Unit 1 – PSYB1
Introducing Psychology – Miss Earl’s sections
3.1.1 Key Approaches in Psychology
3.1.2 Biopsychology
What we learn will cover section A of the examination (the exam is split into 3 components – Part A
which Miss Earl will teach, Part B Gender Development (taught by Mr Bennett) and Part C Research
Methods (taught by Mr Bennett)
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Black text denotes the question
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Red text denotes the mark scheme
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Blue text denotes the examiner’s report (available from January 2009 only) use this for top tips to
see where others went wrong!
Past paper questions from section A
January 2003
(a) Outline one assumption of the psychoanalytic approach in psychology. (2 marks)
[2 marks : AO1 = 2, AO2 = 0]
AO1 One mark if an assumption is outlined very briefly, or is a slightly inaccurate outline of an assumption.
Two marks if accurate with appropriate detail.
Examples of assumptions could be recognition of the unconscious mind and unconscious processes,
determinism, importance of inter-personal relationships in psychological development, defence
mechanisms,tripartite division of self (id, ego, superego) focus on childhood, instinctual urges/drives.
(b) Identify three features of the humanistic approach. (3 marks)
[3 marks : AO1=3, AO2 = 0]
AO1 One mark for each correct feature. These might include importance of ‘self’, person-centred approach,
idiographic, self-actualisation, uniqueness of individuals, non-scientific approach to understanding human
behaviour, client-centred therapy, hierarchy of needs
2 (a) Identify two changes which take place in the body during the fight or flight response. (2 marks)
[2 marks : AO1 = 2, AO2 = 0]
AO1 One mark for each correct identification. These could include accelerated heart rate, curtailing of
digestion, increased respiration, increase in perspiration, release of glucose from the liver, pupil dilation,
decrease in salivation, slowing of peristalsis, adrenaline release.
(c) Distinguish between the terms genotype eand phenotype. Illustrate your answer with an example of
each. (5 marks)
[5 marks : AO1 = 2, AO2 = 3]
AO1 The candidate will define genotype and phenotype. Genotype should be defined in terms of an
individual set of genes/genetic makeup. Phenotype should be defined in terms of actual/observable
characteristics possessed by an individual.
AO2 One mark for an explicit reference to a distinction between the two terms, eg genotype never
changes; phenotype can change over time. Two further marks for an example applied to each term. For
example, in relation to intelligence they may explain that an individual might have an intellectual potential
(genotype) but they require environmental stimulus such as education for this to develop. Alternatively PKU
for which an individual may have the genotype and causes intellectual impairment but with a modified diet
this may be prevented. Non-psychological examples will receive credit.
June 2003
1 (a) Outline one assumption of the cognitive approach in psychology. (2 marks)
[2 marks : AO1 = 2, AO2 = 0]
AO1 One mark for brief or slightly accurate answer.
Example: Thinking influences behaviour, the mind is like a computer.
Two marks if accurate and with some expansion.
Examples: The mind acts as mediator between the stimulus and the response; the mind and body are
separate, the mind is as active and the body is passive; cognitive psychologists create models to represent
thinking processes, humans as information processors. Controlled laboratory experiments are conducted
from which inferences are made about cognitive processes.
(c) With reference to the behaviourist approach in psychology, give one explanation as to why
Hannah is now sick before she takes the drugs. (5 marks)
[5 marks : AO1 = 2, AO2 = 3]
AO1 Knowledge of appropriate concepts, eg learning by association, conditioning, role of stimulusresponse.
AO2 The correct application of the concepts identified to explain Hannah’s behaviour.
Examples: If learning by association has been identified the candidate should be able to say that Hannah
now associates the sickness from the drugs with the hospital itself. If stimulus-response is identified, the
candidate should be able to pair the stimulus of the drug with the response of the sickness.
Candidates who choose to explain the problem using classical conditioning and charts based on CS and CR,
CS +UCS = CR, etc should receive AO1 credit or full credit if explicitly linked to Hannah’s behaviour. There
is no requirement on candidates to talk specifically about classical conditioning, though if they do this
should be credited.
2 (a) Using an example, explain what is meant by localisation of cortical function. (3 marks)
[3 marks : AO1 = 1 AO2 = 2]
AO1 Correct identification of the term.
AO2 One mark for a correct example and a further mark for linking this to localisation of function.
Example: Localisation of function suggests that there are specific parts of the cerebral cortex which have
specific functions (AO1). For example, the visual cortex (AO2) is responsible for converting electrical signals
from the eye into visual images (sight)(AO2).
(c) In your answer book, name the parts of the neuron labelled A, B, C and D in Figure 1 below.
Clearly identify your answers as A, B, C and D. (4 marks)
[4 marks : AO1 =4, AO2 =0]
AO1 One mark each for correct identification.
A – Nucleus/cell body
B – Axon
C – Myelin sheath
D – Dendrites
(d) Describe the function of the adrenal glands and autonomic nervous system (ANS) in stressful situations.
Use this knowledge to explain each of Gary’s symptoms before and after the examination. (10 marks)
[10 marks : AO1 = 5, AO2 = 5]
AO1 Candidates will give an accurate description of ANS and role of the adrenal glands. The description
could include such features as the relationship between the ANS and CNS and its almost automatic function
in relation to particular organs in the body in particular the flight or fight response. The ANS has two
divisions - sympathetic and parasympathetic whose functions are either to prepare the body for action or
maintain and repair the body.
The adrenal gland provides hormones including adrenaline which are released into the blood stream as a
parallel action to sympathetic nervous system. Candidates may either name different features up to a
maximum of 5 or name fewer features but with greater description.
Candidates must refer to both the ANS and adrenal glands for full marks.
AO2 Candidates should refer to the stimulus material. There are 5 different responses identified in the
stimulus material.
Lack of appetite is linked to the sympathetic division curtailing digestion (making more blood available for
muscles and brain).
Lack of concentration linked to heightened arousal caused by extra adrenalin.
Sweating is linked to the body cooling mechanism, blood vessels on the surface dilating, to allow heat
energy to be lost from the body. Blood is diverted away from the digestive system to the brain and
muscles. This delivers more glucose and oxygen to the brain and muscles for respiration. This increases the
energy released to the brain and muscles.
Hunger and tiredness relates to the parasympathetic system which is now acting to restore the body to its
state of equilibrium by stimulating digestion and tiredness as the energy levels of the body are restored or
conserved.
January 2004
1 (c) Referring to features of the behaviourist approach, suggest why Harry has developed a fear of school.
(4 marks)
[4 marks : AO1 = 2, AO2 = 2]
AO1 Candidates may choose to answer with general reference to the behaviourist approach, or specific
reference to classical conditioning.
Up to two marks for reference to features of the behaviourist approach eg, behaviour is learnt, behaviour is
conditioned, learning by association, learning of new responses to stimuli, principles of classical
conditioning. The concept of reinforcement may be accepted if applied correctly to the stimulus material.
Alternatively, two marks may be credited for one feature which is described in detail. Credit may be given
for a diagrammatic representation although this is not required by the question.
AO2 Up to two marks for reference to the stimulus material which illustrates the identified feature(s). If
one feature is identified, then two marks may be credited if the application of this feature is detailed.
[10 marks : AO1 = 5, AO2 = 5]
(d) Describe and discuss the cognitive approach in psychology. Refer to one other approach in your
answer. (10 marks)
AO1 Up to five marks for description of features of the cognitive approach. Features could include - the
comparison of the human mind to a computer in terms of information processing. How it is therefore
possible to study the internal mental processes that lie between stimulus and response. Other features may
include the scientific basis of this approach. Internal mental processes can be investigated scientifically by
proposing models of psychological function. Up to two marks may be awarded for a description of a model.
AO2 Up to five marks for discussion, eg that the cognitive approach has investigated many areas of interest
in psychology that had been neglected by behaviourism. The approach places great emphasis on the use of
more rigorous scientific methods unlike psychoanalysis.
Candidates may contrast it with the free will approach of the humanists arguing that the cognitive
approach ignores the emotional life of humans and their conscious experience.
Credit may be given for application of the cognitive approach through examples of models
eg Atkinson and Shiffrin’s multi-store model of memory.
Maximum of 6 marks if no reference to other approaches.
2 (a) Identify two techniques used to investigate cortical specialisation. (2 marks)
[2 marks : AO1 = 2, AO2 = 0]
AO2 One mark for any appropriate answer.
Example: EEGs, post-mortem, scans – CAT, PET, MRI. Credit may be give for more than one method of
scanning.
(b) Each of the descriptions below gives a function of a part of the nervous system:
(i) (B) carries messages from the brain or spinal cord to muscles;
(ii) (C) prepares the body for action in threatening situations;
(iii) (A) supports and restores normal body activity by conserving and storing energy.
(d) Discuss how knowledge about localisation of function has contributed to our understanding of
behaviour. Refer in your answer to at least two examples of cortical localisation of function. (10 marks)
[10 marks : AO1 = 4, AO2 = 6]
AO1 Identification/description of ways in which knowledge of localisation has contributed to understanding
of behaviour. Up to two marks allocated for reference to two examples of localisation of function. Examples
may include – Broca’s area, Wernicke’s area, visual cortex, abstract reasoning (frontal lobe). May include
reference to a study. Specific technical terms not required for credit.
AO2 Candidates will discuss how localisation of function contributes to our understanding.
Reference may be made to the case of brain asymmetry where variations are apparent in the location of
function in the two cerebral hemispheres. Also, the brain as an integrated unit may be discussed where, for
example, many different areas are involved in abilities such as vision. Candidates may refer to the
argument of brain plasticity in adjusting the location of function in the case of brain damage, for example.
Credit may be given for application, eg the impact of brain damage/strokes. Specific technical terms may
not be present in the discussion. No studies are required by the question, but credit may be given to those
which specifically illustrate the point being made.
Maximum 5 marks if only one example.
June 2004
1 (a) Outline one criticism of the behaviourist approach. (2 marks)
[2 marks: AO1 = 2, AO2 = 0]
AO1 One mark for basic outline of the criticism identified.
Two marks for full outline of the criticism identified.
Example: Ethologists disagreed with the use of animals to explain human behaviour
(AO1, 1). There is a biologically qualitative difference between humans and other animals (AO1, 1).
(c) John is playing tennis. He perceives the ball coming towards his left-hand side. He decides to respond
by playing a backhand shot. John returns the ball and wins the point.
Outline the information-processing approach and illustrate it with reference to aspects of John’s behaviour.
(5 marks)
[5 marks: AO1 = 2, AO2 = 3]
AO1 Up to two marks for reference to features of the information-processing approach, eg inputting of
data from the environment, mental processing of information . sensory input, decision making, output
processes, sequential processes, limited capacity. Credit may be given for a diagrammatic representation of
the approach, although this is not required by the question.
AO2 Up to three marks for reference to the stimulus material which illustrates the approach.
Sensory input processes . John perceives the ball coming towards his left-hand side.
Decision-making . he decides to respond by playing a backhand shot. Output processes .
John returns the ball and wins the point.
(d) Describe and discuss at least two features of the psychodynamic approach. (10 marks)
[10 marks: AO1 = 5, AO2 = 5]
AO1 Up to 5 marks for description in detail of at least two features of the psychodynamic approach.
Features could include . unconscious motivation, tripartite division of personality . id, ego and superego,
stages of development, therapeutic approaches, defence mechanisms, emotional drives of sex and
aggression.
AO2 Up to 5 marks for discussion, eg that the psychoanalytic approach places great emphasis on the
unconscious mind in directing our behaviour but it cannot be measured in any precise way. Many ideas and
assumptions are regarded as unscientific/lacking supporting evidence. Candidates may refer to the
benefits/limitations of a person-centred approach.
Candidates may contrast it with the free will approach of the humanists which the psychodynamic
approach does not recognise.
Maximum of 6 marks if only one feature described.
2 (a) Below are three definitions:
A a person’s characteristics that are determined solely by the environment;
B a person’s genetic make-up;
C a person’s characteristics that are determined by genetics and the environment.
