help to decrease the changes brought about by the flood
water in the surface layer of the soil and will improve the soil texture.
3.
Application of N, P and K as per crop requirement and soil status will improve
the fertility and crop productivity of the area.
4.
Application of Zn is suggested especially for those crops which had higher
demand for Zn.
5.
Application of organic materials and proper crop rotation will help to
compensate the degraded soil physico-chemical properties through improving
soil aggregation, structure and nutrients availability.
6.
In salt affected areas the the mixing of alluvium with the underlying buried soil
will promote the infiltration rate.
7.
Salt and water logging tolerant varieties and crops are recommended for the area
especially rice and barely could be the choice crops in the area.
8.
Since the area does not have drainage system and the flood water remained
standing for more than 30 days in area, so installation of surface and subsurface
drainage is highly needed to reduce the salinity and water logging problems in
the area.
Report prepared by Prof. Dr. Sajida Perveen & Dr. Dost Muhammad
Page 40
6.
COMBATING FLOODS IN FUTURE
COMMENT
Prof (Rt.) Dr. Riaz A. Khattak
KPK Agricultural University, Peshawar
Floods like this are uncommon and come once in 50 or 100 years not in KPK and Pakistan
but in many parts of the world including North America, Central America, some parts of
Europe, China and Africa. No matter how developed and technologically advanced the
country may be, it is impossible to be fully prepared to cope with floods of this scale as far
as management, help and assistance to the affected people is concerned. However, the
degree and extent of damage certainly would vary from region to region depending upon
several complex set of factors.
The most important factors which determine the scale of losses include the nature of
watershed in relation to its physical and biological conditions. In other words, how poor or
how well the watershed, also called catchment area, is managed. The recent studies
suggested that the major causes of natural resources (land and water) degradations include
large scale deforestation, over grazing and growing crops on deforested sloping lands. In
other words scientific land resources utilization that is to avoid mismanagement at the
watershed level and as well as downstream is crucial and essential to maintain healthy
terrestrial and aquatic system capable of absorbing the volume of waters poured in as it did
during this monsoon in KPK in particular and other parts of the country in general.
The situation in KPK is much more complex and got further confounded by the criminal
negligence of our watershed areas of our rivers system. Those who had seen the mountains
and upper catchments full of lush green dense forest some 50-60 years ago, if visit it today,
would not be able to control screaming over the barren top 50-60% sloping land with no
capability to retain a single drop of rain water. This is true for most parts of KPK, Northern
Report prepared by Prof. Dr. Sajida Perveen & Dr. Dost Muhammad
Page 41
Areas, Hazara and FATA. So far we have not realized the complexity of the landscape of
the most affected areas. It does not need an expert or a genius to recognize that several
rivers, streams and khurs (seasonal water stream) from north, south and west and southeast are contributing to the concentrations of flood waters into a tiny little mass of land
spread over hardly an area having a radius of 10-30 km between Peshawar, Charsadda and
Nowshehra. There is no way to allow safe disposal of this kind of flood water until and
unless we put over act together. The losses are so colossal that it pushed us back by
another 50 years. If we estimate the physical and biological losses including infrastructure,
highways, motorways, collapse of telecommunication system, irrigation system,
agricultural crops, soils, property, houses, industries, social and health problem, what so
speak of siltation and sedimentation into the national water reservoirs. In addition to the
precious lives of human beings, running over 1000, the estimated losses of infrastructure
and again their construction and rehabilitation is a double loss and phenomenal set back to
our already fragile socio-economic conditions. Assessment of these losses needs a full
scale study but along with this, we must take immediate decisions to develop strategy for
minimizing the future damages. The best way could be to take practical steps to manage
our watershed, and plan for check dams, small dams, large dams such as Munda Dam,
Gomal Zam Dam and many more to retain and store the flood water before it becomes
unmanageable at lower level. Construction of protection walls, dikes, spurs, embankments
along the streams and rivers will certainly protect the low lying areas. Removal of
encroachment from stream and river banks should be removed by all means. It will be
more advisable to spend billions on protective measures than to spend several times more
on restoration and rehabilitation of damages.
