Learning Difficulties and
Volunteer Training:
A Module for Tutor Training
Trainer Packet
Mary Dunn Siedow and Nancy Frazier
with
North Carolina Literacy Association Learning Disabilities
Training and Dissemination Project Partners
North Carolina Literacy Resource Center
North Carolina Community College System
2001
Learning Difficulties and Volunteer Tutoring
A Module for Tutor Training
Mary Dunn Siedow and Nancy Frazier
With Learning Disabilities Training and Dissemination (LDTD) Project Partners
North Carolina Literacy Resource Center, North Carolina Community College System, Fall 2001
This module is intended for use by volunteer literacy organizations, either in basic literacy
training or as an in-service workshop. The module is based on Bridges to Practice: A Researchbased Guide for Literacy Practitioners Serving Adults and on the experiences of LDTD Project
Partners as they implemented Bridges to Practice in their organizations.
Tutor trainers who use this module should be familiar with Bridges to Practice. Ideally, they
should attend the orientation session that introduces this module. Tutor trainers should read this
module carefully and should prepare overheads, charts, handouts, etc. before using it.
Module Packet
Included in the Learning Difficulties and Volunteer Training module packet are the following:



Training Script
Overhead Transparency Masters
Handout Masters
Literacy organization training teams and staff should determine together the best way to use the
module and materials. Handouts referred to in the “Directions and Talking Points” should be
duplicated for participants.
Objectives
By participating in this module, trainers and volunteer tutors should:



Gain a basic understanding of learning difficulties and disabilities.
Understand and be able to use a “strengths model” to help adults with learning difficulties
have successful experiences in tutoring programs.
Appreciate the need for effective instruction—including use of strengths, multisensory
techniques, and modifications.
Materials Needed



Flip chart or white board and markers
Overhead projector, transparencies and markers
Copies of participant packet—handouts, other resources
Training Script
The following pages provide a script for using the training module.
The information in this publication is based upon work supported by the National Institute for Literacy (NIFL) to ProLiteracy America, the U.S.
Division of ProLiteracy Worldwide. The information that it contains is based upon work supported by NIFL under Grant No. X257 B70003. Any
opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the
values of the NIFL.
The contents of this document are not official statements of ProLiteracy Worldwide. Legal information is included as examples and must be
reviewed by qualified legal counsel for compliance and applicable federal and state laws.
-1-
One: Introduction to Learning Difficulties and Disabilities
Time Materials
Directions and Talking Points
5 min
Map Overhead
(OH/HO-1)
Show the Map for the module. Explain that this is an overview of the
module. The Map begins with a guiding question and then illustrates
objectives.
5 min
Flip chart or
white board
Ask this focus question: “What does the term learning disability bring to
mind?”


10
min
LD quiz
Handout and
“answers”
Overhead
(OH/HO-2
Pass out the LD Quiz. Allow a few minutes for participants to match
people with learning difficulties. Show answers on the overhead. Discuss
the following or related topics:


5 min
NIFL LD
Handout
(HO-3)
Allow participants to respond. Make a list of responses on a flip
chart or white board. Tutors are likely to get things like: ADD,
AD/HD, dyslexia, “most adult learners have LD,” “My brother
(sister, child) has a LD (is dyslexic),” references to famous
people with LD, learning style, etc.
Be accepting and non-judgmental, but do not agree with
everything.
We sometimes hear that historical figures (DaVinci or Einstein)
had LD. We really cannot know this with certainty, and should
not make judgements about them.
Living people may have been diagnosed—or we may just be
repeating “conventional wisdom.”
Commonly heard “sound bites” about adults and learning disabilities
many times include the following estimates:


50-80% of adults in literacy programs have LD.
25-40% of people on welfare have LD.
Statements like these are common, but they are difficult to substantiate.
That’s because the statements are rarely accompanied by references.
Sound bites are just estimates—they don’t give us the best—or even
complete—pictures.
Talk about how the participants’ list and the LD quiz show the following:



We have varied ideas about learning disabilities.
We confuse terms.
We over-generalize and probably do far too much labeling.
-2-
Two: Understanding Learning Difficulties and Disabilities
(Optional Activity: Drop it or use it in place of the LD Quiz.)
Time Materials
Directions and Talking Points
5 min
Tell participants that that they will be working toward the following in
this portion of the training:




Flip chart,
white board, or
blank overhead
Understanding that learning disabilities are real.
Trying not to over-generalize about learning disabilities.
Distinguishing among some of the terms associated with LD
(styles, differences, difficulties, and disabilities).
Coming to an understanding of how volunteer literacy tutors can
assist adults with learning difficulties (disabilities).
Draw a line on a piece of flip chart paper, on a white board, or the
overhead. On the left side write “easy” and on the right side write
“impossible.” Tell participants to think of a continuum of learning, from
easy to nearly impossible.


