CX Debate Basics
CX Debate is Cross-Examination debate. It is a partner debate over an established
policy. Debate is about HOW what you say FUNCTIONS, not just what you say.
-Affirmative supports the status quo
-Negative opposes the affirmative
-1 ½ hour in length
-Policy option resolution
-Evidence Based
Two Types of Arguments:
A. Constructive—Builds the argument (New) and can present new evidence
B. Rebuttal—No new arguments can be presented
CX (Cross Examination) is mostly for clarification purposes. One side will
question the other.
Offense—giving judge reasons to vote for you (painting a better world)
Defense—prevent offense from scoring points or showing how offense doesn’t
make the world better. NOT giving the judge reasons to vote for you—just
undermining offense.
Affirmative Ground—agent of action is the U.S. Federal Government—ITS is the
U.S. government.
*Federal funding does not imply ownership!
Plan can INVITE other countries to join, but not FIAT their involvement.
Time Breakdown:
1 AC
8 mins.
CX by 2nd Neg.
3 mins.
Affirmative Constructive
1st Neg. Constructive
1 NC
8 mins.
CX by 1st Aff.
3 mins.
2 AC
8 mins.
CX by 1st Neg.
3 mins.
2 NC
8 mins.
CX by 2nd Aff.
3 mins.
1 NR
5 mins.
1st Neg. Rebuttal
1 AR
5 mins.
1st Aff. Rebuttal
2 NR
5 mins.
2nd Neg. Rebuttal
2 AR
5 mins.
2nd Aff. Rebuttal
2nd Affirmative Constructive
2nd Neg. Constructive
Important Terms to LEARN:
1. Constructive Speech—the first four speeches in a round. Used to build the
basis for your case.
2. Rebuttal Speech—the last four speeches in a round. New arguments can
NOT typically be brought up here. New evidence is OK, but not new
arguments.
3. Prep Time—8 minutes per team during round to prepare responses to
arguments. (Do not use 6 mins. And speak for 30 seconds. Also, you can
prep during CX, so use time wisely).
4. CX Time—3 minute time period after each constructive speech in which a
team asks a question of the person who just spoke. (No prompting of any
kind allowed).
5. Open CX—CX time in which both partners on each team are allowed to
participate in the questioning session. (NOT allowed in UIL).
6. Negative Block—the back to back speeches that the negative has in the
middle of the round. (gives a bit of upperhand to Neg. Aff, has only 5 mins.
To respond to 13 min. speech)
7. Paradigm—the way the judge will adjudicate a round.
a. Tabula Rosa—blank slate-allows debaters to frame the round—
usually judges on policy
b. Policy Judge—either the policy was effective or not
i. Affirmative plan vs. Status Quo plus DA’s to Aff
ii. Affirmative plan vs. Counter plan
iii. Typically sees the role of the negative as opposing the aff plan
rather than the resolution
c. Stock Issues—based on holding and/or acquisition of the stock issues.
i. Aff must win all 5 stock issues to win the round
ii. Neg must win only 1 of the stock issues to win the round
iii. Typically sees the role of the negative as opposing the
resolution rather than opposing just the aff case
iv. Speaking Skills judge—judges best speaker—presentation,
evidence, analysis (like extemp judge)
v. Other Judges—unfortunately, there are some judges we must be
wary of—make the right choice when dealing with these
judges, and do what you do well—it isn’t always about winning
in these cases
1. Hypothesis tester—believes that eh purpose of debate is
to determine the probable truth or falsity of the debate
resolution, in much the same way that a critical
philosopher or research scientist would apply the
scientific method to any other hypothesis—unfortunately,
this results in bias based on the resolution and the deck is
stacked against you based on whether you draw aff or
neg
2. Games player—sees the debate round as a game in which
points are scored by both sides with the winner being the
team who has accumulated they most “points”. You will
not necessarily know what made up point system the
judge has created—and if you do, it is probably not
conducive to good debating.
3. Other made up paradigms—you cannot always be
guaranteed an appropriate judge at each contest, but you
will debate as well as you can, and not complain about
any judge publically—simply report any judging
indiscretions to me.
8. Plan text—part of the plan that stipulates exactly what the affirmative will
be doing—(Sentence summary of case)
9. Resolution—the topic established to be debated
10.Fiat—the affirmative’s right to assume that if their case is proven based on
evidence, it will be enacted.
11.Flowing—Taking notes in a structured fashion in a debate round. (See
example)
12.Offense—arguments given by debaters that provide a reason for you to
support a vote for them or their side
13.Defense—arguments given by debaters that negate arguments by the other
team (only a mitigator)
14.Spreading—speaking exceptionally fast in order to get a vast majory of
evidence and argumentation in the round (Not allowed in UIL)
15.Extend—to take an argument or piece of evidence made earlier in the round
and keep it in the round for consideration
16.Cross-Apply—to take an argument or piece of evidence made on one issue
and use it to answer another argument. (You must EXPLAIN how it cross
applies).