In your answer book, write down which of the above is a definition of
(i) a genotype;
(ii) a phenotype. (2 marks)
[2 marks : AO1 = 0, AO2 = 2]
AO2
(i) a person’s genetic make-up.
(ii) a person’s characteristics that are determined by genetics and the environment.
(b) Outline one limitation of the biological approach in psychology. (3 marks)
[3 marks: AO1 = 3, AO2 = 0]
AO1 One mark for a relevant limitation which may be brief or muddled. Two marks for a
relevant limitation which may include slight inaccuracy. Three marks for a limitation
which is appropriate and accurately outlined.
Example: Reductionism (AO1, 1) thoughts and behaviours are a result of the actions of neurones or
biochemicals (AO1, 1). The approach ignores other levels of explanation such as interaction with
environmental factors (AO1, 1).
(c) Evolutionary theorists claim the physical and behavioural characteristics of a species are likely to be the
result of natural selection. Using an example, explain what is meant by the term .natural selection.. (5
marks)
[5 marks: AO1 = 3, AO2 = 2]
AO1 Up to 3 marks for a description of natural selection, eg adaptation to the environment
(AO1, 1). Those traits that contribute to a species. survival are likely to be passed on to the next
generation (AO1,1). Characteristics which do not contribute to survival are less likely to be passed on (AO1,
1).
AO2 Two marks for an appropriate example, eg the peppered moth – was light-coloured until a mutant
darker variety appeared as a result of industrialisation. The darker moths had an advantage in terms of
camouflage. Darwin’ s observations of finches on the Galapagos islands on one island there were finches
with thick beaks, whereas on another their beaks were elongated due to dietary differences. Physical
differences of the birds evolved as a result of adaptation to the environment.
January 2005
1 (b) The table below is not complete. It should contain the names of key approaches in psychology and a
basic assumption of each approach. In your answer book, identify the key approaches for (i) and (ii), and
give a basic assumption for the cognitive approach in (iii). Label your answers clearly. (3 marks)
[3 marks: AO1 = 3]
AO1 One mark for the correct identification of each approach. One mark for the basic assumption given.
(i) Humanistic approach
(ii) Behaviourist approach
(iii) Most likely answers . Humans as information processors / focus on internal mental processes important
in understanding behaviour / active processing of information / beliefs influence behaviour.
(c) Shelby had a new set of crayons. However, rather than use them in her colouring book, she scribbled
all over the wallpaper. Shelby’s mother was very angry and sent her to her bedroom.
When Shelby was left alone again, she crayoned in her book, rather than on the wallpaper.
Identify two features of the behaviourist approach and say how they might explain Shelby.s change in
behaviour. (4 marks)
[4 marks: AO1 = 2, AO2 = 2]
AO1 Candidates may choose to answer with general reference to the behaviourist approach, or specific
reference to operant conditioning.
Up to two marks for reference to features of the behaviourist approach, eg learning by association,
behaviour is conditioned, behaviour is learnt, learning of new responses to stimuli, reinforcement,
punishment, principles of operant conditioning, principles of classical conditioning. Credit may be given for
a diagrammatic representation although this is not required by the question.
AO2 Up to two marks for reference to the stimulus material which illustrates the identified features.
The application to the stimulus material should be detailed to gain two marks. For example,
Shelby was sent to her bedroom, which is seen as punishment. Her behaviour has been conditioned, so
she now associates a new response to the stimulus, ie colouring in her book rather than on the wallpaper.
2 Total for this question: 20 marks
(a) Identify two functions of the parasympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system. (2 marks)
[2 marks: AO1 = 2]
AO1 One mark for each function identified.
Example: Slows heart rate / increases digestion / constricts pupils, etc.
The parasympathetic nervous system supports normal body activity by conserving and storing bodily
energy (AO1, 1). It also slows the activities of the body that have been increased by the sympathetic
nervous system (AO1, 1).
(b) The table below is not complete. In your answer book, write the names of the cortical areas of the
brain that should be placed in (i) and (ii). For (iii), describe the main function of the visual area. Label your
answers clearly. (3 marks)
[3 marks: AO1 = 3]
AO1 One mark for the correct identification of each cortical area of the brain.
One mark for the main function described.
(i) Motor area / Frontal lobe
(ii) Somatosensory area / Parietal lobe
(iii) Receives information from the visual system / visual processing.
(d) Discuss at least two methods that have been used to investigate cortical specialisation in the brain. (10
marks)
[10 marks: AO1 = 4, AO2 = 6]
AO1 Up to four marks allocated for a description of the methods of investigating cortical specialisation in
the brain. Examples may include – EEGs – shows patterns of brain waves.
Scans: PET – assesses metabolic activity in different parts of the brain. CAT – shows horizontal sections
of the brain. MRI – gives a clear and detailed picture of brain structures.
Electrical stimulation - a weak current is applied to a small region of the brain. Neurosurgery, eg lesions –
cutting connections of the brain. Post-mortem studies of people with known deficits. May include reference
to a study.
AO2 Candidates will discuss how these methods have been used to investigate cortical specialisation in the
brain. For example, with neurosurgery, candidates may discuss the accuracy of this technique however;
the use of expensive equipment and the invasive exposure of the brain may be questioned. Candidates
may choose to discuss the ethical issues involved with this type of method – conclusions drawn from
animals may not always generalise to humans. The use of EEGs has enabled the detection of electrical
activity in specific parts of the brain via a non-invasive procedure. PET scans for example, have been used
to investigate brain injuries and associated behavioural changes. However, this method of scanning is
expensive and involves the ethical issue of injecting radioactive glucose into the bloodstream of patients.
Credit also application to studies, eg how scans are used to aid people with language deficits.
Maximum of 6 marks if only one method identified.
June 2005
(c) (i) Outline what is meant by the information-processing approach. (2 marks)
[2 marks: AO1 = 2]
AO1 Up to two marks for reference to features of the information-processing approach, eg inputting of
data from the environment, mental processing of information – encoding, storage, retrieval, sequential
processes, limited capacity, analogy to computers in terms of information processing.
Credit may be given for a diagrammatic representation of the approach, although this is not required by
the question.
(d) Describe and discuss the behaviourist approach in psychology. Refer to at least one other approach in
your answer. (10 marks)
[10 marks: AO1 = 5, AO2 = 5]
AO1 Up to 5 marks for description in detail of the features of the behaviourist approach. Features could
include – the majority of all behaviour is learned from the environment and so psychology should
investigate the laws and products of learning. Behaviour is determined by the environment since we are
the total of all our past learning experiences. Other features may include how observable behaviour, not
minds, should be studied if psychology is to be an objective science. Credit description of relevant studies.
AO2 Up to 5 marks for discussion, eg the behaviourist approach adopted a very scientific approach to
explain human behaviour unlike psychoanalysis. Behaviourism has produced many practical applications, eg
the treatment of phobias. Candidates may contrast behaviourism with the cognitive approach, who think
that behaviourism ignores important mental processes involved in learning. The rejection of conscious
mental experience was heavily criticised by the humanistic approach.
Maximum 6 marks if no reference to one other approach
2 (a) Diane is at a pop concert with her friend Robbie. She has been longing to see her favourite band
play live. When the band appears on stage, she says to Robbie, “I’m so excited. I can feel my heart
pounding.” After the concert, Diane says to Robbie, “That was fantastic, but I’m so hungry, my tummy is
rumbling. Shall we get something to eat?”
In your answer book, write down which of Diane’s physiological responses is a result of:
(i) sympathetic action of the autonomic nervous system;
(ii) parasympathetic action of the autonomic nervous system. (2 marks)
[2 marks: AO2 = 2]
AO2
(i) “I can feel my heart pounding”.
(ii) “My tummy is rumbling”.
Credit answers which refer to excited/hungry.
January 2006
(b) Outline two criticisms of the psychodynamic approach. (4 marks)
[AO1 = 2, AO2 = 2]
AO1 One mark for each criticism identified.
Likely answers: unscientific; deterministic; too much emphasis on innate biological forces.
AO2 One mark for elaboration of each criticism identified. This may be in the form of justification/
illustration/counter-criticism.
(c) Lesley is anxious and has low self-esteem. As a child, she felt that, no matter how hard she tried to
please people, no one ever approved of her. She sometimes feels worthless. Referring to the humanistic
approach, explain one possible cause of Lesley’s problems.
(4 marks)
[AO1 = 2, AO2 = 2]
AO1 Up to 2 marks for description of one cause, eg unconditional positive regard; Maslow’s hierarchy of
needs; congruence – incongruence; conditions of worth.
AO2 Up to two marks for reference to the stimulus material which illustrates the identified features.
2 (a) Below is a diagram of the human brain. It is labelled A, B, C and D. Write in your answer book which
letter A, B, C or D matches each of the areas below:
(i) auditory area;
(ii) somatosensory area;
(iii) visual area;
(iv) motor area. (4 marks)
[4 marks: AO1 = 4, AO2 = 0]
AO1 (i) C
(ii) B
(iii) D
(iv) A
(b) Distinguish between the terms genotype and phenotype. (3 marks)
[AO1 = 2, AO2 = 1] AO1 One mark for correct definition of each term.
Genotype refers to a person’s genetic make-up (AO1, 1).
Phenotype refers to a person’s characteristics that are determined by genetics and the environment (AO1,
1).
AO2 One mark for any appropriate distinction between these terms, eg genotype is fixed whereas
phenotype is malleable. Credit reference to examples such as PKU.
(c) State what is meant by selective breeding. Explain why it has been used by psychologists to investigate
the genetic basis of behaviour. (3 marks)
[AO1 = 1, AO2 = 2]
AO1 One mark for the correct definition of the term.
Selective breeding refers to the artificial selection of male and female animals that are put together to
breed and produce offspring (AO1, 1).
AO2 Two marks for explanation, eg to observe whether a trait or characteristic continues over successive
generations (AO2, 1). If a trait continues over successive generations, then there is a genetic basis. If a
trait does not continue over successive generations, then a genetic basis may be ruled out (AO2, 1).
June 2006
1
(a) Briefly describe one feature of the psychodynamic approach in psychology. (3 marks)
[AO1 = 3, AO2 = 0]
AO1 One mark for identification of a relevant feature.
Two marks for identification and description of the feature but brief or slightly muddled
account.
Three marks for clear identification and elaboration of the feature.
Likely answers: unconscious conflict; stages of psychosexual development; tripartite division of
personality; dream analysis; sexual instinct; case studies.
(c) Sunita is eight years old and suffers from a medical condition which means she often has to go into
hospital. Each time she goes into hospital, the treatment makes her feel sick. One day,
Sunita.s mother took her to visit her grandmother in hospital. When they arrived at the hospital,
Sunita complained to her mother that she felt sick.
Referring to features of the behaviourist approach, explain why Sunita felt sick when she went
to visit her grandmother in hospital. (4 marks)
[AO1 = 2, AO2 = 2]
AO1 Candidates should answer with specific reference to classical conditioning.
Up to two marks for reference to features of the behaviourist approach, eg behaviour is learnt,
behaviour is conditioned, learning by association, learning of new responses to stimuli,
principles of classical conditioning. Alternatively, two marks may be credited for one feature
which is described in detail. Credit may be given for a diagrammatic representation although
this is not required by the question.
AO2 Up to two marks for reference to the stimulus material to illustrate the identified feature(s). If
one feature is identified, then two marks may be credited if the application of this feature is
detailed.
(d) Discuss the humanistic approach in psychology. Refer to at least one other approach in your
answer. (10 marks)
[AO1 = 4, AO2 = 6]
AO1 Up to four marks for description of the features of the humanistic approach. Features could
include . each person is unique therefore psychology should focus on the subjective
experiences, feelings and thoughts of a person. The idiographic approach . emphasis on
understanding the uniqueness of a person rather than laws which may exist within all people.
Self-actualisation . every person has an innate tendency to achieve their full potential.
Unconditional positive regard . the unconditional love of the mother for her child is essential to
the development of a well-adjusted adult. Client-centred therapy . people come to therapy for
help in solving the everyday problems of life. Credit up to one mark for description of relevant
evidence.
AO2 Up to six marks for discussion, eg the humanistic approach is criticised for its rejection of the
scientific approach and the use of experiments to understand and predict human behaviour.