Easy— people for whom learning is easy—school is a breeze.
These people are intelligent, possibly creative, and experience
few, if any, impediments to learning.
Impossible—people for whom every learning task presents great,
even insurmountable, difficulty.
Point out that in between are all manner of barriers to learning. Adults in
literacy programs may have experienced these barriers in school and now
may hope to overcome them. To assist learners, tutors should understand
what learning difficulties and disabilities are and should have a plan for
dealing with them as they work with adult learners.
Tell participants to keep the following general statements in mind when
working with learners:



For many individuals, learning is easy, and they have little
difficulty in school.
For most people with minor learning difficulties, learning needs
are still met in school.
For most people who have difficulty with learning, school is very
hard (or is nearly impossible). These are the individuals who
enter literacy programs as adults.
-3-
Three: Important Definitions—Position Statement
Time Materials
Directions and Talking Points
Tell participants that it is important to have clear definitions of learning
difficulties and disabilities. One reason for this is that there are legal
ramifications to terms like learning disability. Another reason is that
most people are not qualified to judge LD in others.
10
min
Styles /
differences /
disabilities
Overhead and
Handout
Show the accompanying overhead, uncovering the definitions as you talk
about them. Use the notes below. Allow participants to comment, and
ask questions.
(OH/HO-4)
Learning Styles—the preferred means of learning. Learning
styles may be visual (pictorial, reading, etc.), auditory (listening,
speaking, and remembering based on aural input), or kinesthetic
(tactile, learning from doing). For most people, the preferred style
is a mix of one or more styles. Learning styles develop from what
we find easy, interesting, and successful.
Learning Difficulties—the things that are hard to learn.
Everyone has difficulties learning some things. But these learners
have more serious difficulties. That’s why they enroll in literacy
programs. The difficulties may have been developed over a long
period of time, and there may be considerable baggage attached
to them. Tutors will be able to identify some of their learner’s
difficulties if they are observant. Tutors can work with staff to
find ways to help learners overcome them.
Learning Disabilities—a formal term, with legal ramifications,
for serious, “hard-wired” difficulties with learning. These
difficulties significantly impair efforts at learning.



10
min
LD Definitions
Overhead and
handout
(OH/HO-5)
Show participants the definition of learning disabilities. Explain that it
was made by a joint committee of LD experts who wanted it to include
the most critical information possible. Review each part of the definition
carefully.
Make a clear statement of your local program’s position. The following
is a general position statement:


Volunteers and staff are not in a position to diagnose learning
disabilities. They should refrain from using the term learning
disability except in those cases where there is a formal, legal
diagnosis.
If a tutor has tried many strategies with someone and thinks that a
difficulty may be so deep-seated as to truly be a disability,
consider getting a formal diagnosis for an adult learner.
-4-
Time Materials
Directions and Talking Points
 Learning disability is a much overused term. People use it freely,
almost jokingly; they label others who possess some
characteristics associated with learning disabilities.
Point out that dyslexia, Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD), and Attention
Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) are some of the most overused
terms for learning disabilities.


5 min
Dyslexia
Overhead and
Handout
(OH/HO-6)
Show the dyslexia definition. Say that in its true sense dyslexia refers to
a very small percentage of people whose severe reading disabilities are
due to central processing problems. These people find it extremely
difficult to learn to read but may be able to do many other intellectual
tasks. In a popular sense, dyslexia is misused to describe any difficulty
with reading.


5 min
There is considerable evidence that ADD and ADHD, while
debilitating conditions, are not—strictly speaking—learning
disabilities.
People think they know what dyslexia means, but generally use
the term far too loosely.
It is particularly of concern when people over-generalize that
someone has dyslexia simply because he or she displays one or
two characteristics often associated with it.
It is also of concern when someone says he or she once had
dyslexia but overcame it. In the truest sense of the definition, this
is unlikely. It is more likely that the person had a reading
difficulty that was remedied.
Sum up the definitions section by noting that learning difficulty is the
“term of choice.” By selecting it, tutors accomplish the following:





Have a definition stated in educational terms
Can use what is known about effective instruction to select
strategies and to modify instruction
Are not overstepping any legal boundaries
Are not adding to the misinformation about learning disabilities
Are not making light of learning disabilities that they are not
qualified to diagnose
Remind participants that learning disability is a legal term that requires
formal diagnosis by professionals. There is enough misunderstanding
about learning disabilities (especially dyslexia). Tutors should avoid
adding to the confusion or making light of LD. Tutors should refrain
from using the term learning disability in the absence of a formal
diagnosis.
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Four: Assessment Continuum
Time Materials
Directions and Talking Points
5 min
Show overhead. Tell participants that another way to look at the
differences among definitions is through an assessment continuum.
Assessment
Overhead and
Handout
(OH/HO-7)