17.Overview—a summary at the START of an argument or a speech that
summarizes the key points and voting reasons on the argument.
18.Underview—a summary at the END of an argument or a speech that
summarizes the key points and voting reasons on the argument.
19.Framework—the way that the debaters are asking the judge to view the
round.
20.Impact Calculus—A part of a speech in which the debater weighs the
offense of the affirmative over the offense of the negative to see who should
win the round.
21.Turns—making an argument for the other team into an argument for your
team (offense)
22.Take-Out—mitigating an argument that your opponent makes (Defense)
23.Hegemony—(hedge-i-mini) the ability of a power to influence the decisions
of others (often an argument [good or bad] in relation to U.S. power)
24.Soft Power—a means of influencing others using diplomatic measures
25.Hard power—a means of influencing others using military might or other
force.
26.Political Capital—the popularity and influence that a particular leader or
party to get things accomplished
Argument: Claim (the argument you are making) +Warrant (proof that claim is
true)+ Impact (reason it is important)
HITSS (Yes, the two S’s are together at the end. It is just as effective for helping you remember—get over it.)
1. Harms—the problems that the affirmative team establishes are in the status
quo that they seek to solve.
a. What does the affirmative want to fix?
b. Those problems occurring in the status quo that must be solved with
the passage of the affirmative plan
c. There does not have to be a substantial number of harms, but the
harms presented must be solved by the affirmative plan (best to focus
on no more than 2)
d. Arguing Harms: Harms should fall within the resolution.
i. Affirmative—presents them in the 1AC
ii. Negative—argues that the harms presented by the status quo
don’t truly exist or that they are exaggerated and not sufficient
to be considered
2. Inherency—Proof that the harms aren’t being solved already in the status
quo and/or that there is something preventing the resolution of the harms in
the status quo.
a. Typicaly more important to stock judges than to policy or tab judges
b. 3 Types:
i. Structural—some legal (usually) barrier in the status quo that is
preventing the harms from being solved now or the affirmative
being passed
ii. Attitudinal—the attitude of the government, people, etc., that is
currently preventing the plan being passed in the status quo
iii. Existential—the fact that the harms are not being solved in the
status quo or that there is no framework for them to be solved
c. Arguing Inherency
i. Affirmative—plan can’t be solved in the status quo because…
ii. Negative—there are already plans or programs established in
the status quo to solve the harms or there is nothing preventing
the solving of the status quo
3. Topicality—Arguments centered around whether or not the affirmative is
actually debating the topic
a. Not Topical: concept that the affirmative is not debating the topic. (ex.
The USFG should substantially reduce poverty in the U.S. Aff teaches
farmers in Ethiopia how to farm and create income to reduce poverty
THERE).
b. Effects Topical: concept that the affirmative doesn’t directly do what
the topic calls for them to do. (ex. The USFG should substantially
reduce poverty in the US. Aff. Gives tax cuts to the business owners
which the aff PROVES will cause lower prices and increase wages).
c. Extra Topical: concept that the affirmative plan does more than what
the topic requires. (ex. The USFG should substantially reduce poverty
in the US. Aff provides more food stamps to Americans living in
poverty and decreases mortgage interest rates for the MIDDLE
CLASS).
d. Parts of Topicality Violation
i. Interpretation: definition and source of definition
ii. Violation: how the affirmative violates the definition, thus the
resolution
iii. Standards: Reasons that the definition provided is the one that
the judge should consider in the round
iv. Voters: reasons why topicality should warrant a vote by the
judge if the violation is proven
e. Answers to Topicality Violation
i. We Meet (if possible): show how the affirmative plan meets
definition provided by the negative
ii. Counter-Interpretation: Another definition presented by the
affirmative that their plan meets
iii. Counter-Standards: (Standards Comparison) Reasons the aff.
Definition is better and reasons why the neg. standards are not
true or valid
iv. Voters—Reasons NOT to vote the affirmative down based on
topicality (good luck with this one)
4. Significance—(rarely argued anymore) argument about the significance of
the harms: ARGUING Significance—Affirmative: Argues that their harms
are significant (either quantitatively or qualitatively) enough to validate
affirmative plan/ Negative: Argues that the problems are insignificant so as
to not validate money being spent, potential lives being lost, etc.
5. Solvency—proof and argumentation surrounding the ability of the
affirmative plan text to solve the harms that are presented in the case:
ARGUING Solvency—Affirmative-provides evidence and analysis that
their plan text will solve the harms they presented in the 1AC/ Negative-can
(1) take-out: show that they cannot access their solvency or cannot solve
their harms; or (2) turn: make the solvency they claim into a bad thing (ex.
Aff increases hegemony. Neg. turns that to say that increasing hegemony
makes their harms worse).