There is little objective evidence therefore to support the assumptions made. Candidates may
discuss the approach in relation to the behaviourist approach which views humans as passively
responding to stimuli in the environment. Humanistic psychologists state that humans are
active agents . able to change and determine their own development. Candidates may contrast
the concept of free-will with the deterministic features of both the biological and psychoanalytic
approaches. Credit use of relevant evidence.
Maximum 6 marks if no reference to one other approach
(a) Identify two methods that are used to investigate localisation of function (cortical specialisation) in the
brain. (2 marks)
[AO1 = 2, AO2 = 0]
AO1 One mark each for the correct identification of a method.
Likely answers: EEG; CAT, PET or MRI scan(s); Electrical stimulation; Micro-electrode
recording of neural activity; Neurosurgery; Post mortem.
Credit may be given for an accurate description of a method.
(b) Write in your answer book which letter, A, B, C or D, matches each of the structures below:
(i) cell body;
(ii) myelin sheath;
(iii) nucleus;
(iv) axon.
Label your answers clearly. (4 marks)
[AO1 = 4, AO2 = 0]
AO1 (i) C
(ii) D
(iii) A
(iv) B
(c) Molly is walking home late at night. Suddenly, she is startled by the sound of footsteps behind her. She
feels her heart pounding and her mouth goes dry. When Molly arrives home, she tries to relax by watching
the television. Soon her breathing slows down and she begins to feel hungry.
From the description above,
(i) identify two actions of the parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system;
(ii) identify two actions of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system.
(4 marks)
[AO1 = 0, AO2 = 4]
AO2 One mark each for the correct identification of each action.
(i) ‘ her breathing slows down’
‘ she begins to feel hungry’
(ii) ‘ she feels her heart pounding’
‘ her mouth goes dry’
January 2007
(c) Jaina is three years old. She sees a packet of her favourite chocolate biscuits on the kitchen table.
Jaina’s mother says to her, “You must not eat any of the chocolate biscuits.” When her mother leaves the
kitchen, Jaina cannot stop herself from eating a chocolate biscuit, even though she has been told not to.
Suggest a psychodynamic explanation as to why Jaina ate the chocolate biscuit. (4 marks)
[AO1 = 2, AO2 = 2]
AO1 Up to 2 marks for knowledge of psychodynamic explanations of behaviour, eg conscious/unconscious
motivation or specific reference to the tripartite theory of personality – id, ego, superego; or psychosexual
stages of development.
AO2 Up to two marks for reference to the stimulus material which illustrates psychodynamic explanation(s).
If one explanation is identified, then two marks may be credited if the application of this explanation is
detailed.
(d) Discuss the cognitive approach in psychology. Refer to at least one other approach in your answer. (10
marks)
[AO1 = 4, AO2 = 6]
AO1 Up to four marks for description of features of the cognitive approach. Features could include: the
comparison of the human mind to a computer in terms of information processing; the idea that a person’s
knowledge and beliefs influence their behaviour and experience; processing is limited capacity; sequential
approach (S-O-R); cause and effect; emphasis on scientific control – internal mental processes can be
investigated scientifically by proposing models of psychological function. Up to two marks may be awarded
for a description of a model.
Credit description of relevant evidence up to one mark.
AO2 Up to six marks for discussion, eg that the cognitive approach has investigated many areas of interest
in psychology that had been neglected by behaviourism. How it is therefore possible to study the internal
processes that lie between stimulus and response. The cognitive approach places great emphasis on the
use of more rigorous scientific methods unlike psychoanalysis.
Candidates may contrast it with the free-will approach of the humanists, arguing that the cognitive
approach ignores the emotional life of humans and their conscious experience. Credit may be given for
general application of the cognitive approach, eg use of the cognitive interview; cognitive therapies, etc.
Credit use of relevant evidence.
Maximum 6 marks if no reference to one other approach.
2 Total for this question: 20 marks
(a) Briefly describe one technique used to study cortical specialisation in the brain. (3 marks)
[AO1 = 3, AO2 = 0]
AO1 One mark for identification of a correct technique.
Two marks for identification of a correct technique but brief description of the procedure and/or method.
Three marks for identification of a correct technique with clear description of the procedure and/or method.
Likely answers: EEG; CAT/PET/MRI scans; electrical stimulation; micro-electrode recording of neural
activity; neurosurgery; post-mortems.
(b) Outline what is meant by the fight or flight response. Give an example. (3 marks)
[AO1 = 2, AO2 = 1]
AO1 One mark for brief recognition of the term.
Two marks for clear outline of the term.
Possible answer: In an emergency situation, the body is prepared for the possibility of defending or
attacking (fight) (AO1, 1), or running away to safety (flight) (AO1, 1).
Biological detail is not necessary, but creditworthy, eg increased heart rate, role of the ANS.
AO2 One mark for an appropriate example.
Possible answer: If suddenly confronted by a vicious dog, you either defend yourself (fight) or run away
(flight) (AO2, 1).
(c) Some psychologists believe that human and non-human behaviour can be explained in terms of
evolutionary processes.
(i) What is meant by the term evolution? (2 marks)
[AO1 = 2, AO2 = 0]
AO1 One mark for brief recognition of the term.
Two marks for clear outline of the term.
Possible answer: Evolution refers to the change over successive generations (AO1, 1) of the
characteristics/make-up of a population (genetic or social) (AO1, 1).
Credit answers which refer to selective pressures; the natural selection of certain characteristics, as in
survival of the fittest.
(ii) Give an example of one behaviour and suggest how this behaviour can be explained in terms of
evolutionary processes. (2 marks)
[AO1 = 0, AO2 = 2]
AO2 One mark for an appropriate example but brief or slightly muddled account.
Two marks for an appropriate example with clear explanation.
Likely answers: sexual selection; mating strategies; parental investment; bonding; emotions; signalling
systems; aggression; temperament; rooting reflex.
(d) Discuss the biological approach in psychology. Refer to evidence in your answer. (10 marks)
[AO1 = 4, AO2 = 6]
AO1 Up to four marks for description of features of the biological approach. Features could include: all
thoughts, feelings and behaviours have a physical/biological cause (nature); our behaviours and
characteristics, eg intelligence, are a result of our genetic make-up; behaviour has a genetic basis since
human genes have evolved over years to adapt behaviour to the environment; the assumption that the
mind and brain are the same.
Credit description of relevant evidence up to one mark.
AO2 Up to six marks for discussion. Candidates may consider the strengths of the approach, eg it provides
strong counter-arguments to the nurture side of the nature-nurture debate, or consider the limitations of
the approach, eg the approach is reductionist – it explains thoughts and behaviours in terms of genes,
neurons and biochemicals. Candidates may choose to discuss the biological approach in relation to other
approaches in psychology, eg the biological approach applies scientific methods to investigate human
behaviour, unlike the humanistic approach. The practical applications of the biological approach are
particularly effective, eg the use of drugs in the treatment of mental disorders.
Relevant evidence: Krupa et al (1993); Petersen et al (1998); Sperry (1984); Cloniger (1987);
Tyron (1940); Gottesman (1991); Kety (1998); Scarr and Weinberg (1978).
Credit use of relevant evidence.
Note: Candidates may receive credit for citing evidence which raises methodological and/or ethical issues in
support and/or criticism of the biological approach.
Maximum 6 marks if no reference to evidence.
June 2007
(b) (i) Briefly explain one assumption of the humanistic approach in psychology. (2 marks)
[AO1 = 1, AO2 = 1]
AO1 One mark for identification of an appropriate assumption.
AO2 One mark for elaboration of the assumption.
Likely assumptions: each person is unique; free will; holistic perspective; self-actualisation; unconditional
positive regard; client-centred therapy; rejection of science.
(b) (ii) Briefly explain one assumption of the cognitive approach in psychology. (2 marks)
[AO1 = 1, AO2 = 1]
AO1 One mark for identification of an appropriate assumption.
AO2 One mark for elaboration of the assumption.
Likely assumptions: humans as information processors; comparison of the mind to a computer;
information-processing approach (S-O-R); mental processes can be investigated scientifically; active
organisation and manipulation of information.
(d) Describe and discuss the behaviourist approach in psychology. (10 marks)
[AO1 = 5, AO2 = 5]
AO1 Up to five marks for description in detail of the features of the behaviourist approach.
Features could include – behaviour is determined by the environment; reference to the laws of learning;
principles of operant and classical conditioning; controlled experimental studies; learning in animals;
observable behaviour, not minds, should be studied if psychology is to be an objective science. Credit up to
two marks for description of relevant evidence and/or studies.
AO2 Up to five marks for discussion. Candidates may choose to discuss general strengths and/or limitations
of the behaviourist approach. For example, in terms of the strengths, candidates may state how
behaviourism contributed to psychology with its scientific and experimental methodology. Behaviourism has
produced many practical applications, eg treatment of phobias. In terms of the limitations, for example,
candidates may state how behaviourism ignores the nature side of the nature-nurture debate. Candidates
may choose to discuss the behaviourist approach in relation to other approaches in psychology. For
example, cognitive psychologists criticise the behaviourist approach for ignoring important mental
processes involved in learning. The rejection of conscious mental experience was heavily criticised by the
humanistic approach. Credit the use of relevant evidence and/or studies.
2 (a) Outline one difference in function between a motor neuron and a sensory neuron. (2 marks)
[AO1 = 2, AO2 = 0]
AO1 One mark for identification of an appropriate function of a motor/sensory neuron.
Two marks for elaboration of the difference in function between these two types of neuron.
Possible answer: The function of a motor neuron is to carry information from the central nervous system to
the muscles/glands/effectors (AO1, 1), whereas the function of a sensory neuron is to carry information
from the sense organs to the central nervous system (AO1, 1).
(b) What is meant by the terms genotype and phenotype? Use an example to illustrate the difference
between them. (4 marks)
[AO1 = 2, AO2 = 2]
AO1 One mark for correct definition of each term.
Possible answer: Genotype refers to a person’s genetic make-up (AO1, 1). Phenotype refers to a person’s
characteristics that are determined by genetics and the environment (AO1, 1).
AO2 One mark for evidence of genotype presented in the example.
One mark for evidence of phenotype presented in the example.
Note: Candidates may be awarded two marks for presenting either one example, or two different examples
to illustrate the difference between the terms.
Possible answer: PKU is an example of a disorder caused by a defective gene resulting in severe learning
difficulties (AO2, 1). However, if identified early, and treated with a special diet, individuals show normal
levels of intelligence (AO2, 1).
Credit other likely examples such as intelligence; schizophrenia.
(c) Briefly discuss one limitation of the biological approach in psychology. (4 marks)
[AO1 = 2, AO2 = 2]
AO1 One mark for identification of an appropriate limitation.
Two marks for identification and elaboration of an appropriate limitation.
Likely limitations: reductionist; undervalues nurture; deterministic; does not adequately explain how the
mind and body interact; problems in extrapolation from animal research.
AO2 Two marks for discussion of the limitation. This may be in the form of justification/illustration/
counter-criticism.
(d) Ben and his friends are at a theme park. They are waiting in a queue to ride a terrifying rollercoaster.
Ben starts to feel sick and his hands become hot and sticky. As he moves near to the front of the queue,
he feels his heart pounding. After the ride, Ben feels very thirsty and tired.
Describe the role of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) and the adrenal glands in a stressful situation.
Use this knowledge to explain Ben’s responses before and after the rollercoaster ride. (10 marks)
[AO1 = 5, AO2 = 5]
AO1 Up to five marks for description of the role of the ANS and adrenal glands in a stressful situation. For
example, the ANS transmits information to and from internal organs. It is sub-divided into two further
systems: the sympathetic nervous system, which increases bodily activities in a stressful situation, eg
increases heart rate, and the parasympathetic nervous system, which decreases bodily activities that have
been activated during the stressful situation, eg decreases action of adrenal glands. The adrenal glands
operate in parallel to the autonomic nervous system in a stressful situation. For example, the adrenal
glands are stimulated to release adrenaline through the bloodstream. Credit fight or flight response. Credit
up to two marks for description of relevant evidence and/or studies.