Intake: When a learner enters a program, a staff person
interviews him or her and administers assessment tests to
determine a good starting place for instruction. Tutors and
learners may do additional assessment activities during their work
together.
Screening: If a tutor or learner suspects that a learner’s
difficulties require special kinds of instruction, he or she can
speak with program staff about more in-depth assessment.
Program staff can administer educational assessments to gain
more information about educational difficulties or screening
instruments to point to possible clues that recommend the learner
be referred for a learning disabilities diagnosis.
Diagnosis: Only when learner, tutor, and program staff are in
agreement that it is called for should program staff seek formal
diagnosis of a learning disability. The decision should be based
on the severity of learning difficulties, evidence from screening
instruments, availability of appropriate accommodations, and the
learner’s desire to undergo the diagnosis.
Remind participants that they need to communicate regularly with
program staff. They should discuss with learners and staff what is and
what isn’t working. Tutors should report any suspicions they and their
learners may have to program staff.
-6-
Five: Working with Learning Strengths and Preferences
(Optional Activity)
Time Materials
Directions and Talking Points
10
min
Ask: “What’s your preferred learning style?” Some participants may
respond quickly. Tell them that there are many ways to get an idea of
adults’ learning styles. One way is to respond to some situations that
involve learning. Present tutors with the following situation:
Learning Styles
Handout
(HO-8)
Suppose you are faced with a task that requires having a lot of
information about a topic. How would you respond to this checklist?
Now, suppose you are faced with a task that requires being able to
perform a series of physical steps. How would you respond to the
checklist?
Your preferred learning style is a combination of what you like and what
you do well. It probably is more than just one style. In fact, most people
use a combination of learning styles depending on the tasks they must
accomplish. Most people have also developed learning habits that avoid
styles that are difficult.
The same is true for adult learners in literacy programs—however these
adults are not likely to prefer learning through written language. They
may have well-developed auditory or tactile-kinesthetic styles, either
alone or in combination. They may use visual information to support
these styles. Tutors could use a similar checklist with learners,
remembering that the preferred styles are likely to be auditory,
kinesthetic, and visual (only when pictorial and not including words).
-7-
Six: Teaching Adults with Learning Difficulties
Time Materials
Directions and Talking Points
5 min
Remind participants that, as tutors, they are likely to encounter adults
with many kinds of difficulties that can affect their learning. These
difficulties:


10
min
Strengths and
Difficulties
Handout
(OH/HO-9)
Direct participants to the handout on working with strengths and
difficulties. Mention the following:



10
min
Modifications
Handout and
Overhead
(OH/HO-10)
Can be visual, auditory, tactile-kinesthetic, or a combination.
Often mirror strengths—a visual difficulty may be mirrored by a
strong auditory preference, or vice versa. An auditory or a visual
difficulty may mirror a preference for tactile-kinesthetic learning.
A strong preference for tactile-kinesthetic may mirror visual or
auditory difficulties.
Talk about how the handout helps to show a relationship between
strengths and difficulties. Discuss suggestions for capitalizing on
strengths and suggestions for instructional interventions in areas
of difficulty.
Note that in each area there are positives about learner strengths.
Also note that suggestions for dealing with difficulties often
relate to potential strengths in other areas.
Note that some recommendations use basic instructional
strategies. It is important to base all instruction on these basic
strategies. Tutors should then modify their approach to match
learner needs.
Direct participants to the handout on Instructional Modifications. Invite
them to share the ideas presented with learners. Some tutors and learners
may be leery of modifications. This handout helps to explain that
modifications are both legitimate and important ways to make instruction
work better for adults with learning difficulties.
-8-
Seven: Effective Tutoring
Time Materials
5 min
Effective
Tutoring
Handout and
Overhead
HO-11
OH-12
OH-13
OH-14
OH-15
Directions and Talking Points
Direct participants to the Effective Tutoring handout. Tell participants
that the handout summarizes the module and relates it to other
information presented about effective tutoring. The handout is organized
into clusters to show the importance of the following:
 Involving the learner
 Creating an effective learning environment
 Being well prepared
 Staying in touch with program staff
Discuss effective tutoring, using the overheads that correspond to
handout clusters.
5 min
Direct
Instruction
Handout and
Overhead
(OH/HO-16)
Direct participants to the Direct Instruction handout. Point out that direct
instruction has been shown to be effective with learners who have
difficulty learning. In direct instruction, teachers control the amount and
organization of content, provide guided and independent practice, and
monitor learner performance.
The version of direct instruction presented adds another element. That
element involves of learners becoming independently responsible for
their learning.
-9-
Eight: Shared Responsibilities, Resources
Time Materials
Directions and Talking Points
5 min
Tell participants that everyone involved in the tutoring process (the
learner, tutor, and program staff) has responsibilities in making tutoring
as successful as possible. Show the overhead and talk about the
following:
Shared
Responsibilities
Overhead and
Handout
(OH/HO-17)



5 min
Resources
Overhead
(HO/OH-18)
Program Responsibilities
Tutor Responsibilities
Learner Responsibilities
Use the Resources overhead to show participants that they and their
learners have access to a variety of helpful resources. Present the
following:



An overview of your program’s specific resources.
A list of resources available in your community.
The NC Literacy Resource Center (LRC). Tell participants that
by visiting the NC LRC website at http://www.nclrc.state.nc.us
they can do the following:
1. Locate books in the NC LRC library
2. Use the “Teacher/Tutor Resources” section to find LD
resources, including the following:




Bibliographies of NC LRC resources and websites
Information sheets and overheads
Bridges to Practice information
Connections to other LD resources through
LINCS.
- 10 -
Nine: Summary
Time Materials
Directions and Talking Points
5 min
Show the Map overhead again. Review the organizing question and
objectives.
Map Overhead
OH/HO-1
Summarize this module by discussing the following points:


LD is lifelong.
Significant numbers of adults in literacy programs may have LD,
beyond what is expected in the general population.
An appropriate position for a literacy organization to adopt is as follows:



Avoid labels.
Teach to strengths.
Be prepared for tutoring sessions.
Tutors can be effective educators by doing the following:





Work with the learner.
Together, create an effective learning environment.
Know and use effective strategies. Be prepared to adjust
instruction and make modifications to meet learner needs.
Be observant. If you and the learner believe that difficulties are
significantly impeding progress, talk with program staff. Staff
may suggest other strategies and materials. Or, staff may want to
screen for more information about the difficulties.
Be ready to talk to program staff about any difficulties you
encounter. Be able to describe the difficulty in terms of the
learning activity. Seek resources from staff and be accepting of
their ideas.
Contact:
NC Literacy Resource Center / NC Community College System
800-553-9759, 919-733-7051
Learning Disabilities Training and Dissemination Project
- 11 -
OH/HO-1
How can tutors
assist adults who have
difficulty learning?
Know about LD and
available resources
Know and use learner
strengths and preferences
Be an
effective tutor
Develop strengths
Use multisensory techniques
Modify as needed
NC Literacy Resource Center, NC Community College System
800-553-9759, 919-733-7051
Learning Disabilities Training and Dissemination Project, 2001
OH/HO-2
Can You Name These Famous People with Learning Difficulties?
Match these famous people to the descriptions below.
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
Albert Einstein
Cher
George Patton
Bruce Jenner
Tom Cruise
Agatha Christie
1____ Despite being a success in his chosen field, this entertainer can learn lines only by
listening to a tape. He is formally diagnosed with dyslexia.
2____ This individual is well spoken enough to appear as an expert on TV, following his very
successful athletic career. His reading problem was severe enough that it almost cost
him the chance at any athletic scholarships.
3____ This person had a learning disability called dysgraphia, which prevented any understandable
or legible written work. As a result, she had to dictate everything to a typist.
4____ This famous performer has achieved success in two major fields of entertainment.
Unfortunately a math learning disability keeps her from remembering telephone
numbers or from balancing a checkbook.
5____ When he was twelve years old, this person could not read, and he remained deficient in
reading all his life. However, he could memorize entire lectures, which was how he got
through school. His reading difficulty never stopped him from marching ahead.
Answers: 1 E, 2 D, 3 F, 4 B, 5 C
NC Literacy Resource Center, NC Community College System
800-553-9759, 919-733-7051
Learning Disabilities Training and Dissemination Project, 2001
HO-3a
Adults with Learning Disabilities
Definitions and Issues
Summer 1995
It has been estimated that 50-80% of the students in Adult Basic Education and literacy
programs are affected by learning disabilities (LD). Unfortunately, there has been little
research on adults who have learning disabilities, leaving literacy practitioners with limited
information on the unique manifestations of learning disabilities in adults.
One of the major goals of the National Adult Literacy and Learning Disabilities Center
(National ALLD Center) is to raise awareness among literacy practitioners, policy makers,
researchers, and adult learners about the nature of learning disabilities and their impact on the
provision of literacy services. This fact sheet provides: a definition of learning disabilities in
adults; a list of common elements found in many useful LD definitions; and a list of areas in
which LD may affect life situations of adults.
Background
In 1963, the term "learning disability" was used to describe such disorders as perceptual
handicaps, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. In
1975 the passage of regulations accompanying Public Law 94-142, the Education for All
Handicapped Children Act, specifically included a definition of learning disabilities for
children that served as a guideline to provide appropriate educational, legislative, and
judicial relief. The federal definition was based on the needs of children with learning
disabilities, not recognizing how their disability would affect them as adults.
It became apparent that learning disabilities persist throughout an individual's life, and it
became crucial to develop a definition that describes LD but did not limit the condition to
children. Thus, professionals in education, psychology, neurology, biology, and child
development have developed definitions that describe learning disabilities as a lifelong
condition.
Definition
Many useful definitions for LD have been accepted by educators, federal agencies, advocacy
groups, and/or professional organizations. After reviewing several of these definitions, the
National ALLD Center Advisory Board selected the Interagency Committee on Learning
Disabilities' definition of learning disabilities for use by the National Adult Literacy Learning
Disabilities Center. Advisory Board members selected this definition because it reflects
current information and issues associated with LD, allows for the presence of learning
disabilities at any age, and has been accepted by a committee with broad representation in the
LD community.
The Interagency Committee on Learning Disabilities Definition
Learning disabilities is a generic term that refers to a heterogeneous group of disorders
manifested by significant difficulties in acquisition and use of listening, speaking, reading,
writing, reasoning, or mathematical abilities, or of social skills. These disorders are intrinsic
to the individual and presumed to be due to central nervous system dysfunction. Even though
a learning disability may occur concomitantly with other handicapping conditions (e.g.,
sensory impairment, mental retardation, social and emotional disturbance), with socioNational Adult Literacy and Learning Disabilities Center
A Program of the National Institute for Literacy
HO-3b
environmental influences (e.g., cultural differences, insufficient or inappropriate instruction,
psychogenic factors), and especially attention deficit disorder, all of which may cause
learning problems, a learning disability is not the direct result of those conditions or
influences.
Definition Highlights

There are many variations of learning disabilities.

Learning disabilities may involve difficulties in any of the following skills: listening,
speaking, reading, writing, reasoning, and mathematics.

Social skills may be affected by the learning disability.