Advantages, Disadvantages, Counterplans, Kritiks
Advantages—positive impacts to the affirmative plan being passed
Disadvantages—negative impacts to the affirmative plan being passed
Types:
Generic: can be run on virtually any and all cases that fall under the
resolution (need to have a file of specific links on common cases; can often use
link and impact cards as solvency or advantage turns, spending is common)
Politix: dealing with the impact that the case will have on the political
realm (ex. Preventing an important bill from being passed because of the aff)
often deals with loss of increase of political capital (can be run as a net benefit
to counter plan, deals with how aff shifts focus or prevents passage of or causes
the passage of a bill, legislation, or prevents govt. from doing something, can be
run without a CP, but not as powerful).
Linear: inherently existing within the status quo that the neg claims
that the aff makes worse (ex. Poverty and aff increases poverty) (no clear brink,
neg has to acknowledge the DA impacts are occurring in status quo, DA argues
that the impacts are bad and aff increased them, anything aff does will be bad)
Specific: specifically designed to counter a specific plan text.
Requires knowing the plan text pretty specifically (ex. Aff is collecting
specimens for research on earth. Neg claims a DA that the specimens will bring
with them diseases that will wipeout life on earth) (requires keeping flows,
filling out round reports, and research between tournaments.)
Counterplans—negative plan presented to counter the affirmative plan
Kritiks-(pronounced critiques) arguments attacking the philosophical
implications of something that is done in the round or the mind set created
through the argumentation within the round
Arguing Advantages:
Affirmative: Argues that there are other benefits that the plan creates beyond
solving the harms
Negative: can (1) Take-out-show how the advantage cannot be garnered by
the affirmative plan; or (2) Turn-make the affirmative advantage into a
disadvantage to passing the affirmative plan
Arguing Disadvantages:
Negative argues that there are big issues that the affirmative plan creates that
that bring forth reason to reject the affirmative.
Components:
Uniqueness: The disadvantage (DA) isn’t happening in the status quo
and/or the Aff plan uniquely causes the impacts to the disadvantage
Link: What the aff does that causes the DA impacts
Brink: (not always presented) provides the point at which the impact
will occur (when is the threshold reached?)
Internal Link: a story painted of how we get from the link to the
impacts
Impacts: The bad thing that will happen if the aff plan is put into
action.
EXAMPLE: Jack and Jill are playing on a cliff and a car is parked a few feet
away. If the car is still, Jack and Jill are safe. The link is that the car gets shifted
into gear (let’s say by Jimmy, their younger brother). Brink is when the bad
thing is going to happen. If the car moves only at 2 mph, they are likely to get
out of the way in time, but the brink because the car moving at 20 mph, they are
likely to be hit, knocked over the cliff, and break their crowns—amongst other
body parts. The more links in a disadvantage, the weaker it is. (offense, link
Turn and Impact Turn—don’t double turn. Defense—no ling, no impact, nonunique, no brink, no internal link)
Arguing Counterplans
Negative presents a plan to counter the affirmative DURING THE 1 NC.
Status of Counterplans
Unconditional: the negative will argue the CP throughout the round
without kicking it.
Dispositional: The negative will argue the CP throught the round
unless the aff answers with offense or theory at which point they can kick it.
Conditional: the negative can kick it at any time.
Components:
Plan Text and Solvency
Types of most common counterplans:
PIC-Plan Inclusive Counterplan—they keep most of the aff, but change
some part of it.
PEC-Plan Exclusive Counterplan—they can run another plan totally separate
from the aff.
Topical vs. Untopical
Consult
Alternate Agent
Delay
Utopian
Conditions
Arguing Kritiks:
One side argues that the other side does something that is fundamentally
wrong or creates a mindset that it is wrong or inherently dangerous to society
Components
Link: what the team does that creates this issue
Impact: what bad thing occurs that necessitates a ballot for the other
team
Examples; Gifts, language, Feminism
Filing
You will have a crate for you and your partner to maintain your files and
materials. You and your partner are responsible for your files. This includes
maintaining and keeping up with them. Do NOT let them out of your site—
especially at contest. We will maintain a paper system for debate, because there is
no guarantee that all schools will have computers.
Researching
1. Do as much of your own research as possible.
2. Utilize NDCA Open Evidence Project (FREE) for help with creating cases,
blocks, briefs, etc.
3. Read books on your case area so that you are knowledgeable when debating.
If you rely on an already written case for a handbook, you should be aware,
that all the other schools have likely read it and are ready to tear it apart.