AO2 Up to five marks for application to the stimulus material. There are five different points in the stimulus
material relating to the actions of the ANS and the adrenal glands.
However, candidates may receive more than one AO2 mark for a response that is explained in detail.
1. “he starts to feel sick”. Candidates should refer to the action of the adrenal glands. Adrenaline prepares
the body for action and in doing so, reduces blood flow to organs such as the gut.
2. “his hands become hot and sticky”. Candidates should refer to the activity of the sympathetic nervous
system. Blood is diverted to the muscles for energy. As a result, the body sweats to allow heat energy to
be lost from the surface of the skin. It is the body’s cooling mechanism.
3. “he feels his heart pounding”. Candidates should refer to the activity of the sympathetic nervous system.
An increase in cardiac output means blood is pumped around the body faster – delivering essential oxygen
and nutrients to the muscles.
4. “feels very thirsty”. Candidates may refer to the activity of the parasympathetic nervous system. This
system acts to restore the activities of the body that have been increased by the sympathetic nervous
system, ie inhibiting saliva production. The parasympathetic nervous system stimulates saliva production.
5. “he feels very…tired”. Candidates should refer to the activity of the parasympathetic nervous system.
This system acts to restore and/or conserve bodily energy that has been used during sympathetic activity.
Maximum 6 marks if only reference to ANS or adrenal glands
Maximum 6 marks if no reference to stimulus material
January 2008
(c) Mia is revising for her history examination. Her teacher asks her the following question,
“Who was the mother of Queen Elizabeth I?” Mia thinks hard. She then remembers what her teacher taught
her in the previous history lesson. She then replies, “Anne Boleyn”.
Outline the information-processing approach and illustrate it with reference to the description above. (5
marks)
[AO1 = 2, AO2 = 3]
AO1 Up to two marks for reference to features of the information-processing approach, e.g. mental
processing of information – sensory input, decision making, storage processes, output, inputting of data
from the environment, sequential processes, analogy to computers in terms of information processing,
limited capacity. Credit may be given for a diagrammatic representation of the approach, although this is
not required by the question.
AO2 Up to three marks for reference to the stimulus material which illustrates the approach, for example
Sensory input processes – Mia hears/perceives/attends to the teacher asking the question. Storage
processes - thinking/remembering/organising the information. Output processes – Mia answers the
question. Credit reference to aspects of the revision process.
(d) Discuss the psychodynamic approach in psychology. (10 marks)
[AO1 = 4, AO2 = 6]
AO1 Up to four marks for description of features of the psychodynamic approach. Features could include –
unconscious motivation, tripartite division of personality – id, ego and superego, stages of development,
therapeutic approaches, defence mechanisms, emotional drives of sex and aggression. Credit description
of relevant evidence (one mark).
AO2 Up to six marks for discussion, eg the psychodynamic approach places great emphasis on the
unconscious mind in motivating behaviour but it cannot be measured in any precise way. Many
assumptions are regarded as unscientific/lacking supporting evidence. Candidates may refer to the
benefits/limitations of an idiographic approach.
Candidates may contrast the approach with other approaches in psychology, eg the free will approach of
humanistic psychology, which the psychodynamic approach does not recognise. Credit use of relevant
evidence.
2 (a) Outline the role of the adrenal glands in the fight or flight response. (2 marks)
[AO1 = 2, AO2 = 0]
AO1 One mark for identification of the role of the adrenal glands.
Two marks for identification and elaboration of the role of the adrenal glands.
Possible answer: The adrenal glands are stimulated to release adrenaline (AO1, 1). This prepares the body
for action in a stressful situation (AO1, 1).
(b) Tom has a phobia of mice. He saw a mouse scurry across the floor. Tom immediately felt sick and he
felt the hairs on the back of his neck stand on end. Some time later, his heart stopped pounding and he got
his breath back.
From the description above, identify three of Tom’s bodily responses and state whether each response
results from the action of the sympathetic or parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system. (3
marks)
[AO1 = 0, AO2 = 3]
AO2 One mark (up to three) for any of the following:
• ‘Tom immediately felt sick’ – sympathetic division of the ANS
• ‘…he felt the hairs on the back of his neck stand on end’ – sympathetic division of the ANS
• ‘…his heart stopped pounding’ – parasympathetic division of the ANS
• ‘…he got his breath back’ – parasympathetic division of the ANS.
(d) Discuss at least two methods that have been used to investigate localisation of function
(cortical specialisation) in the brain. (10 marks)
[AO1 = 4, AO2 = 6]
AO1 Up to four marks for a description of the methods of investigating localisation of function in the brain.
Examples may include – EEGs: shows patterns of brain waves. Scans:
PET – assesses metabolic activity in different parts of the brain. CAT – shows horizontal sections of the
brain. MRI – gives a clear and detailed picture of brain structures.
Electrical stimulation – a weak current is applied to a small region of the brain.
Neurosurgery, eg lesions – cutting connections in the brain. Post-mortem studies of people with known
deficits. Credit description of relevant evidence and/or studies (one mark).
AO2 Candidates will discuss how these methods have been used to investigate localisation of function in
the brain. For example, with neurosurgery, candidates may discuss the accuracy of this technique;
however, the use of expensive equipment and the invasive exposure of the brain may be questioned.
Candidates may choose to discuss issues involved with this type of method – conclusions drawn from
surgery on animals may not always generalise to humans. The use of EEGs has enabled the detection of
electrical activity in specific parts of the brain via a non-invasive procedure. PET scans, for example, have
been used to investigate brain injuries and associated behavioural changes. However, this method of
scanning is expensive and involves the ethical issue of injecting radioactive glucose into the bloodstream of
patients. Credit use of relevant evidence and/or studies.
Maximum 6 marks if only one method identified
June 2008
1 Total for this question: 20 marks
(a) Describe one assumption of the behaviourist approach in psychology. (3 marks)
[AO1 = 3, AO2 = 0]
AO1 One mark for identification of a relevant assumption.
Two marks for identification and elaboration of the assumption but may be brief and/or slightly muddled.
Three marks for clear identification and elaboration of the assumption.
Likely answers: behaviour is learnt; behaviour is conditioned; learning by association; learning of new
responses to stimuli; principles of classical conditioning; principles of operant conditioning; scientific nature
of the approach; use of animals; studying the observable.
(c) Mark is 33 years old. He has low self-esteem and feels worthless. One day, his therapist asked him
about his childhood. Mark said, “I never had a close relationship with my mother. She would only cuddle
me if I was a good boy and did what I was told.”
With reference to one assumption of the humanistic approach, explain a possible cause of Mark’s problems.
(4 marks)
[AO1 = 2, AO2 = 2]
AO1 Up to two marks for reference to an assumption of the humanistic approach.
Likely answers: unconditional positive regard; Maslow’s hierarchy of needs; congruence/incongruence;
conditions of worth; emphasis on self.
AO2 Up to two marks for reference to the stimulus material which explains the possible cause of Mark’s
problems.
(d) Discuss the cognitive approach in psychology. Refer to at least one other approach in your answer. (10
marks)
[AO1 = 4, AO2 = 6]
AO1 Up to four marks for a description of features of the cognitive approach.
Features could include – the comparison of the human mind to a computer in terms of informationprocessing; the idea that a person’s knowledge and beliefs influence their behaviour and experience;
processing is limited capacity; sequential approach – input > storage/process > output; cause and effect;
emphasis on scientific control – internal mental processes can be investigated scientifically by proposing
models of psychological function. Credit description of a named model (one mark) multi-store.
Credit description of relevant evidence (one mark).
AO2 Up to six marks for discussion e.g. the cognitive approach has investigated many areas of interest in
psychology that had been neglected by behaviourism. For example, how it is possible to study the internal
processes that lie between stimulus and response. The cognitive approach places great emphasis on the
use of more rigorous scientific methods unlike the psychodynamic approach. Candidates may contrast the
mechanistic view of cognitive psychologists with the more humane approach adopted by humanistic
psychologists. Credit may be given for general application of the cognitive approach e.g. use of the
cognitive interview, cognitive therapies etc.
Credit use of relevant evidence.
Maximum 6 marks if no reference to another approach.
2 Total for this question: 20 marks
(a) Identify three divisions of the nervous system. (3 marks)
[AO1 = 3, AO2 = 0]
AO1 Up to three marks for correct identification of the divisions of the nervous system.
Likely answers: central nervous system; peripheral nervous system; somatic nervous system; autonomic
nervous system; sympathetic nervous system; parasympathetic nervous system; spinal cord; brain.
(b) Explain the difference between genotype and phenotype. (3 marks)
[AO1 = 2, AO2 = 1]
AO1 One mark for knowledge of each term.
Possible answer: Genotype refers to a person’s genetic make-up (AO1, 1). Phenotype refers to a person’s
characteristics that are determined by genetics and the environment (AO1, 1).
AO2 One mark for an appropriate difference between these terms.
Possible answer: Genotype is fixed whereas phenotype is malleable (AO2, 1).
Credit explanation of examples such as PKU.
Up to 3 marks may be credited for candidates who provide valid differences.
(c) Explain two limitations of the biological approach. (4 marks)
[AO1 = 2, AO2 = 2]
AO1 One mark for identification of each limitation.
Likely answers: reductionist; undervalues nurture; deterministic; does not adequately explain how the mind
and body interact; problems in extrapolation from animal research: methodological problems eg invasive.
AO2 One mark for explanation of each limitation.
This may be in the form of justification / illustration / counter-criticism.
January 2009
General
Candidate performance at this first session for the new specification varied enormously. Many candidates
had prepared well and were able to demonstrate sound knowledge and understanding across all areas.
Evaluations were less evident in many of the responses to the longer questions and certainly this is
something that centres should seek to address. It was not uncommon to see answers to the 10-mark
questions which consisted of 1 ½ sides of description and a mere two or three lines of evaluation. It was
noted that many candidates did not have sufficient space to write their answers in the answer booklet and
many candidates did use extra sheets. This issue has been addressed for future sessions. Quality of
written communication was very poor in some cases, to the extent that it was extremely difficult to discern
meaning.
1 (a) What do behaviourists mean by the term operant conditioning? Give an example of how
operant conditioning might be used to train an animal (3 marks)
[AO1 = 1, AO2 = 2]
AO1 One mark for correct definition of the term.
Possible answer: Operant conditioning refers to behaviours learnt as a result of
reinforcement/environmental consequences (AO1, 1)
Credit other appropriate alternatives eg, negative reinforcement; punishment, etc.
AO2 Up to two marks for an appropriate example of how operant conditioning is used in training an animal.
One mark for demonstration of the behaviour being conditioned.
One mark for reinforcement of the behaviour.
Part (a) was generally well done, with the majority of candidates gaining two or three marks.
Most responses used Skinner’s rats for the example although there were some good everyday
examples that showed clear understanding. Occasionally, candidates scored no marks
because they confused operant and classical conditioning.
1 (b) Identify and explain one methodological issue which might arise when using EEGs to
investigate cortical specialisation (3 marks)
[AO3 = 3]
AO3 One mark for identification of an issue.
Up to two marks for explanation of the issue in relation to the method.
Likely answers: crude measure – the activity of neurons is measured and averaged; electrodes are not
sensitive enough to detect precise neuronal functions; lack of reliability, etc.
Part (b) was less well done, often because many candidates offered ethical rather than methodological
issues. There was also a tendency to give a lengthy description of the method rather than focus on the
limitation.
1 (c) (i) Outline the role of the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous
system in physiological arousal (2 marks)
[AO1 = 2]
AO1 One mark each for appropriate description of the role.
Possible answer: The sympathetic nervous system prepares our body for action during the fight-or-flight
response (AO1, 1). The parasympathetic nervous system restores the body to its normal state (AO1, 1).
For part (c)(i) candidates who recognised the need to focus on the general roles of the two
sections of the autonomic nervous system rather than specific bodily responses tended to score
full marks.
1 (c) (ii) Sophie is taking her driving test for the first time. She is very nervous. Her hands begin
to sweat and she can feel her heart pounding. When the examiner asks Sophie to start the car,
she feels sick. After the driving test, Sophie begins to feel her breathing slow down.