Learning disabilities may be due to a central nervous system disorder.

Although a learning disability may be present with other disorders, these conditions
are not the cause of the learning disability.
Common Elements in LD Definitions
The following concepts are important to understanding the similarities and contrasts that
exist among the many definitions of learning disabilities.








Some definitions suggest that learning disabilities exist when a person has uneven
patterns of development. Other definitions suggest that learning disabilities are
indicated by aptitude-achievement discrepancies.
Most definitions specify that the cause for learning disabilities is the result of a
problem in the central nervous system.
Some definitions suggest that learning disabilities are caused by interference in the
neurological processes that make proficient performance possible.
Most definitions imply that learning disabilities can be present at any age.
Most definitions specify that problems understanding spoken or written language can
be caused by learning disabilities.
Some definitions specify that certain types of academic problems (e.g., those
involving reading, writing, spelling, or math) can be caused by learning disabilities.
Some definitions specify that problems involving social skills, spatial orientation,
sensory integration, or motor skills can be manifestations of learning disabilities.
Some definitions indicate that learning disabilities can coexist with other kinds of
handicaps (e.g., emotional disturbance or sensory impairment). Other definitions are
worded to eliminate the coexistence of learning disabilities with other disabling
conditions.
Impacts of LD in Adults
The impacts of learning disabilities may compound with age. While individuals with learning
disabilities demonstrate some intellectual strengths, their areas of disability may prevent
them from excelling as adults in certain life situations at the same level as their peers. Areas
where learning disabilities may affect adults include:

Self Esteem—Being criticized, put down, teased, or rejected because of failures in
academic, vocational, or social endeavors often leaves adults with learning disabilities
with low self-esteem. Adults with low self-esteem tend not to take risks or strive to
National Adult Literacy and Learning Disabilities Center
A Program of the National Institute for Literacy
HO-3c
reach their potential. Also, adults with low self-esteem are less likely to advocate for
themselves.

Education—Learning disabilities that may manifest themselves in difficulties in
spoken or written language, arithmetic, reasoning, and organizational skills will affect
adults in adult basic education, literacy, postsecondary and vocational training
settings. These students may perform at levels other than those expected of them.
Adult educators are not always prepared to address the unique needs of learners with
learning disabilities.

Vocation—Errors are commonly found in filling out employment applications
because of poor reading or spelling skills. Job-related problems frequently arise due
to learning disabilities that cause difficulties in organization, planning, scheduling,
monitoring, language comprehension and expression, social skills, and inattention.

Social Interactions—Adults with learning disabilities may demonstrate poor
judgment of others' moods and attitudes and appear to be less sensitive to others'
thoughts and feelings. In social settings these adults may do or say inappropriate
things and have problems comprehending humor, for example. They may have
problems discriminating response requirements in social situations. These traits may
result in a difficulty finding and keeping a job or developing long-term relationships.