4. Other sources for evidence:
a. Baylor Briefs
b. CDE
c. Planet Debate
d. Forensics Files
e. Paradigm Research
5. Books and other references that would be helpful for this year’s topic (20112012)
a. Spacefuture.com (Journal)
b. Ad Astra-put out by department of defense—specific Space Based
Solar Power (SBSP) issue (available online in PDF)
c. Energy Crisis: Solution from Space. Ralph Nansen
d. 2032: Technology that Will Change the World. Rutger van Santen
e. Handbook of Space Technology. Hands Dodel
f. Reopening the Space Frontier. John Hickman
g. License to Orbit: The Future of Commercial Space Travel. Peter
Marshall
h. The Moon: Resources, Future Development, and Settlement: David
Schrunk
i. Feb. 28 2011 Issue of The New Yorker. Tad Friend. “Defending
Planet Earth.”
j. Paradise Regained: The Regreening of Earth. Les Johnson
k. Lunar Settlements. David Livingston
l. Missile Defense, The Space Relationship, and the Twenty First
Century. Henry Cooper
m. Who Owns the moon: Extraterrestreial Aspects of Land and Minerals
Resources ownership. Virgiliu Pop
n. June 2010 Article in National Geographic “Electronic Armeggedon”
(available online)
o. Countering the EMP Threat: The Role of Missile Defense. Henry
Cooper (available online)
p. Report of the EMP Commission. 2002, vi.
q. Space Review journal Feb. 2010 EMP Article (available online)
r. Surviving 1,000 Centuries. Roger Maurice-Bonnet
s. Last/High Frontier by 2030. Gerard O’Neill
t. Leadership in Space. Griffin
u. Link to Yahoo news!
v. There are many more—google topics and see what you find. Make
sure it is reputable. I will supply access to everything I can.
Analyzing this year’s topic:
Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially increase its
exploration and/or development of space beyond the Earth’s mesosphere.
Topic Paragraph:
Space exploration fires people’s imaginations. The 1969 moon landings rank as one of the highest
achievements of modern civilization. There is something uncanny about the human need to explore the universe.
Discussing the space exploration and development would have the same effect. A topic like this could spark the
imagination of potential debaters, and the easy accessibility of materials would make the learning curve on the
subject manageable. This is a critical time in the United States space program. The status of the national Aeronautics
and Space and Administration is in limbo, especially concerning human spaceflight. The Space Shuttle is retiring in
the fall of 2010, with no possible US replacement available before 2015. In addition, NASA has an unclear
mandate/direction to explore either the Moon or Mars. This is balanced against NASA’s recent success with robotic
exploration, such as the Mars rovers and the Hubble Space Telescope, as well as increased private sector growth.
Affirmative cases could include astronomical surveys, setting new goals for human spaceflight, using new proves to
examine celestial bodies in our solar system or beyond, and developing space economies. The technological and
economic benefits of the space program are well documented. Negative arguments could include the increased
militarization of space, the significant cost in money and resources, timeframe arguments and the need to focus more
on problems concerning the Earth, such as climate change. [Chad Flisowski]
Definitions within the resolution: (compiled by Rich Edwards, Baylor
University) *Many others will have these definitions as well—so be prepared for
uses and/or challenges
“United States federal government” is defined.
Amy Blackwell, (J.D., Staff, U. Virginia Law Library), THE ESSENTIAL LAW DICTIONARY, 2008, 187.
Federal: Relating to the central government of a union of states, such as the national government of the United
States.
Carol-June Cassidy, (Editor), CAMBRIDGE DICTIONARY OF AMERICAN ENGLISH, 2nd Ed., 2008, 308.
Federal government: of or connected with the central government
Carol-June Cassidy, (Editor), CAMBRIDGE DICTIONARY OF AMERICAN ENGLISH, 2nd Ed., 2008, 308.
Federal government: a system of government in which states unite and give up some of their powers to a central
authority
Daniel Oran, (Assistant Dir., National Paralegal Institute & J.D., Yale Law School), ORAN’S DICTIONARY
OF THE LAW, 4th Ed., 2008, 206. Federal government: The U.S. federal government is the national, as opposed
to state, government.
James Clapp, (Member of the New York Bar, Editor), RANDOM HOUSE WEBSTER’S POCKET LEGAL
DICTIONARY, 3rd Ed., 2007, 103. Federal government: Relating to the government and law of the United
States, as distinguished from a state.
Maurice Waite, (Editor), OXFORD DICTIONARY & THESAURUS, 2007, 377. Federal government: relating
to the central government of a federation.
Michael Agnes, (Editor), WEBSTER’S NEW WORLD DICTIONARY, 4 th College Edition, 2007, 290. Federal
government: Of the central government.
Michael Agnes, (Editor), WEBSTER’S NEW WORLD DICTIONARY, 4 th College Edition, 2007, 290. Federal
government: Of a union of states under a central government.
Susan Spitz, (Sr. Editor), AMERICAN HERITAGE DICTIONARY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, 4th Ed.,
2006, 647. Federal: The central government of the United States.
“Substantially” is defined.
“Substantial” means the “essential” part of something.