From the description above, identify two of Sophie’s bodily responses, stating whether each
response is a result of the action of the sympathetic nervous system or the parasympathetic
nervous system (2 marks)
[AO2 = 2]
AO2 One mark (up to two) for any of the following:
‘Her hands began to sweat…’ – sympathetic nervous system.
‘…she can feel her heart pounding’ – sympathetic nervous system.
‘…she feels sick.’ – sympathetic nervous system.
‘…her breathing slows down’ – parasympathetic nervous system.
Nearly all candidates gained two marks for part (c)(ii); those who did not usually presented
sympathetic or parasympathetic responses that were not included in the text.
1 (d) Describe and evaluate the humanistic approach in psychology. Refer to at least one other
approach in your answer (10 marks)
[AO1 = 5, AO2 = 5]
AO1 Up to five marks for description of the features of the humanistic approach. Features could include –
how each person is unique – the subjective experiences, feelings and thoughts of a person should be of
importance to psychologists. Conscious awareness.
Focus on the importance of self/personal growth. Self-actualisation – every person has an innate tendency
to reach his or her full potential. Concept of free will – able to choose and determine own actions.
Unconditional positive regard – the unconditional love of the mother for her child is essential to the
development of a well-adjusted adult.
Client-centred therapy – client at centre of own therapy in solving their problems. The idiographic approach
– emphasis on understanding the uniqueness of a person; holistic approach. Credit description of relevant
evidence (one mark).
AO2 Up to five marks for evaluation. For example, the humanistic approach is criticised for its rejection of
the scientific approach and in particular, the use of experiments to understand and predict human
behaviour. There is little objective evidence to support the assumptions made by humanistic psychologists.
Candidates may evaluate the approach in relation to the behaviourist approach for example, which views
humans as passively responding to stimuli in the environment. Humanistic psychologists state that humans
are active agents – able to change and determine their own development.
Candidates may contrast the concept of free will with the deterministic features of other approaches eg, the
biological approach. The value of a person-centred approach may
be compared to the psychodynamic approach. Credit use of relevant evidence.
Maximum 6 marks if no reference to other approach
Mark Bands
8 – 10 marks Good answers
There is accurate, well-organised and detailed description of the humanistic
approach in psychology. The evaluation is clear, coherent and detailed. There is
appropriate reference to one other approach. There is focus with little or no
misunderstanding.
There is structure with effective use of paragraphs and sentences. There are
very few errors of spelling and punctuation.
4 – 7 marks Average answers
There is a reasonably accurate and organised description of some features of the
humanistic approach though it may lack detail. Evaluation may lack clarity,
coherence or detail. At the top of the band, there is reference to one other
approach in psychology. There may be some inaccuracy or irrelevance.
There is some structure with appropriate use of paragraphs and sentences.
There are some errors of spelling and punctuation.
1 – 3 marks Poor answers
There is basic or limited knowledge/evaluation of the humanistic approach. The
response may be inaccurate and/or poorly focused.
There is little evidence of structure in terms of correct use of sentences and
paragraphs. There are frequent errors of spelling and punctuation.
0 marks No relevant content
Total A01 marks for Question 1 = 8
Total A02 marks for Question 1 = 9
Total A03 marks for Question 1 = 3
Total marks for Question 1 = 20 marks
Responses to part (d) tended to show a good awareness of key humanistic concepts although
this knowledge was often expressed incoherently, almost as a stream of unconnected or
inadequately explained ideas. It was also fairly common to see confusion and inaccuracy in
relation to basic terms. For example, many candidates suggested that low self-esteem resulted
from incongruence between actual and ideal self, when it is more accurate to state that it results
from incongruence between the perceived self/self-concept and the ideal self. Some
candidates were evidently unaware that an instruction to ‘refer to another approach’ is an
invitation to compare the other approach with that under discussion, rather than simply describe
another approach in tandem. Whilst descriptions were often lengthy, evaluations were
frequently less so. That said, many top band answers to part (d) were seen.
June 2009
General
Overall candidates’ performance on the paper was comparable with performance in the January series.
Those who had prepared well achieved good marks across all three sections of the paper.
In response to issues arising in the January series, candidates were provided with additional space for their
answers to the questions requiring extended writing (questions 1d and 2d). This space was used effectively
by some candidates to provide more detailed evaluative points rather than simply providing a ‘shopping list’
of points as was the case in January.
Centres are asked to remind candidates that they must use black ink or black ball-point pen.
Answers written in blue pen and even in pencil in some cases are particularly difficult to read when
scanned.
1 (a) Name and briefly describe one defence mechanism. Suggest how this defence mechanism
might help a person to cope with the breakdown of a close relationship. (3 marks)
[3 marks: AO1 = 2, AO2 = 1]
AO1 One mark for naming a correct defence mechanism eg denial; repression; displacement, etc.
One further mark for brief description of the defence mechanism.
AO2 One mark for an appropriate suggestion in relation to the breakdown of a close relationship.
Possible answer: Displacement (AO1, 1) is where the mind redirects emotions from a dangerous object to a
safer outlet (AO1, 1). A person joins a kickboxing class which relieves his stress by redirecting his anger
about his failed relationship (AO2, 1).
If a candidate describes and provides an appropriate example of a defence mechanism but gives an
incorrect name award a maximum 2 marks.
(a) Candidates were generally able to name an appropriate defence mechanism with denial and repression
being the most common answers. Descriptions of the defence mechanisms varied in accuracy and detail.
Very often candidates would simply reiterate the term as part of the description. In relation to the stem,
most candidates provided a plausible suggestion of how the defence mechanism could help somebody to
cope with the breakdown of a relationship. Very few candidates offered their own example as part of the
answer.
1 (b) (i) What is meant by classical conditioning? (1 mark)
[1 mark: AO1 = 1]
AO1 One mark for correct definition of the term eg learning by association, stimulusresponse
learning, brief description of process or key features.
(b) (i) Many candidates scored one mark here by providing an appropriate definition of the term.
1 (b) (ii) Briefly outline how researchers, such as Pavlov, have investigated classical
conditioning.(2 marks)
AO3 Candidates may provide a generic response through methods of research eg experimentation or a
more specific response eg the process involved within a particular study.
Possible answer: Pavlov researched classical conditioning by pairing a CS with an
UCS – he rang a bell at the same time he presented food to the dog (AO3, 1). After repeated pairings,
Pavlov found that by merely ringing the bell (CS), the dog salivated
(CR) (AO3, 1). Credit diagrammatic representation.
ii) The majority of candidates chose to describe the process of classical conditioning with reference to
Pavlov’s experiment and many achieved full marks. Some responses referred to Little Albert and again,
where the process was described fully, achieved both marks.
1 (c) Jake has a very stressful job. He is often late home from work and hardly gets any sleep.
One night, Jake is so stressed and angry that he punches a door. Jake comes from a violent
family.
Suggest how a biological psychologist and a behavioural psychologist might explain
Jake’s violent behaviour.(4 marks)
[4 marks: AO3 = 4]
AO3 Candidates should receive credit for knowledge of the approaches and are not
expected to demonstrate detailed knowledge of aggression.
Biological: One mark for brief or muddled explanation.
Two marks for an accurate and detailed explanation.
Likely answers: testosterone; aggression as an evolutionary trait, genetics; heritability, etc.
Behaviourist: One mark for brief or muddled explanation.
Two marks for an accurate and detailed explanation.
Likely answers: learning by association; principles of operant conditioning; reinforcement.
Credit answers that may refer to the principles of SLT.
(c) The majority of responses showed a good understanding of both the biological and
behaviourist approaches and many candidates showed an ability to apply this knowledge
to a novel source ie Jake’s aggression. The biological approach tended to be better
explained than the behaviourist approach. Here, a number of candidates provided a
basic account of how this behaviour would be simply ‘learnt from the environment’
without any further expansion as to how.
1 (d) Discuss two of the following methods that have been used to investigate areas of cortical
specialisation in the brain:
� neurosurgery **note this has now been removed from the spec for exams for 2012
onwards so would not appear in future
post-mortem examinations
� scanning techniques.
�
(10 marks)
[10 marks: AO1 = 5, AO2 = 5]
AO1 Up to five marks for a description of two methods used to identify areas of cortical specialisation in the
brain.
Neurosurgery – the deliberate removal of areas of the brain and/or destroying the links between certain
areas of the brain.
Post-mortem examinations – a method in which the brain of a patient, usually with some known deficit, is
examined after death.
Scanning techniques – PET assesses metabolic activity in different parts of the brain;
CAT shows horizontal sections of the brain; MRI gives a clear and detailed picture of brain structures.
Credit description of relevant evidence up to two marks.
AO2 Candidates should discuss the methods described in AO1.
Neurosurgery – greater precision in the location of damage to the brain; comparison of human/non-human
behaviour before and after surgery; invasive technique; ethical problems of irreversible change in nonhumans; problems of extrapolating findings from animal research to explain human behaviour; problems
associated with plasticity; problem in saying the damaged area is a ‘centre’ for the functioning of a
behaviour or just part of an interconnection; problem of reduced functioning of areas adjacent to the
damage.
Post-mortem examinations – able to attribute abnormalities in brain with known deficit in patient; repeated
examinations produce a more exact correlation; furthers understanding of the brain; difficulty in obtaining a
human brain especially if the known deficit is particularly rare; difficulty in locating precise area of damage.
Scanning techniques – provides detailed pictures of areas of brain responsible for certain actions; patient is
able to perform tasks whilst conscious; can be non-invasive; issues of injecting radioactive substance with
PET scans – invasive procedure; does not always measure precise neuronal activity.
Credit use of relevant evidence.
Maximum 6 marks if only one method.
Mark bands
8 – 10 marks Good answers
There is accurate, well-organised and detailed description of two methods used
to investigate areas of cortical specialisation in the brain. Description of the two
methods may be imbalanced. The discussion is clear, coherent and detailed.
There is focus with little or no misunderstanding.
There is structure with effective use of paragraphs and sentences. There are
very few errors of spelling and punctuation.
4 – 7 marks Average answers
There is a reasonably accurate and organised description of the method(s)
though it may lack detail. Discussion may lack clarity, coherence or detail. There
may be some inaccuracy or irrelevance.
There is some structure with appropriate use of paragraphs and sentences.
There are some errors of spelling and punctuation.
Psychology B (PSYB1) - AQA GCE Mark Scheme 2009 June series
5
1 – 3 marks Poor answers
There is basic or limited knowledge/discussion of the method(s). The response
may be inaccurate and/or poorly focused.
There is little evidence of structure in terms of correct use of sentences and
paragraphs. There are frequent errors of spelling and punctuation.
0 marks No relevant content
(d) For the majority of candidates, the description of methods used to investigate cortical specialisation was
better than the evaluation. Poorer responses tended to provide quite common sense descriptions of the
methods as well as demonstrating inaccuracies in their understanding of scanning techniques – quite often,
EEGs were presented as a method of scanning and hence scored no marks. Better informed candidates
could, for example, distinguish between different scanning techniques, explain the different types of
neurosurgery and outline the rationale behind post-mortem studies. Evaluation points tended to focus on
quite simplistic statements pertaining to cost and time. Better evaluation points focused on the ethical
considerations, problems of cause and effect and issues of generalisability.
January 2010
General
Overall, performance this series was variable. Where candidates had clearly been well prepared by
centres, a number of excellent responses were seen across all three sections of the paper. However,
examiners noted that quite a number of candidate responses did not adhere to the question requirements;
producing heavily descriptive responses in the extended writing sections, leaving little time for evaluation
and discussion as a result.
In terms of administration, there are a number of points to make in relation to the process of online marking.
First, it is absolutely essential that candidates write their responses in black pen.
Candidates must also make sure that they write their response in the space allocated in the answer
booklet. Writing in the margin, underneath the allocated space and using arrows to direct an examiner
elsewhere in the paper is not acceptable. Where candidates make a mistake or wish to continue their
response beyond the allocated space, they should use the additional sheets provided by AQA. If additional
sheets are used, then candidates must make sure that they write their centre number, candidate number
and the question number(s) clearly on each sheet.