Independent Living—Responsibilities such as writing checks, filling out tax forms,
or taking phone messages may present problems for adults with learning disabilities.
Adults with LD may find themselves without the support systems (parents, schools,
social services, etc.) that they relied on as children and have to incorporate their own
accommodations when necessary.
References
Brown, D. (1980). Steps to Independence for People With Learning Disabilities. Washington,
DC: Closer Look.
Gerber, P., & Reiff, H. [Eds.] (1994). Learning Disabilities in Adulthood: Persisting
Problems and Evolving Issues. Boston, MA: Andover Medical Publishers.
Hammill, D.D. (1990). On Defining Learning Disabilities: An Emerging Consensus. Journal
of Learning Disabilities, 23 (2), 74-84.
Kavanaugh, J. & Truss, T. [Eds.] (1988). Learning Disabilities: Proceedings of the National
Conference. Parkton, MD: York Press.
Smith, C. (1991). For You: Adults with Learning Disabilities. Ottawa, Ontario: Learning
Disabilities Association of Canada.
This material has been prepared under a cooperative agreement between the Academy for Educational Development (AED) and the
National Institute for Literacy (NIFL), Grant No.X257B30002. Opinions, findings, conclusions and recommendation expressed herein do
not necessarily reflect the views of AED or NIFL. This information is in the public domain, unless otherwise indicated. Readers are
encouraged to copy; please credit the National ALLD Center.
National Adult Literacy and Learning Disabilities Center
A Program of the National Institute for Literacy
OH/HO-84
Definitions
• Learning Style—a preferred way of
learning (visual, auditory, tactile/
kinesthetic—often a combination).
• Learning Difficulty—condition that makes
it hard to learn. A learning difficulty may be
caused by educational, environmental,
cultural, personal or other factors and can
be addressed instructionally.
• Learning Disability—disorder that is
internal to persons of average or above
average intelligence and causes significant
difficulty with learning.
 LD must be diagnosed professionally.
 LD is not mental retardation.
NC Literacy Resource Center, NC Community College System
800-553-9759, 919-733-7051
Learning Disabilities Training and Dissemination Project, 2001
OH/HO-85
Learning Disabilities
National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities (1990)
• Is a general term for a heterogeneous group of
disorders.
• Are manifested by significant difficulties in
listening, speaking, reading, writing, or math.
• Are part of the person’s makeup (they will not
go away).
• Are presumed to be a dysfunction of the
central nervous system.
• May be discovered across the life span.
• May result in problems with behavior, social
perceptions, and social interactions (but these
are not the disability).
• Are not the result of other disabilities such as
loss of sight or hearing, lack of intelligence, or
lack of schooling.
Remember, learning disability is a legal term
and requires formal professional diagnosis.
NC Literacy Resource Center, NC Community College System
800-553-9759, 919-733-7051
Learning Disabilities Training and Dissemination Project, 2001
OH/HO-86
Dyslexia
International Dyslexia Association
• Dyslexia is a distinct learning disability—a
specific language-based disorder of
constitutional origin—characterized by
difficulties in single word decoding, reflecting
insufficient phonological processing.
• Single word decoding difficulties are often
unexpected in relation to age and other
cognitive and academic abilities—not the
result of developmental disability or sensory
impairment.
• Dyslexia is manifest by variable difficulty
with different forms of language including
problems in acquiring reading, writing, and
spelling.
Like other learning disabilities, dyslexia
requires formal, professional diagnosis.
NC Literacy Resource Center, NC Community College System
800-553-9759, 919-733-7051
Learning Disabilities Training and Dissemination Project, 2001
OH/HO-87
Assessment Continuum
• Intake Assessment—gathering information to
begin instruction
 Program staff, tutors and learners do this
assessment.
• Screening—informal assessment to discover
more about learning difficulties and make
suggestions for instruction
 Program staff do this assessment.
• Diagnosis—formal means of identifying a
learning disability
 Only qualified professionals diagnose LD.
 LD diagnosis has legal ramifications.
NC Literacy Resource Center, NC Community College System
800-553-9759, 919-733-7051
Learning Disabilities Training and Dissemination Project, 2001
HO-8
Learning Styles Checklist
Most people learn in a variety of ways. However, each person may prefer one or a combination
of learning styles. Instead of a formal learning-styles inventory, use this checklist to get a rough
idea of your learning preferences.
Part 1: Place a check mark before any of the learning techniques below that describe ways you
learn well.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
movies, television
lectures
group or panel discussion
reading
role-playing, acting
making things with hands
audiotapes, CD’s
written reports
body movement
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
____ drawing/painting
____ question/answer sessions
____ graphs, tables, charts
____ recitation by others
____ writing
____ participating in physical games
____ touching objects
____ repeating information aloud
____ visualizing information
Part 2: Use the key below to identify the learning style or styles that you prefer.
Technique
1, 4, 8, 12, 14, 18
2, 3, 7, 11, 13, 17
5, 6, 9, 10, 15, 16,
Style______________
Visual, including print
Auditory, Aural
Tactile-Kinesthetic
Part 3: Now, put yourself in these situations. Think about how your responses to the checklist
might be influenced by each situation.
1. New processes being implemented at work demand that you learn a great deal of new and
unfamiliar information.
2. You have just purchased a computer or child’s toy that requires assembly.
3. An acquaintance is giving you directions to his house.
Based on James and Galbraith. Perceptual Learning Styles: Implications and Techniques for the Practitioner.
Lifelong Learning, 1985.
NC Literacy Resource Center, NC Community College System
800-553-9759, 919-733-7051
Learning Disabilities Training and Dissemination Project, 2001
HO-9a
Working From Strengths to Overcome Difficulties
Visual Learners
Learner Strengths
Techniques to Support Learner’s Visual Learning Ability
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Likes to look at books and
pictures
Remembers and prefers visual
details
Prefers to see what needs to be
learned

Follows written directions easily

Likes to look at orderly things—
often demands neat surroundings

Remembers where he or she has
seen things
Likes puzzles
Probably able to draw balanced
pictures
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Allow the learner to follow words with finger when reading and to touch the first letter of every word.
Look for vocabulary words in newspapers, letters, papers and magazines.
Use mapping strategy for comprehension, writing.
Use KWL strategy for purposeful reading.
Use visual aids (drawings, maps, lists).
Use clues such as placing a green dot as a place to begin reading and a red dot to stop.
Use a mirror to show how the mouth forms letters.
Provide brightly colored pens to write with and large spaces upon which to write.
Use a color-coding system for categorizing subjects, reading—blue; spelling—yellow; math—green, etc. Use the
same system for categorizing and working with vowels, nouns, etc.
Choose a work place with as few distractions as possible.
Organize lesson materials and keep things in order during tutoring sessions.
Encourage learner to keep a calendar for appointments, assignments, etc.
Show an example of what the finished product should look like.
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Use matching games—jigsaw matching of words, prefixes, suffixes, etc.
Encourage learner to draw his or her own picture to help understand the concept being taught.
Learner Difficulties
Techniques That Help Develop Visual Abilities
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Often has trouble following long
explanation
Doesn’t hear the sounds of
letters in word contexts
Has trouble understanding oral
directions—needs to be shown
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Encourage learner to doodle or take notes while listening.
Write out explanations with lists of important points.
Provide written word lists that demonstrate the letter–sound correspondence in the words of the lesson you’re
working on.
Give one task at a time.
Write out directions and let the learner copy them. Read directions aloud while the learner follows along.
Demonstrate tasks.
NC Literacy Resource Center, NC Community College System
800-553-9759, 919-733-7051
Learning Disabilities Training and Dissemination Project, 2001
HO-9b
Working From Strengths to Overcome Difficulties
Auditory Learners
Learner Strengths
Techniques to Support Learner’s Auditory Learning Ability