Michael Agnes, (Editor), WEBSTER’S NEW WORLD DICTIONARY, 4 th College Edition, 2007, 780.
Substantial: In essentials.
Elizabeth Jewell, (Editor), THE OXFORD DESK DICTIONARY AND THESAURUS, 2 nd Ed., 2007, 835.
Substantially: Essentially, at bottom, fundamentally, basically, in essence, intrinsically.
Elizabeth Jewell, (Editor), THE OXFORD DESK DICTIONARY AND THESAURUS, 2 nd Ed., 2007, 835.
Substantially: Essential; true in large part.
Maurice Waite, (Editor), OXFORD DICTIONARY & THESAURUS, 2007, 1032. Substantially: concerning the
essential points of something
Maurice Waite, (Editor), OXFORD DICTIONARY & THESAURUS, 2007, 1032. Substantially: fundamental,
essential, basic.
Maurice Waite, (Editor), OXFORD DICTIONARY & THESAURUS, 2007, 1032. Substantially: in essence,
basically, fundamentally.
Christine Lindberg, (Editor), OXFORD COLLEGE DICTIONARY, 2 nd Ed., 2007, 1369. Substantially:
Concerning the essentials of something.
“Substantial” means “important.”
Maurice Waite, (Editor), OXFORD DICTIONARY & THESAURUS, 2007, 1032. Substantially: real,
significant, important, major, valuable.
Amy Blackwell, (J.D., Staff, U. Virginia Law Library), THE ESSENTIAL LAW DICTIONARY, 2008, 477.
Substantial: Important, large, considerable, valuable.
Carol-June Cassidy, (Editor), CAMBRIDGE DICTIONARY OF AMERICAN ENGLISH, 2nd Ed., 2008, 873.
Substantially: large in size, value, or importance
Christine Lindberg, (Editor), OXFORD COLLEGE DICTIONARY, 2 nd Ed., 2007, 1369. Substantially: Of
considerable importance, size, or worth.
Elizabeth Jewell, (Editor), THE OXFORD DESK DICTIONARY AND THESAURUS, 2 nd Ed., 2007, 835.
Substantially: Of real importance, value, or validity.
Maurice Waite, (Editor), OXFORD DICTIONARY & THESAURUS, 2007, 1032. Substantially: of great
importance, size, or value.
“Substantially” means socially important.
Christine Lindberg, (Editor), OXFORD COLLEGE DICTIONARY, 2 nd Ed., 2007, 1369. Substantially:
Important in material or social terms.
“Substantially” is an inexact term.
Daniel Oran, (Assistant Dir., National Paralegal Institute & J.D., Yale Law School), ORAN’S DICTIONARY
OF THE LAW, 4th Ed., 2008, 510. Substantial: “A lot,” when it’s hard to pin down just how much “a lot” really
is. For example, substantial evidence is more than a mere scintilla of evidence but less than a full preponderance
of evidence.
“Substantial” means “markedly.”
Maurice Waite, (Editor), OXFORD DICTIONARY & THESAURUS, 2007, 1032. Substantially: greatly,
markedly, appreciably.
“Substantial” means “having substance.”
Christopher Leonesio, (Managing Editor), AMERICAN HERITAGE HIGH SCHOOL DICTIONARY, 4 th Ed.,
2007, 1376. Substantial: Of, relating to, or having substance.
“Substantial” means “not imaginary.”
Christopher Leonesio, (Managing Editor), AMERICAN HERITAGE HIGH SCHOOL DICTIONARY, 4 th Ed.,
2007, 1376. Substantial: True or real; not imaginary.
Maurice Waite, (Editor), OXFORD DICTIONARY & THESAURUS, 2007, 1032. Substantially: real and
tangible rather than imaginary.
“Substantial” means “to a great extent.”
Maurice Waite, (Editor), OXFORD DICTIONARY & THESAURUS, 2007, 1032. Substantially: to a great
extent.
Carol-June Cassidy, (Editor), CAMBRIDGE DICTIONARY OF AMERICAN ENGLISH, 2nd Ed., 2008, 873.
Substantially: to a large degree.
“Substantial” means “large.”
Michael Agnes, (Editor), WEBSTER’S NEW WORLD DICTIONARY, 4 th College Edition, 2007, 780.
Substantial: Material, strong, large.
“Substantial” means “valuable.”
Christopher Leonesio, (Managing Editor), AMERICAN HERITAGE HIGH SCHOOL DICTIONARY, 4th Ed.,
2007, 1376. Substantial: Considerable in importance, value, degree, amount, or extent.
Daniel Oran, (Assitant Dir., National Paralegal Institute & J.D., Yale Law School), ORAN’S DICTIONARY OF
THE LAW, 4th Ed., 2008, 510. Substantial: Valuable, real, worthwhile.
“Substantial” means permanent as opposed to temporary.