1 (a) What do humanistic psychologists mean by conditions of worth? Suggest how a parent
might place conditions of worth on his or her child.(2 marks)
[AO1 = 1, AO2 = 1]
AO1 One mark for correct definition of the term eg a child is only loved and accepted if their behaviour is
deemed to be acceptable.
AO2 One mark for an appropriate suggestion in relation to the term i.e. what the parent does to show their
appreciation or the expected behaviour the child displays.
Do not credit repetition of the definition..
Possible answer: a parent may only give their child a cuddle if they behave themselves
(AO2, 1).
(a) Relatively few candidates were able to provide a correct definition of the term. A number of candidates
misinterpreted the question, referring incorrectly to unconditional positive regard or the behaviourist
principle of reinforcement, hence scoring no marks.
Despite this, there were some good examples of how a parent might place conditions of worth on his or her
child.
1 (b) (i) Outline what is meant by evolution.(2 marks)
[AO1 = 2]
AO1 Up to two marks for each relevant point.
Likely answers: gradual change in inherited traits of a species over many generations; adaptation to the
environment; natural selection; survival of the fittest, etc.
Credit any relevant example as an expansion point.
Credit appropriate alternative answers.
(b)(i) Candidates demonstrated an understanding of the term evolution by referring to points
such as gradual changes over time in a species, natural selection, survival of the fittest. Marks were not
awarded however, where candidates simply reiterated the term as part of their answer.
1 (b) (ii) Explain how one human or non-human behaviour may have resulted from the process of
evolution (2 marks)
[AO2 = 2]
AO2 Up to two marks for an explanation of how an appropriate behaviour may have resulted from the
process of evolution.
The response may focus on the advantage the behaviour has given e.g. survival, mating, continuation of
the genes.
Likely behaviours: rooting reflex; sexual selection/mate preferences; parental investment;
bonding/attachment behaviours; aggression, animal displays of behaviour; territoriality etc.
(b)(ii) The question required candidates to provide an example of one human or non-human behaviour.
Some good responses were seen in relation to sexual selection and the rooting reflex. Candidates were
awarded full marks as long as they provided a response that clearly addressed how this behaviour had
resulted from evolutionary processes. Unfortunately, a number of candidates gave physiological examples,
as opposed to examples of behaviour thus scoring no marks.
1 (c) (i) Post-mortem examinations of the brain have been used to study cortical specialisation.
Explain how post-mortem examinations have helped us to understand cortical specialisation.(2
marks)
[AO3 = 2]
AO3 Up to two marks for a brief explanation of the method.
Possible answer: Post-mortem examinations allow for identification of abnormality in areas of the brain
(AO3, 1). Any damage found can then be related to symptoms/behaviours shown by the person when they
were alive (AO3, 1).
Credit appropriate alternative answers e.g. Broca.
(c)(i) Responses to this question were fairly disappointing. Where candidates clearly knew what a postmortem procedure involved up to two marks was awarded. Often, candidates gave quite a general
response and failed to refer to the processes involved in a post-mortem procedure thereby limiting marks.
1 (c) (ii) Briefly explain one other method used to investigate cortical specialisation in the
brain.(2 marks)
[AO3 = 2]
AO3 One mark for naming an appropriate method.
One further mark for a brief explanation of what the method entails.
Likely answers:
Neurosurgery – operating on/accidentally destroying structures within the brain- see how behaviour is
affected.
EEGs – recordings of the electrical activity of the brain are made from electrodes placed on an individual’s
scalp to see which areas are active when cognitive tasks are performed.
Electrical stimulation – measures cortical specialisation either by stimulation of single neurons or groups of
neurons correlating with behaviour/effect/patient’s reported sensation.
Scanning techniques eg PET scans – injection of radioactive glucose into the bloodstream of an individual.
The area(s) of the brain that use the radioactive glucose are then detected and measured. fMRI scans – a
type of specialised MRI scan which provides an image of an individual’s brain activity, based on blood flow,
every few seconds. The area of the brain most active can be observed.
Credit appropriate alternative answers.
(c)(ii) The majority of candidates were able to provide one other method used to investigate
cortical specialisation and explain this method accurately.
1 (d) Describe and evaluate the behaviourist approach in psychology.(10 marks)
[AO1 = 5, AO2 = 5]
AO1 Up to five marks for a description of the features of the behaviourist approach in psychology. Features
may include – the focus on observable behaviour. All behaviour is learned and can be best understood in
terms of associations between stimulus and response. Behaviour is determined by our interactions and
experiences in the environment. Principles of operant conditioning – the use of
consequences/reinforcement to shape behaviour. Principles of classical conditioning – temporal
associations between neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus (credit diagrammatic representation).
Psychology should be both scientific and objective. The nomothetic approach to psychology. How it is
possible to apply the findings from animal research in order to explain human behaviour.
Credit description of relevant evidence (one mark).
AO2 Up to five marks for evaluation. In terms of the strengths, the approach has been praised for its use of
highly controlled and scientific methods of research. In terms of the limitations, candidates may state how
the behaviourist approach oversimplifies the stimulus-response links used to explain all forms of behaviour.
The approach neglects the role of mental processes in determining behaviour, unlike the cognitive
approach in psychology. The behaviourist approach suggests that all behaviour is determined by our
environment thereby stating that there is no free-will – a point criticised by humanistic psychologists. The
approach has been viewed as crude in extrapolating the findings from animal research to explain human
behaviour. In terms of application of the behaviourist approach to psychology, candidates may portray the
many practical applications of the behaviourist approach – token economy programmes for criminals;
behaviour modification therapy for autism, etc. Credit use of relevant evidence and diagrams.
Mark bands
8 – 10 marks Good answers
There is accurate, well-organised and detailed description of the behaviourist approach in psychology. The
evaluation is clear, coherent and detailed. There is focus with little or no misunderstanding.
There is structure with effective use of paragraphs and sentences. There are very few errors of spelling and
punctuation.
4 – 7 marks Average answers
There is a reasonably accurate and organised description of some features of the behaviourist approach
though it may lack detail. Evaluation may lack clarity, coherence or detail. There may be some inaccuracy
or irrelevance.
There is some structure with appropriate use of paragraphs and sentences.
There are some errors of spelling and punctuation.
1 – 3 marks Poor answers
There is basic or limited knowledge/evaluation of the behaviourist approach. The response may be
inaccurate and/or poorly focused.
There is little evidence of structure in terms of correct use of sentences and paragraphs. There are frequent
errors of spelling and punctuation.
0 marks No relevant content
(d) The majority of responses to this question were purely descriptive. Candidates clearly knew some basic
assumptions of the behaviourist approach but spent too much time describing Pavlov’s and Skinner’s
experiments and the case study of Little Albert. One mark was available for description of relevant studies,
so overall, where candidates produced a lengthy, descriptive answer, marks were limited. Although not
required by the question, it was pleasing to see how a number of candidates attempted to bring in another
approach in psychology as part of their evaluation.
June 2010
General
Some good responses were seen this series where candidates had clearly been well prepared.
Top band answers that were concise, detailed and coherent were seen in a number of scripts which was
pleasing. As in previous series however, there are a number of general points for centres to note.
Candidates must label their answers clearly. Some expertise was required by many examiners where
candidates had simply written a response but had not indicated which question they were answering. As
stated on the front of the examination paper, black pen or ink is to be used as it is extremely difficult to read
responses where candidates have not adhered to this requirement. Finally, it was noted by many
examiners that answers to a number of extended writing questions – both 1(d) and 2(d) – were merely rotelearned and thus failed to address the specific requirements of the question set.
1 (a) Humanistic psychologists have claimed that all individuals can achieve self-actualisation.
1 (a) (i) Explain what is meant by self-actualisation. (2 marks)
[AO2 = 2]
AO2 One mark for relevant features eg a (innate) tendency to reach one’s full potential; reference to
motivation/drive; features of hierarchy of needs; characteristics of self-actualisation, etc.
One further mark for an appropriate expansion of the term.
Credit features of either Maslow, Rogers or both.
(a)(i) This question differentiated well between candidates. Where candidates clearly understood the term
self-actualisation, some excellent responses were seen.
However, a number of candidates focused solely on the concept of self and issues associated with selfesteem, thereby limiting marks.
1 (a) (ii) Explain one problem with the concept of self-actualisation.(2 marks)
[AO2 = 2]
AO2 One mark for an appropriate identification of a problem.
One mark for a brief explanation of the problem.
Likely answers: it may not be possible to achieve self-actualisation; people may not always feel accepted
by others; not a unitary concept; difficult to define the concept; hard to measure; a Western concept that
might not apply to all cultures; selfactualisation may be achieved in different ways eg religion; unrealistic
optimism, etc.
(a) (ii) Many candidates failed to take note of the instruction to explain one problem with the concept of
self-actualisation. Many answers merely listed several problems thereby limiting marks. Better
answers focused on the problem of measurement or achievability.
1 (b) Cognitive psychologists often propose models of mental processes.
1 (b) (i) Identify one model used by cognitive psychologists.(1 mark)
[AO1 = 1]
AO1 One mark for identification of an appropriate model.
Likely answers: information-processing model; input-process-output; computer model; computational
model; connectionist model; models of memory eg multi-store; models of attention eg Broadbent etc.
Credit any other appropriate cognitive model.
(b)(i) The majority of candidates were able to identify an appropriate model used by cognitive
psychologists, with the information-processing model being the most popular.
1 (b) (ii) Outline one reason why cognitive psychologists use models of mental processes.(2 marks)
[AO3 = 2]
AO3 Up to two marks for a plausible reason.
One mark for a basic response.
Two marks for an appropriate elaboration of the reason.
Likely answers: simplifies complex process; turns abstract concept into concrete form; provides a
framework for research, etc.
(b)(ii) This question differentiated well between candidates. Better answers focused on the use of models to
represent and help understand the processes involved in memory, for example. Poorer answers simply
suggested that the ‘models showed how the brain worked’ or similar.
1 (c) (i) What do psychodynamic psychologists mean by a defence mechanism? (1 mark)
AO1 One mark for an appropriate answer.
Likely answers: a way of protecting the conscious self from anxiety/unpleasant events; protection of ego;
unconscious coping strategy.
Do not credit conscious behaviours.
(c)(i) Most candidates were able to provide an appropriate definition of a defence mechanism.
1 (c) (ii) Name and outline one defence mechanism. (2 marks)
[AO1 = 2]
AO1 One mark for identification of a defence mechanism.
Likely answers: repression; regression; denial; displacement; sublimation; rationalisation,
etc.
One further mark for outline of the defence mechanism.
Credit candidates who provide a description of a defence mechanism by use of an example.
(c)(ii) The most popular defence mechanisms were repression and denial. However, the outline of these
mechanisms was at times confused. Credit was given to candidates who used an appropriate example as
part of their outline. A number of candidates rather worryingly provided a biological fight or flight response
which obviously was not creditworthy.
1 (d) Discuss the behaviourist approach in psychology. Refer to classical conditioning and operant
conditioning in your answer. (10 marks)
[AO1 = 5, AO2 = 5]
Examiners must read the whole response prior to marking in order to make a band
judgement about whether the response is Very good (9-10 marks), Good (6-8 marks),
Average to weak (3-5 marks) or Poor (1-2 marks). Examiners should be guided by the
band judgement when annotating the script.
AO1 Up to five marks for a description of the features of the behaviourist approach in psychology. Features
may include – the focus on observable behaviour. All behaviour is learned and can be best understood in
terms of associations between stimulus and response. Behaviour is determined by our interactions and
experiences in the environment. Candidates must refer to the principles of both classical and operant
conditioning in their response. Classical conditioning – temporal associations between neutral stimulus and
unconditioned stimulus (credit diagrammatic representation).
Operant conditioning – the use of consequences/reinforcement to shape behaviour.
Psychology should be both scientific and objective. The nomothetic approach to psychology. How it is
possible to apply the findings from animal research in order to explain human behaviour.
Credit up to 2 marks for description of relevant evidence.