Likes to read aloud

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Likes to talk about what needs
to be learned
Often a “chatterer”

Can follow long explanations

Enjoys music and rhythmic
activities
Knows lyrics to songs and
memorizes easily
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Encourage learner to read aloud or into a tape recorder and then to play back tape privately for review.
Encourage learner to use books on tapes and to follow along with text.
Read aloud to the learner, asking him or her to repeat back what you read.
Have learner participate in verbal drills.
Talk through tasks step by step.
Use “Think Aloud” strategy to model your thinking.
Encourage thinking out loud.
After reading, ask learner to tell the “story” to you.
In a group setting speak directly to this person.
Tape the lecture or speech for the learner.
Dictate spelling words and sentences for learner to write.
Create poems, songs, or raps.
Play lots of rhyming and blending games.
Create mnemonics.
Learner Difficulties
Techniques That Help Develop Auditory Abilities

Easily distracted by noise

Has trouble with written
directions and maps
Needs oral directions
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Find a quiet place to work.
Use earphones to help cut out distractions caused by outside sources.
Don’t distract learner when he or she is working.
If you need to repeat instructions, use the same words.
This person may be able to listen to a radio for background noise while doing work.
Give one task at a time using as few words as possible when giving directions.
Read directions with learner following along.
Encourage learner to rehearse directions to commit them to memory.
Tape record assignments.
NC Literacy Resource Center, NC Community College System
800-553-9759, 919-733-7051
Learning Disabilities Training and Dissemination Project, 2001
HO-9c
Working From Strengths to Overcome Difficulties
Tactile–Kinesthetic Learners
Learner Strengths
Techniques to Support Learner’s Tactile–Kinesthetic Learning Ability


Enjoys doing things with hands
Builds or fixes things

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Has good motor skills

Uses concrete objects as
reminders
Places objects in order
Draws pictures as reminders
Touches things as reminders
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Learner may need to talk to himself or herself in order to understand a concept or may need to see himself or herself
saying things in a mirror.
Provide stories that are filled with action.
Encourage learner to demonstrate processes while explaining them.
Encourage writing.
Encourage copying of vocabulary words and sentence patterns.
Use concrete objects (e.g. playing cards, rulers, measuring spoons, etc.) as learning aids for establishing patterns.
Use manipulatives (colored discs, rods, etc.) for math and letter tiles or word cards for word learning.

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Use mapping for writing and comprehension.
Use textured letter forms and manipulatives.
Use KWL strategy for comprehension.
Use VAKT strategy for helping learners to remember spelling and word parts.
Learner Difficulties
Techniques That Help Develop Tactile–Kinesthetic Abilities


Constantly in motion
Wiggles, plays with pencils,
etc.

Easily distracted, has a short
attention span
Difficulty with rote counting
and sequential materials
without aids
Difficulty with learning abstract
symbols such as letters and
numerals
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Don’t ask learner to sit for too long.
Take frequent breaks—about one every 10 minutes.
Allow learner space to work and move around, if needed.
Set specific deadlines for completion of assignments.
Allow use of “tactile enhancers” such as small objects to squeeze, roll, etc., while learner is engaged in learning.
Keep a calendar of appointments and activities. Mark calendar with frequent due dates.
Suggest assignments be put on a clipboard and done “on the run.”
When memorization is necessary, help learner to associate some sort of bodily movement with what needs to be
remembered.
Use tactile memory aids (colored book marks, calendars, etc.).
Alternate written and oral work.
Provide sufficient practice time.
Structure lessons following a consistent format.
NC Literacy Resource Center, NC Community College System
800-553-9759, 919-733-7051
Learning Disabilities Training and Dissemination Project, 2001
OH/HO-10
Modifying Instruction
• Modifying tasks uses students’ learning
strengths to work on difficulties.
• Modifications are not cheating—they are
ways to make things fair.
• Modifications do not mean others are doing
the work for the learners. The students are
doing their own work in a way that works
for them.
• Modifications can be as simple as using
fingers in math—or as complex as using a
voice-activated computer to type what is
said.
• The key is to match the modification to the
learners’ learning strengths and needs.
• Sometimes modifications are the only way
to complete a task.
NC Literacy Resource Center, NC Community College System
800-553-9759, 919-733-7051
Learning Disabilities Training and Dissemination Project, 2001
HO-11
Hints for Tutors Assisting Learners Who Have Difficulty Learning
Involve the learner in all aspects of instruction.

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Confer with the learner about what he or she sees as his or her strengths, difficulties,
interests, and preferences.
Work with the learner to set short-term goals that lead to immediate successes.
Teach the skills your learner needs and wants to learn.
Determine together how you will evaluate progress toward goals.
Discuss techniques that are working for the learner.
Create an effective learning environment.
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Establish a routine to promote order and consistency.
Reduce distractions. Work in a private area when possible. Turn off radios, and remove
distracting visual items. Use incandescent rather than florescent lights.
Give instructions orally (tape record if needed) and in writing. Allow the learner to repeat
instructions as often as needed.
Emphasize learner strengths, and encourage the learner to use them.
Be sure the learner sees the value of practice.
Help the learner generalize from tutoring context to life contexts.
Reinforce the learner’s efforts and progress. Praise even minor successes.
Encourage use of learning aides (calculators, highlighters, tape recorders, computers,
maps, charts, fingers, rulers, “squeeze balls,” etc.)
Be well prepared.