Richard Bowyer, (Editor), DICTIONARY OF MILITARY TERMS, 3rd Ed. 2004, 235. Substantive: Permanent
(as opposed to acting or temporary).
“Substantial” means relating to the “fundamental substance” of a thing.
Sandra Anderson, (Editor), COLLINS ENGLISH DICTIONARY, 8th Ed., 2006, 1606. Substantial: Of or
relating to the basic or fundamental substance or aspects of a thing.
“Substantial” means of a “corporeal or material nature.”
Stuart Flexner, (Editor-in-chief), RANDOM HOUSE DICTIONARY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE,
UNABRIDGED, 2nd Ed., 1987, 1897. Substantial: Of a corporeal or material nature; tangible; real.
“Substantially” means more than 25%.
Federal Tax Regulation, Section 1.409A-3(j)6, INCOME TAX REGULATIONS (Wolters Kluwer Business
Publication), 2008, 723. For this purpose, a reduction that is less than 25% of the deferred amount in dispute is
not a substantial reduction.”
Dan Kammen, (founding director, Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory), 2010 (“President Obama's
Science
Spending.”
February
5,
2010.
Online.
Accessed
May
8,
2011
at
http://www.wbur.org/npr/123410020/president-obamas-science-spending)
Prof. KAMMEN: Well, I think that in my particular area, everyone is kind of focused on their own, is that solar
gets a pretty substantial increase, about a 30 percent increase right now. I am most concerned on both opening
of new frontiers and really competing on the global stage, that there is a suite of renewables: solar, wind, energy
storage. These are critical areas, and I like the increases I’ve seen. I also like the fact that a number of these got
profiled in the ARPA budget.
A reduction of less than 15% is not substantial.
WORDS AND PHRASES, Vol. 40B, 2002, 326. Where debtor-jewelry retailers historically obtained 15-25% of
the inventory of their two divisions through consignments, they were not, as a matter of law, substantially
engaged in selling the goods of others. In re Wedlo Holdings, Inc. (North Dakota case)
A substantial reduction means to reduce by large percentage amount.
WORDS & PHRASES, Vol. 40B, 2002, 329. Substantially: The major portion or more than one-half of a
"phalange" of a finger, which means a finger bone, as distinguished from the flesh, must be removed before the
same is "substantially" lost, so as to constitute a "loss of the first phalange," within Workmen's Compensation
Law, § 15, subd. 3, and such loss is not made out where there is no showing that one-half or more of the flesh
and bone has been removed.
WORDS & PHRASES, Vol. 40B, 2002, 333. Substantially: Where purchasing corporation, exclusive of cash and
other current assets of selling corporation, acquired only $38,635.59 of remaining $96,885.40 of selling
corporation's assets, or about 40% of selling corporation's remaining assets, purchasing corporation did not
acquire "substantially all" of selling corporation's properties, other than cash, and therefore purchasing
corporation was not entitled to use earning experience of selling corporation in computing purchasing
corporation's average base period net income to determine its excess profits tax credit.
WORDS & PHRASES, Vol. 40B, 2002, 334. Substantially: Acquisition by newly practicing dentist of 75% of
assets of business of former dentist was not "substantially all" of assets and, thus, wage and benefit cost
experience of both dentists would not be considered jointly for purposes of determining new dentist's
unemployment compensation payments.
Solar power satellites would “substantially increase” the development of space.
Trevor Brown, (M.S., Nanyang Technological University), SPACE REVIEW, June 1, 2009. Retrieved Mar. 21,
2011 from http://www.thespacereview.com/article/1383/1. Indeed, the concept of an inflatable photovoltaic
sphere is a simple idea that could possibly overcome many of the obstacles that SSP faces. As basic math bears
out, such a design would enable extremely large satellites to be lofted into space with substantially increased
surface areas.
Trevor Brown, (M.S., Nanyang Technological University), SPACE REVIEW, June 1, 2009. Retrieved Mar. 21,
2011 from http://www.thespacereview.com/article/1383/1. The spherical concept would enable cost-to-orbit
factors to be lowered considerably as the platform would weigh much less than conventional models and would
require far fewer launches to be brought online. Whereas other SSP plans call for slashing the cost per pound to
orbit with substantial increases in launches, the inflatable sphere would slash the overall launch costs by
lessening the amount of launches required while still producing a massive surface area for the production of solar
energy.
The number of Near Earth objects detected by improved survey equipment would be “substantial.”
Aeronautics & Space Engineering Board of the National Research Council, DEFENDING PLANET EARTH:
NEAR-EARTH-OBJECT SURVEYS AND HAZARD MITIGATION STRATEGIES, 2010, 48. Combined
ground- and space-based surveys have a number of advantages. Such surveys discover more NEOs of all sizes,
including a substantial number smaller than 140 meters in diameter. These combined surveys also provide more
characterization data about the entire NEO population. With both infrared and visible data for most targets, it
would be possible to obtain accurate diameter estimates for all objects, as well as measurements of their albedos
and their surface and thermal properties. These high-value characterization data could help to guide mitigation
campaign studies. Additionally, a dual survey provides much information on the population of objects smaller
than 140 meters in diameter.