Proper survey should be conducted by a joint team of experts from irrigation and drainage,
forest, and soil conservation departments to identify the sites for the construction of the
engineering structures. I strongly believe that had the Munda Dam and other proposed
dams been operational, the losses in the low lying areas of Charsadda, Tangi and even
Report prepared by Prof. Dr. Sajida Perveen & Dr. Dost Muhammad
Page 42
Nowshera would be lesser that what it is now. On the other hand, if there was no Lawaghar
Dam in Takhti-Nasratti, Karak, losses in that area would be higher by factor of 20-50.
Similarly, Chalghoz Dam, Chanda-Fateh Khan Dam helped to minimize the losses in those
sub-catchment areas.
We need many more dams in our FATA regions. Construction of Bara Dam was of some
help to retain runoff water. The impact of water conservation in the FATA regions which
will have direct beneficial impact on the socio-economic conditions of the people. At the
end, let us act now before we perish and be flown into the ocean of troubles. Land taken by
an enemy can be regained at any possible time but the fertile soil once reaches to the ocean
can never be retrieved. Floods or no floods, but we must protect our natural resources and
prepare ourselves for the climate change if we wish to be counted as a viable dynamic and
productive society. Government alone cannot and will not be able to cope with this kind of
disasters. All the stake holders must work in a planned, coherent and concerted manner to
safeguard our future for which we are accountable to the coming generation.
Report prepared by Prof. Dr. Sajida Perveen & Dr. Dost Muhammad
Page 43
7.
LITERATURE CITED
Ahmadani A (August 19, 2010). "Heavily Funded FFC Fails to Deliver". TheNation.
http://www.nation.com.pk/pakistan-news-newspaper-daily-englishonline/Politics/19-Aug-2010/Heavily-funded-FFC-fails-to-deliver/.Retrieved
October, 17, 2010.
Al-Jazeera. 2010. "UN chief: Pakistan needs more aid". Al Jazeera. 15 August 2010.
http://english.aljazeera.net/news/asia/2010/08/201081552627441712.html.
Al-Jazeera. 2010. "UN chief: Pakistan needs more aid". Al Jazeera. 15 August 2010.
http://english.aljazeera.net/news/asia/2010/08/201081552627441712.html.
Asri. M. A. B. 2009. Floodplain management at Tiram river watershed using web Hipre
3+. A project report submitted in fulfillment of the Requirements for the award of
the Bachelor Degree in Civil Engineering. Faculty of Civil Engineering Uni. of
Tech. Malaysia
Baldwin, D.S., and Mitchell, A.M. 2000. The effects of drying and re-flooding on the
sediment and soil nutrient dynamics of lowland river-floodplain systems: a
synthesis. Regulated Rivers Res. Manage. 16(5):457-467
Ball
State
University
Center
for
Business
and
Economic
Research.
2010.
http://cber.iweb.bsu.edu/research/PakistanFlood.pdf. Retrieved 18 August 2010.
Bardsley, C.E., and J.D. Lancaster. 1960. Determination of reserve sulfur and soluble
sulfate in soil. Proc. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. pp. 256-268
Bremner, J.M. 1996. Nitrogen-toal. In D.L. Spark (ed.). Methods of Soil Analysis. Part 3.
Am. Soc. Agron. 37: 1085-1122
Cruzado, A., Z. Vel!asquez, M. del-Carmen, P. and N. Baham!on. 2002. Nutrient fluxes
from the Ebro River and subsequent across-shelf dispersion. Continental Shelf
Research, 22:349–360
Dawn News. "Floods to hit economic growth: Finance Ministry". Dawn News. 10 August
2010. http://www.dawn.com/wps/wcm/connect/dawn-content-library/dawn/ news/
business/03-floods-to-hit-economic-growth-finance-ministry-ss-04. Retrieved 10
August 2010.
Gardner, W.H. 1986. Water content. p. 383-411. In A. Clute (ed.) Methods of Soil
Analysis. Part 1. 2nd Ed. Agronomy
Report prepared by Prof. Dr. Sajida Perveen & Dr. Dost Muhammad
Page 44
Gee, G.W., and J.W. Bauder. 1986. Particle size analysis. In. A. Klute (ed.) Method of Soil
Analysis. Part 1. 2nd Ed. Agron. 9: 383-411
Goodwin, Liz. 210. "One-fifth of Pakistan under water as flooding disaster continues".