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It is easier for the tutor to adjust teaching methods than it is for learners to change the
way they learn.
Work with fewer skills, and work better by being selective.
Teach the skills directly, in meaningful context and with plenty of practice.
Relate new concepts to practical applications.
Build on what the learner already knows.
Model use of skills. Do lots of explaining.
Be able to use a variety of solid instructional strategies.
Use multisensory strategies so the learner can see, say, hear, touch—and thus develop full
mental images that stick and make sense.
Be able to modify strategies for the learner or substitute alternative strategies for those
that are not working.
Vary lessons, reteach and review in a variety of ways.
Change an activity when it is not working.
Stay in touch with program staff.



Talk to program staff about any difficulties you encounter.
Be able to describe the difficulty in terms of the learning activity.
Be accepting of ideas from the staff.
NC Literacy Resource Center, NC Community College System
800-553-9759, 919-733-7051
Learning Disabilities Training and Dissemination Project, 2001
OH/HO-12
Involve the Learner
• Talk with the learner about what he or she
sees as strengths, difficulties, interests, and
preferences.
• Together, set short-term goals that lead to
immediate successes.
• Teach the skills the learner needs and
wants to learn.
• Determine together how to evaluate
progress toward goals.
• Discuss techniques that are working for
the learner.
NC Literacy Resource Center, NC Community College System
800-553-9759, 919-733-7051
Learning Disabilities Training and Dissemination Project, 2001
OH/HO-13
Create an Effective
Learning Environment
• Establish an orderly, consistent routine.
• Reduce auditory and visual distractions.
Work in a private area with incandescent
lighting.
• Give instructions orally (tape record) and in
writing. Allow learner to repeat.
• Emphasize learner strengths, and encourage
learner to use them.
• Be sure learner sees the value of practice.
• Help learner generalize from tutoring context
to life contexts.
• Reinforce learner’s efforts and progress.
Praise even minor successes.
• Encourage the use of learning aides
(calculator, highlighters, tape recorders,
computers, maps, charts, fingers, rulers, and
“squeeze balls.”
NC Literacy Resource Center, NC Community College System
800-553-9759, 919-733-7051
Learning Disabilities Training and Dissemination Project, 2001
OH/HO-14
Be Well Prepared
• Work on fewer skills.
• Teach the skills directly, in a meaningful
context, and with plenty of practice.
• Relate new concepts to practical
applications.
• Build on what the learner already knows.
• Model the use of skills, and do lots of
explaining.
• Be able to use a variety of strategies.
• Use multisensory strategies so learner can
see, say, hear, touch—and thus develop full
mental images that stick and make sense.
• Be able to modify or substitute alternative
strategies for those that are not working.
• Vary lessons, teaching in different ways.
• Change an activity when it is not working.
NC Literacy Resource Center, NC Community College System
800-553-9759, 919-733-7051
Learning Disabilities Training and Dissemination Project, 2001
OH/HO-15
Stay in Touch
with Program Staff
• Talk with program staff about any
difficulties you encounter.
• Be able to describe learner difficulty in
terms of learning activities.
• Be accepting of ideas from program staff.
NC Literacy Resource Center, NC Community College System
800-553-9759, 919-733-7051
Learning Disabilities Training and Dissemination Project, 2001
OH/HO-16
Direct Instruction—
“Quick” version of a familiar format
I do
• Tutor provides background
information, sets the purpose, and
demonstrates the skill.
We do
• Tutor and student accomplish the
task, and practice the skill together.
You do
• Student applies the skill
independently in new situations.
NC Literacy Resource Center, NC Community College System
800-553-9759, 919-733-7051
Learning Disabilities Training and Dissemination Project, 2001
OH/HO-17
Shared Responsibilities
• Program Responsibilities
 Provide a range of services to students
and tutors.
 Train tutors to work with students.
• Tutor Responsibilities
 Work with learners to set goals, plan,
and modify instruction.
 Use many strategies to help students
learn.
 Stay in contact with program staff.
• Student Responsibilities
 Work with tutors.
 Tell tutors about difficulties.
NC Literacy Resource Center, NC Community College System
800-553-9759, 919-733-7051
Learning Disabilities Training and Dissemination Project, 2001
OH/HO-18
Learning Disabilities
Resources
• Program
• Community
• NC LRC/NCCCS
http://www.nclrc.state.nc.us
800-553-9759
 Library materials
 Bridges to Practice overheads and
handouts
 Bibliographies
 Gateway to LINCS literacy
resources
NC Literacy Resource Center, NC Community College System
800-553-9759, 919-733-7051
Learning Disabilities Training and Dissemination Project, 2001
OH/HO-19
12-04.Learning Difficulties Module PP
NC Literacy Resource Center, NC Community College System
800-553-9759, 919-733-7051
Learning Disabilities Training and Dissemination Project, 2001