The military use of space is “substantial.”
Erik Gregersen, (Associate Editor, Astronomy & Space Exploration, Brittanica Educational Publishers),
UNMANNED SPACE MISSIONS, 2010, 171-172. Despite the substantial military use of space, no country has
deployed a space system capable of attacking a satellite in orbit or of delivering a weapon to a target on Earth.
Nevertheless, as more countries acquire military space capabilities and as regional and local conflicts persist
around the world, it is not clear whether space will continue to be treated as a weapons-free sanctuary.
“Increase” is defined.
“Increase” means to become greater in size or degree.
Michael Agnes, (Editor), WEBSTER’S NEW WORLD DICTIONARY, 4 th College Edition, 2007, 396. Increase:
To make or become greater, larger.
Elizabeth Jewell, (Editor), THE OXFORD DESK DICTIONARY AND THESAURUS, 2 nd Ed., 2007, 415.
Increase: Make or become greater or more numerous.
Christine Lindberg, (Editor), OXFORD COLLEGE DICTIONARY, 2 nd Ed., 2007, 687. Increase: Become or
make greater in size, amount, intensity, or degree.
Carol-June Cassidy, (Editor), CAMBRIDGE DICTIONARY OF AMERICAN ENGLISH, 2nd Ed., 2008, 441.
Increase: to become or make something larger or greater.
Christopher Leonesio, (Managing Editor), AMERICAN HERITAGE HIGH SCHOOL DICTIONARY, 4 th Ed.,
2007, 702. Increase: To become greater or larger.
Elizabeth Jewell, (Editor), THE OXFORD DESK DICTIONARY AND THESAURUS, 2nd Ed., 2007, 415.
Increase: Build up, enlarge, amplify, expand.
“Increase” means to make larger, even if the starting point was zero.
WORDS AND PHRASES CUMULATIVE SUPPLEMENTARY PAMPHLET, Vol. 20A, 07, 76. Increase:
Salary change of from zero to $12,000 and $1,200 annually for mayor and councilmen respectively was an
“increase” in salary and not merely the fixing of salary. King v. Herron, 243 S.E.2d36, 241 Ga. 5.
WORDS AND PHRASES CUMULATIVE SUPPLEMENTARY PAMPHLET, Vol. 20A, 07, 76. Increase:
Salary change of from zero to $12,000 and $1,200 annually for mayor and councilmen respectively was an
“increase” in salary and not merely the fixing of salary. King v. Herron, 243 S.E.2d36, 241 Ga. 5.
“Increase” can refer to a “net change,” meaning there can be some elements going up and others going down
so long as the total goes up.
WORDS AND PHRASES CUMULATIVE SUPPLEMENTARY PAMPHLET, Vol. 20A, 07, 76. Increase:
Within insurance company’s superintendent’s employment contract, “increase” meant net increase in premiums
generated by agent calculated by subtracting “lapses” or premiums lost on policies previously issued. Lanier v.
Trans-World Life Ins. Co., 258 So.2d 103.
“Increase” means “to multiply” or “reproduce.”
Christopher Leonesio, (Managing Editor), AMERICAN HERITAGE HIGH SCHOOL DICTIONARY, 4 th Ed.,
2007, 702. Increase: To multiply; reproduce.
“Increase” means to “supplement.”
Maurice Waite, (Editor), OXFORD DICTIONARY & THESAURUS, 2007, 526. Increase: Make bigger,
augment, supplement.
“Increase” can mean to extend in time (or duration).
WORDS AND PHRASES CUMULATIVE SUPPLEMENTARY PAMPHLET, Vol. 20A, 07, 76. Increase: A
durational modification of child support is as much an “increase” as a monetary modification. State ex rel.
Jarvela v. Burke, 678 N.W.2d 68.15.
Maurice Waite, (Editor), OXFORD DICTIONARY & THESAURUS, 2007, 526. Increase: Intensify, strengthen,
extend.
“Increase” can mean an improvement in quality or intensity rather than in number.
Maurice Waite, (Editor), OXFORD DICTIONARY & THESAURUS, 2007, 526. Increase: Become or make
greater in size, amount, or intensity.
Elizabeth Jewell, (Editor), THE OXFORD DESK DICTIONARY AND THESAURUS, 2 nd Ed., 2007, 415.
Increase: Advance in quality, attainment, etc.
Expanding the search for near-Earth objects constitutes a substantial “increase.”