AO2 Up to five marks for discussion. In terms of the strengths, the approach has been praised for its use of
highly controlled and scientific methods of research. In terms of the limitations, candidates may state how
the behaviourist approach oversimplifies the stimulus-response links used to explain all forms of behaviour.
The approach neglects the role of mental processes in determining behaviour, unlike the cognitive
approach in psychology. The behaviourist approach suggests that all behaviour is determined by our
environment thereby stating that there is no free-will – a point criticised by humanistic psychologists. The
behaviourist approach focuses on the importance of the environment/nurture in contrast to the nature
aspect of the biological approach. The approach has been viewed as crude in extrapolating the findings
from animal research to explain human behaviour. In terms of application of the behaviourist approach to
psychology, candidates may portray the many practical applications of the behaviourist approach – token
economy programmes for criminals; behaviour modification therapy for autism, etc.
Credit use of relevant evidence.
Maximum 6 marks if no reference to conditioning theory.
Mark bands
9 – 10 marks Very good answers
There is accurate, well-organised and detailed description of the behaviourist approach in psychology
including reference to both classical and operant conditioning. The evaluation is clear, coherent and
detailed. The answer is well focused with little or no misunderstanding.
The answer is well structured with effective use of paragraphs, sentences and psychological terminology.
There are few errors of spelling and punctuation.
6 – 8 marks Good answers
There is a reasonably accurate and organised description of the features of the behaviourist approach
though some detail may be lacking. There is some reference to conditioning theory (either classical
conditioning, operant conditioning or both). Evaluation is present but it may be limited in either depth or
breadth. There may be some misunderstanding, irrelevance or limited focus.
The answer has some structure with appropriate use of paragraphs, sentences and psychological
terminology. There are some errors of spelling and punctuation.
3 – 5 marks Average to weak answers
There is some knowledge of the behaviourist approach and/or basic/limited evaluation. The answer may
lack focus. There may be substantial inaccuracy and/or irrelevance.
Some basic ideas are expressed adequately though the answer may lack structure. Psychological
terminology may be missing or used inappropriately.
There may be some intrusive errors of grammar, spelling or punctuation.
1 – 2 marks Poor answer
There is extremely limited knowledge/evaluation of the behaviourist approach.
There must be some relevant information.
Basic ideas are poorly expressed. There is little evidence of structure. There may be many errors in
grammar, spelling and punctuation.
0 marks No relevant content
(d) Some good answers were seen in response to this question with clear focus on appropriate knowledge,
evidence and evaluation. These answers were detailed, coherent and expressed clearly. However, there
are still some misconceptions regarding the behaviourist approach. As an example, some candidates
stated that the behaviourist approach only studies animals and then went on to contradict themselves by
describing the success of token economy programmes in prisons. Confusion was also seen with regard to
the principles of both operant and classical conditioning.
Perhaps because the question specifically asked candidates to refer to classical and operant conditioning
in their answer, some candidates completely neglected the more general features of the behaviourist
approach, for example, research methods. This meant that a number of answer were quite limited in scope.
January 2011
General
Candidate performance this series was variable. In both the extended writing questions, a common error
was for candidates merely to state evaluative points without really qualifying why the point was a strength
or limitation. In order to access the higher mark bands, this issue should be addressed by centres for future
examination series. An issue of some concern raised by a number of examiners was the quality of written
communication. Whilst it is appreciated that candidates are under time pressure in an examination, they
must try their best to convey points clearly. Regarding administration issues, it is essential that candidates
write in black ink/ballpoint pen only, as it is very difficult to read responses on a computer screen when they
have not been written in blue ink/ballpoint pen. Where candidates use additional sheets, they should state
clearly which question is being answered, the centre number, candidate number, candidate name, paper
reference (PSYB1) and examination board. It is rather an onerous task for examiners to have to complete
this information on behalf of all those candidates who do not label their answers as required.
1 (a) (i) What do social learning theorists mean by mediating cognitive factors? (1 mark)
[AO1 = 1]
AO1 One mark for a correct answer eg, the thought processes that lie between stimulus and
response/internal mental processes. Do not credit specific processes eg thinking, attention, memory,
perception, language
(a)(i) Candidates’ responses to this question were variable. There was a requirement to refer to
thought/mental processes for one mark. Few answers conveyed the meaning of the term sufficiently
clearly. Just referring to ‘thinking’ was not enough to score a mark.
1 (a) (ii) Suggest one methodological problem that might arise when investigating mediating cognitive
factors.(1 mark)
[AO3 = 1]
AO3 One mark for an appropriate suggestion eg lack of objectivity/unobservable/has to be inferred/issue of
validity/modern methods require specialist technology, etc.
(a)(ii) This question was answered well. Many candidates were able to give a methodological problem
involved in investigating mediating cognitive factors. Common responses referred to the issues of inference
and lack of objectivity.
1 (b) Name one of Freud’s psychosexual stages of development. Explain how an adult might demonstrate
one behaviour associated with this stage of development.(3 marks)
[AO1 = 1, AO2 = 2]
AO1 One mark for naming an appropriate psychosexual stage of development eg, oral, anal, phallic, latent,
genital.
AO2 Up to two marks for an explanation of one behaviour typically exhibited by an adult in this stage.
One mark for an appropriate behaviour in relation to the named stage eg oral stage – pen chewing/anal
stage – excessively tidy.
One mark for explanation clearly relating the behaviour to the stage eg reference to fixation.
Note: If candidates name the oral stage of development yet provide behaviours associated with the anal
stage of development, then a maximum of one mark.
(b) Many responses focused on the oral and anal stages of psychosexual development.
Candidates were able to explain how an adult might demonstrate a behaviour associated with these stages
eg pen chewing and being excessively tidy respectively. A number of responses failed to explain the issue
of fixation, hence limiting overall marks.
1 (c) Derek and David are identical twins. The twins were separated at birth and raised in very different
families. Derek was given a healthy diet. David was raised in a poor environment where his family could
not afford much food. When the twins were re-united at 40 years old, Derek was tall but David was much
shorter.
Distinguish between the terms genotype and phenotype. Refer to Derek and David in your answer. (5
marks)
[AO1 = 2, AO2 = 3]
AO1 One mark each for a correct definition of the terms.
Possible answer: Genotype refers to a person’s genetic make-up (AO1, 1).
Phenotype refers to the expression of genes shown by an individual (AO1, 1).
AO2 One mark for a distinction between the two terms eg, carrying of the gene without displaying the
characteristic; observable/non-observable; changeable/unchangeable;
PKU, etc (AO2, 1). Two further marks for explicit reference to the stem ie genotype and phenotype.
Possible answer: Derek and David share the same genotype as they share 100% of their genes / come
from the same egg, etc. (AO2, 1). However, their phenotypes ie height are very different probably due to
the contrasting environments in which they were raised (AO2, 1).
Do not credit repeat of the stem.
(c) This question differentiated well. The majority of candidates provided appropriate definitions of both
genotype and phenotype. However, few candidates were able to make an explicit distinction between the
two terms eg fixed versus malleable. In relation to the scenario, most responses identified the fact that the
twins shared the same genotype and could link the idea of phenotype to the difference in height of the
twins.
1 (d) Describe the behaviourist approach in psychology and evaluate the research methods used by
behaviourist psychologists.(10 marks)
[AO1 = 5, AO3 = 5]
Examiners must read the whole response prior to marking in order to make a band
judgement about whether the response is Very Good (9-10 marks), Good (6-8 marks),
Weak to Average (3-5 marks) or Poor (1-2 marks). Examiners should be guided by the
band judgement when annotating scripts.
AO1 Up to five marks for a description of the behaviourist approach in psychology.
Features may include – all behaviour is learned and can be best understood in terms of associations
between stimulus and response. Behaviour is determined by our interactions and experiences in the
environment. Candidates may refer to the principles of both classical and operant conditioning in their
response. Classical conditioning – temporal associations between neutral stimulus and unconditioned
stimulus (credit diagrammatic representation). Operant conditioning – the use of consequences
/reinforcement to shape behaviour.
Credit up to three marks for description of studies and/or research methods.
AO3 Up to five marks for an evaluation of the research methods used by behaviourist psychologists.
Candidates are likely to refer to the controlled experimental methods and use of animals by behaviourists in
their response.
Controlled experimental methods:
Strengths - establish cause and effect; manipulate IV; control for extraneous variables; scientific methods;
objectivity, etc.
Limitations – artificiality of controlled experiments; lacks ecological validity; representativeness, etc.
Use of animals:
Strengths – short gestation period; more ethical than using humans; generalisability to human behaviour,
etc.
Limitations – crude to extrapolate findings to explain human behaviour; lacks generalisability;
representativeness, etc.
Note: Candidates may also receive AO3 credit by comparing the research methods used in other
approaches in psychology.
Mark bands
9 – 10 marks Very good answers
There is accurate, well-organised and detailed description of the behaviourist approach and associated
methods in psychology. The evaluation of the research methods is clear, coherent and detailed. The
answer is well focused with little or no misunderstanding.
The answer is well structured with effective use of paragraphs, sentences and psychological terminology.
There are few errors of spelling and punctuation.
6 – 8 marks Good answers
There is reasonably accurate and organised description of the behaviourist approach though some detail
may be lacking. There is some reference to the behaviourist methods. Evaluation of the research methods
is present but it may be limited in either depth or breadth. There may be some misunderstanding,
irrelevance or limited focus.
The answer has some structure with appropriate use of paragraphs, sentences and psychological
terminology. There are some errors of spelling and punctuation.
3 – 5 marks Average to weak answers
There is some knowledge of the behaviourist approach/methods used by behaviourists and/or basic/limited
evaluation. The answer may lack focus.
There may be substantial inaccuracy and/or irrelevance.
Some basic ideas are expressed adequately though the answer may lack structure. Psychological
terminology may be missing or used inappropriately.
There may be some intrusive errors of grammar, spelling or punctuation.
1 – 2 marks Poor answers
There is extremely limited knowledge/evaluation of the behaviourist approach/methods. There must be
some relevant information.
Basic ideas are poorly expressed. There is little evidence of structure. There may be errors in grammar,
spelling and punctuation.
0 marks No relevant content
(d) The majority of candidates scored in the ‘average to weak answer’ band. In a number of responses,
candidates seemed to produce rote-learned answers in relation to a general question on the behaviourist
approach rather than reading the question carefully. In terms of description of the approach, better answers
provided a range of features/assumptions. Weaker answers were limited to descriptions of Pavlov’s and
Skinner’s experiments. For the second part of the question, candidates were required to evaluate the
research methods used by the behaviourist approach not the approach as a whole. This was met with
varying success. Most candidates raised the issue of the use of animals in experimental research and the
fact that the behaviourist approach employs scientific methods in its research. However, few responses
demonstrated any further knowledge of research methods beyond these two issues hence limiting overall
marks. It was also common to observe candidates offering evaluations in the format of a list rather than
qualifying their points as one would expect in a discussion based answer.
General evaluations of the approach received no credit as this was not the focus of the question.
June 2011
1 (a) Below is a diagram of a motor neuron with
structures that are labelled A, B and C.
Write the name of each of these structures in the
boxes provided.
A=
B=
C=
(3 marks)
[AO1 = 3]
A = Dendrites
B = Cell body (do not accept cell or body cell), soma, cytoplasm, nucleus
C = Axon, myelin sheath, nodes of Ranvier, Schwann cells
(a) Although almost half of the responses gained full marks for this question, many candidates were unable
to offer accurate or recognisable names for the components required.
1 (c) Explain two limitations of the humanistic approach in psychology. (4 marks)
[AO2 = 4]
AO2 Award up to 2 marks for each limitation.
One mark for brief/muddled explanation of the limitation.
Two marks each for a clear explanation of the limitation.
Likely limitations: theories are hard to falsify; unscientific approach; rejects empirical evidence; ignores
cultural constraints in a person’s ability to change and develop; emphasis on Western culture and values;
concepts do not apply in the same way in other cultures; emotions and consciousness are difficult to study
objectively; over optimistic/idealistic – assuming everyone can reach self-actualisation and is able to
exercise free will; the focus on individuals means that generalisation is not really appropriate.