News.yahoo.com.http://news.yahoo.com/s/yblog_upshot/20100816/wl_yblog_upsh
ot/one-fifth-of-pakistan-under-water-as-flooding-disaster-continues.Retrieved
2010-08-24.
http://www.pakmet.com.pk/FFD/index_files/rainfalljuly10.htm.
http://www.pakmet.com.pk/cdpc/Climate/Peshawar_Climate_Data.txt
Humanitarian Communication Group, 2010
Inglett P.W., K.R. Reddy, and R. Corstanje. 2005. Anaerobic Soils. In: D. Hillel, J.L.
Hatfield, D. Powlson, C. Rosenzweig, K.M. Scow, M.J. Singer, D.L. Sparks (eds).
Encyclopedia of Soils in the Environ. 1:72-78
Khan, G.S. 1993. Characterization and genesis of saline-sodic soils in Indus plains of
Pakistan. Ph.D thesis, Dept. Soil Sci, Univ. Agric. Faisalabad, Pakistan
MacFarquhar, Neil (18 August 2010). "U.N. Warns of Supply Shortage in Pakistan". New
York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2010/08/19/world/asia/ 19nations. html?hp.
Retrieved 18 August 2010.
Muhammad, D. 2009. Evaluating effectiveness of pressmud, gypsum, sulfuric acid and
farmyard manure in reclamation of saline-sodic soils, nutrient dynamics and crop
growth. Ph.D Thesis. Department of Soil and Environmental Science, KP Agric.
Univ. Peshawar.
Mulholland, P., L. Yarbro, R. Sniffen, and E. Kuenzler. 1981. Effects of Floods on
Nutrient and Metal Concentrations in a Coastal Plain Stream, Water Resour. Res.
17(3):758-764
Mulvaney, R.L. 1996. Nitrogen-Inorganic forms. In D.L. Sparks (ed.) Method of Soil
Analysis. Part 3. Amer. Soc. Agron. 38: 1123-1184
Nelson, D.W., and L.E. Sommer. 1996. Total C, organic C and organic matter. In: D.L.
Spark (ed.) Method of Soil Analysis. Part 3. Am. Soc. Agron. 34: 961-1010
Ogden, R., M. Reid, and M. Thoms. 2007. Soil fertility in a large dryland floodplain:
Patterns, processes and the implications of water resource development. CATENA
70:114-126
Report prepared by Prof. Dr. Sajida Perveen & Dr. Dost Muhammad
Page 45
Rashid, A., E. Rafiq, and N. Bughio.1994. Diagnosing Boron deficiency in rape seed and
mustard by plant analysis and soil testing. Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal. 27:17-18.
Rhoades (1996
Rhoades J. D. 1996. Salinity: Electrical Conductivity and total dissolved solids. In: D. L.
Sparks (ed.). Method of Soil Analysis. Part. 3. Am. Soc. Agron. Inc. Madison WI
USA. 14: 417-436
Richard. 1954. Diagnosis and Improvement of Saline and Alkali Soils. USDA Handbook
60. US Department of Agriculture, Washington DC
Schroeder, D. 1984. Soils: Facts and Concepts. Bern. International Potash Research
Institute.
Singapore Red Cross. 2010. "Pakistan Floods:The Deluge of Disaster - Facts & Figures as
of 15 September 2010". http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/rwb.nsf/db900SID/ LSGZ89GD7W?OpenDocument. Retrieved October 18, 2010.
Soil Survey of Pakistan. 2007. Land Resources Inventory and Agricultural Land Use Plan
of Charsadda District. National Agric. Land Use Plan. Lahore, Pakistan
Soltonpour, P.N., and A.P. Schawab. 1977. A new soil test for simultaneous extraction of
soil macro and micronutrients. Comm. Soil Sci. Plant Anal. 8: 195-207
Thomas, G.W. 1996. Soil pH and soil acidity. In D.L. Sparks (ed.). Methods of soil
analysis part 3. Amer. Soc. Agron. 16:475-490
Waite, T., and R. Szymczak. 1993. Manganese Dynamics in Surface Waters of the Eastern
Caribbean, J. Geophys. Res., 98:2361-2369
Wikepedia, 2010. Web-based Internet Encyclopedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/
Witte, Griff; Khan, and H. Nawaz. 2010. "Government ramps up relief efforts in flooded
northwest Pakistan". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost. com/wpdyn/content/article/2010/07/30/AR2010073000588.html. Retrieved 30 July 2010.
Report prepared by Prof. Dr. Sajida Perveen & Dr. Dost Muhammad
Page 46