Candidates may also receive credit for a comparison with other approaches in psychology if used in explicit
relation to the question.
(c) Candidates found it quite difficult to express clearly the limitations of the humanistic approach.
Sometimes issues with the approach such as lack of scientific rigour or lack of evidence were phrased
inappropriately; eg there is no evidence, it rejects genes, it rejects the
behaviourist/cognitive/psychodynamic approach. Other comments were often criticisms of key concepts of
the approach with little explanation of why that concept could be seen to be a limiting feature. Many
candidates seemed to believe that free will means an individual can ‘do anything’ and this is a limitation
because ‘we cannot just do what we want.’
1 (d) Describe and evaluate the social learning theory approach in psychology. Refer to
evidence in your answer. (10 marks)
[AO1 = 5, AO2 = 5]
Examiners must read the whole response prior to marking in order to make a band judgement about
whether the response is very good (9 – 10 marks), good (6 – 8 marks), average to weak (3 – 5 marks) or
poor (1 – 2 marks). Examiners should be guided by the band judgement when annotating.
AO1 Up to five marks for a description of the features/assumptions of social learning theory. Candidates
may state how social learning theory acts as a bridge between behaviourism and the cognitive approach in
psychology (reciprocal determinism) with its focus on the importance of internal mental processes that are
involved in learning; learning occurs by observing others in the environment; the theory of observational
learning based on Bandura’s four conditions – attention, retention, motor reproduction, motivation.
Candidates may describe the concepts of modelling, vicarious reinforcement, imitation, identification, etc.
The role of live models and symbolic models that are involved in learning. Characteristics of models that
make them more/less likely to be imitated eg status, attractiveness etc.
Credit description of relevant evidence (one mark) eg Bandura’s Bobo doll experiments.
AO2 Up to five marks for evaluation of the approach. Candidates may choose to focus on the strength of
social learning theorists who view mental processes that are involved in learning as essential unlike the
behaviourist approach. The use of both experimental methods and non-experimental methods involved in
research and the focus on humans rather than animals may be viewed as a strength of this approach.
The approach can be viewed as less deterministic compared to the behaviourist approach. Candidates may
state how the approach can be applied to many areas of psychology eg gender development. Candidates
may also focus on the limitations of social learning theory - the approach does not explain how we store or
reproduce the observed behaviour. The approach tends to ignore subjective, individual experiences. Some
of the research methods used eg laboratory may lack ecological validity. Credit comparisons with other
approaches.
Credit use of relevant evidence.
Maximum 6 marks if no reference to evidence
Maximum 8 marks if the evaluation focuses only on explaining gender
(d) This was reasonably well answered with a good spread of marks awarded, however, candidates did find
it difficult to reach the top band of 9/10 marks. There was a great deal of muddle in some of the description
offered by candidates who could not distinguish clearly between the features of behaviourism and SLT.
Many failed to understand that in some research the behaviour of children was directly reinforced and
therefore the study cited was not an example of SLT and observational learning.
Descriptions of Bandura’s research were varied with numerous versions given.
Unfortunately, some candidates then criticised the study without making attempts to show how such
criticism might impact on the approach itself. A surprising number of candidates referred to the Bobo doll
investigations as case studies. Evaluation of the approach was quite weak and many candidates presented
a series of undeveloped points. Often these were merely points of difference between the SLT approach
and other approaches such as ‘SLT ignores biology/the unconscious or even – free will’.
Candidates should recognise that superficial differences are not creditworthy unless the impact on the
usefulness of the theory under discussion is made clear. It was gratifying to note that some candidates did
focus on discussion of gender differences in imitative behaviour and how research into testosterone might
account for these when mere imitation did not. Overall, candidates failed to appreciate the role of mediating
cognitive factors and how these can account for whether or not an individual chooses to copy an observed
behaviour.
January 2012
1 (a) Using an example, explain what is meant by the fight or flight response.(3 marks)
[AO1 = 3]
AO1 One mark for reference to perceived threatening/stressful situation (could be through
definition or example).
One mark for reference to physiological change.
One mark for example of response/action.
(a) Although many students were able to describe the actions of the sympathetic division accurately
referring to the perceived ‘threat,’ the physiological change and the alternative behaviours available, the
choice of examples was not always sensible.
Students who described ‘going on a roller coaster/taking an examination,’ found it difficult to describe fight
or flight behaviours in these situations. Some students stated that ‘fight is sympathetic and flight is
parasympathetic.’
1 (b) Discuss one strength or limitation of PET scans as a way of identifying areas of cortical specialisation
in the brain (3 marks)
[AO3 = 3]
AO3 Up to two marks for identification of a relevant strength or limitation and explanation of the strength or
limitation.
One mark for relating the strength or limitation to cortical specialisation.
Likely points: precision/accuracy/control with the method; invasive procedure; ethical problems of
intervention eg injection of radioactive glucose/informed consent; reliability of interpretation etc.
(b) This was a poorly answered question as many students found it very difficult to discuss the strength or
limitation they had chosen and instead resorted to listing additional possible strengths and limitations. It
was rarely the case that the identified strength or limitation was related to cortical specialisation.
1 (c) Explain two strengths of the behaviourist approach in psychology. (4 marks)
[AO3 = 3]
AO3 Up to two marks for identification of a relevant strength or limitation and explanation of the strength or
limitation.
One mark for relating the strength or limitation to cortical specialisation.
Likely points: precision/accuracy/control with the method; invasive procedure; ethical problems of
intervention eg injection of radioactive glucose/informed consent; reliability of interpretation etc.
Question 1c
[AO2 = 4]
AO2 Up to two marks each for knowledge and explanation of each relevant strength.
Maximum of one mark for knowledge of one or two strength(s)/feature(s) that are not explained or
elaborated appropriately.
Likely answers: focus on experimental methodology; scientific aspect of the approach; universal laws of
learning; provides explanations for a range of behaviours
eg development; provides explanations for a specified behaviour eg phobias; contributes to the naturenurture debate; approach can be applied to behavioural problems eg token economy etc.
(c) Students found it quite difficult to express clearly the strengths of the behaviourist approach.
Unfortunately, many concepts identified as strengths were really features of the approach and answers
sometimes contained long descriptions of the work of Pavlov or Skinner with no real attempt to link this
material to a possible strength.
1 (d) Describe the humanistic approach in psychology and discuss differences between this approach and
the psychodynamic approach.(10 marks)
[AO1 = 5, AO2 = 5]
Examiners must read the whole response prior to marking in order to make a band judgement about
whether the response is very good, good, average to weak, or poor.
Examiners should be guided by the band judgement when annotating.
AO1 Up to five marks for a description of the features of the humanistic approach in psychology. Features
could include the concept of free will; focus on self and selfconcept; personal growth; (un)conditional
positive regard; each person is unique and should be treated as such; study of subjective experience; client
related therapy;
Rogers/Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs; self-actualisation; research methods used – Qsort technique/openended interviews. Credit description of relevant evidence (one mark).
AO2 Up to five marks for differences between this approach and the psychodynamic approach.
Likely differences: The humanistic approach focuses on the present/future versus the retrospective
accounts of the psychodynamic approach; humanistic psychologists are more positive in their outlook of
human behaviour versus the negative views of the psychodynamic approach; humanistic psychologists
focus on the person’s conscious mind whereas the psychodynamic approach focuses on the unconscious
mind; humanistic psychologists focus on eg Maslow’s drive for self-actualisation versus the psychodynamic
view of motivational/underlying physiological forces; the humanistic approach is based on free-will versus
the psychodynamic focus on determinism; different approaches to therapy (directive versus client-centred).
One approach being more or less ‘x’ than the other is an acceptable contrast.
(d) This question required students to provide an accurate description of features and concepts associated
with the humanistic approach and then to organise their understanding of the distinguishing features of the
humanistic and psychodynamic approaches to provide a discussion of differences between them. The
descriptions of the work of humanistic psychologists were varied and a number of students covered a good
range of concepts and were able to achieve 4/5 AO1 marks for their knowledge. It was encouraging to read
the answers of students who had developed an understanding that was beyond rote learning and could
therefore produce effective discussion of concepts of free will and the unconscious, positive outlook and
pessimism and non-directive and directive therapy. However, many students did not seem to understand
how to deal with differences between the approaches beyond stating these. Some students listed
similarities rather than differences.
June 2012 **Examiners report not yet available as at Dec 2012**
1 (a) Psychologists have identified many areas of cortical specialisation in the brain.
These include:
A the motor centre
B the auditory centre
C the visual centre
D the somatosensory centre.
Below is a diagram of the human brain. Identify three areas of cortical specialisation by writing A, B, C or D
in each of the boxes that are provided. Use a different letter for each box.
[AO1 = 3]
AO1 One mark each for the correct area of cortical specialisation.
D = Somatosensory centre
C = Visual centre
B = Auditory centre
1 (b) Briefly evaluate the use of EEGs as a way of identifying cortical specialisation in the brain (3 marks)
[AO3 = 3]
AO3 Up to three marks for a brief evaluation of the use of EEGs. Credit up to 3 separate evaluative points
or one point fully elaborated or a combination of these.
Likely points: safe way of measuring brain activity; there is no surgery or invasive process; helps to identify
activity in various regions of brain; its use as a diagnostic tool eg epilepsy; lacks precision in measuring
individual action potential of neurons/electrodes not sensitive enough, etc.
1 (c) Emily very much wanted to pass her ballet examination, but after she failed the examination she did
not seem upset.
Suggest one defence mechanism and use your knowledge of this defence mechanism to explain why
Emily was not upset after failing her ballet examination (2 marks)
[AO2 = 2]
AO2 One mark for suggesting an appropriate defence mechanism.
Likely answers: rationalisation/denial/repression, etc.
One mark for explanation of the defence mechanism in relation to the scenario eg Emily’s upset/the
event/exam failure/the situation. For the second mark, the explanation must match the named defence
mechanism.
Possible answer: Rationalisation (AO2, 1). Emily may not see the examination result as important as she
was not fully prepared (AO2, 1).
1 (d) Outline one limitation of the psychodynamic approach. (2 marks)
[AO2 = 2]
AO2 One mark for a brief outline of a problem/limitation and 2 marks for an elaborated outline of a problem.
Likely points: not testable/not falsifiable/key concepts not directly observable/problems of
generalisability/lack of scientific rigour, etc.
Possible answer: One problem of the psychodynamic approach is that the key concepts like the
unconscious are not directly observable (1 mark). That means that there is little objective evidence that can
be used to support the approach (1 mark).
1 (e) Describe and evaluate the humanistic approach in psychology. (10 marks)
[AO1 = 5, AO2 = 5]
AO1 Up to five marks for description of the features of the humanistic approach. Features could include
how each person is unique and/or good. The subjective experiences, feelings and thoughts of a person
should be of importance to psychologists (phenomenology). Focus on the importance of self and
congruence. Self-actualisation – every person has an innate tendency to reach his or her full potential.
Hierarchy of Needs. Concept of free will – able to choose and determine own actions. Conditions of worth.
Unconditional positive regard – the unconditional love is essential to the development of a well-adjusted
adult. Client-centred therapy – client at the centre of their own therapy in solving their own problems. The
idiographic approach – emphasis on understanding the uniqueness of a person. Concept of holism.
Research methods used eg the Q-sort technique. Credit description of relevant evidence (one mark).
AO2 Up to five marks for evaluation. The following points are likely to be made: The humanistic approach
has been criticised for its rejection of the scientific approach and its failure to use experiments to
understand and predict human behaviour. There is little objective evidence to support the assumptions
made by humanistic psychologists. Students may evaluate the approach in relation to other approaches, eg
the behaviourist approach which views humans as passively responding to stimuli in the environment.
Humanistic psychologists state that humans are active agents – able to change and determine their own
development. However, this may be seen as idealistic. Students may contrast the concept of free will with
the deterministic features of other approaches, eg the biological approach. The value of a person-centred
approach may be compared to the psychodynamic approach. Practical applications of the approach, eg
motivation in business world and client centred therapy. Credit other relevant points. Credit use of relevant
evidence.