John Kross, (Analyst, National Space Society), AD ASTRA, Winter 2010, 18. Thirty years ago, only 86 nearEarth asteroids and comets were known. By 1990, the number had increased to 170; by 2000, it was nearly one
thousand; and today the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) places the estimate at more than 5,300. The proposed
NEO Next Generation Search would increase the discovery of these objects 40 fold.
Joseph Burns, (Prof., Astronomy, Cornell U.), TAKING SIDES: CLASHING VIEWS IN SCIENCE,
TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY, 2009, 243-244. The LSST will be able to routinely discover and characterize
NEOs down to 300 m in diameter. Increasing the sensitivity of the survey to 100 m would mean increasing the
sensitivity of the telescope by a factor of ten. This may represent a "beyond the state-of-the-art" challenge to
telescope builders, and certainly a much larger telescope-3 times the LSST and probably 10 to 100 times the cost
unless innovative designs are found. The number of discovered objects would correspondingly increase
substantially; this large data set may challenge current capabilities.
The establishment of space colonies substantially “increases” the use of space.
Mark Hopkins, (Sr. Vice President, National Space Society), AD ASTRA, Summer 2009, 45. The asteroids have
enough material of roughly the right composition to produce O'Neill Space Settlements with a combined land
surface area that is 1,000 times the land surface area of the Earth. If the moons of the outer planets are also used,
this number increases by a factor of 100. There is a large cloud of comets that circle the Sun beyond the orbit of
Pluto, called the Oort Cloud. If this material is added, then the number increases by another factor of 10. The
total resulting land area is one MILLION times the land surface area of the Earth — a truly enormous number.
But this number is tiny when compared to available energy resources.
Terraforming planets will substantially increase the use of space.
Roger Maurice-Bonnet, (Director, International Space Science Institute), SURVIVING 1,000 CENTURIES,
2008, 292. If it is seriously envisioned to render Mars habitable through ecopoiesis and terraforming, four
principal modifications should be applied to the environment: 1. The mean global surface temperature should be
increased by at least 60 K; 2. The mass of the atmosphere should also be substantially increased, ideally by a
factor of 100 or more, as well as its oxygen and nitrogen fractions; 3. Liquid water must be made available; 4.
The surface UV and cosmic-ray flux must be substantially reduced.
The construction of a space elevator will dramatically increase the use of space.
Michael van Pelt, (Scientist, European Space Agency), SPACE TETHERS AND SPACE ELEVATORS, 2009,
144. It is very likely that the demand for spacecraft launches will increase dramatically once prices for putting
them in orbit drop significantly; more and more organizations and countries will be able to afford space missions,
and more people will find ways to make money from the use of satellites and space applications. Moreover, for
similar budgets now required to launch a couple of interplanetary probes per decade, we could send out a steady
stream of continually improved spacecraft to investigate other planets.
NASA funding of the search for extraterrestrial intelligence could substantially increase the likelihood of
success.
Gerald Smith, (Space Scientist, Formerly at NASA’S Jet Propulsion Laboratory), WASHINGTON POST, Aug.
15, 2009, A17. There has been substantial progress in understanding the best techniques for search and detection
of extraterrestrial signals. Given the basic groundwork that has been done and the level of resources and
technology that NASA could provide, the probability of successful detection could be greatly increased.
Members of Congress who are educated on the possibilities might be persuaded to support such a program. If
this is the only way we will ever learn of intelligent life elsewhere in the universe — and I believe it is —
shouldn't NASA lead and fund this effort?
“Its” is defined.
“Its” means to be connected or associated with.
Carol-June Cassidy, (Managing Editor), CAMBRIDGE DICTIONARY OF AMERICAN ENGLISH, 2nd Ed.,
2008, 464. Its: Belonging to or connected with the thing or animal mentioned; the possessive form of it.
Sandra Anderson, (Editor), COLLINS ENGLISH DICTIONARY, 8th Ed., 2006, 867. Its: Belonging to, or
associated in some way with.
Sandra Anderson, (Editor), COLLINS ENGLISH DICTIONARY, 8th Ed., 2006, 867. Its: Belonging to, or
associated in some way with.
“Its” means belonging to the thing previously mentioned.
Augustus Stevenson, (Editor), NEW OXFORD AMERICAN DICTIONARY, 3 rd Ed., 2010, 924. Its: Belonging
to or associated with a thing previously mentioned or easily identified.
Frederick Mish, (Editor-in-chief), WEBSTER'S COLLEGIATE DICTIONARY, 10th ed., 1993, 623. Its: Of or
relating to it or itself, esp. as possessor.
“Its” means belonging to.
Stuart Flexner, (Editor-in-chief), RANDOM HOUSE DICTIONARY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE,
UNABRIDGED, 2nd Ed., 1987, 1017. Its: The possessive form of it.
Justin Crozier, (Editor), COLLINS DICTIONARY AND THESAURUS, 2005, 448. Its: Of or belonging to it.
Justin Crozier, (Editor), COLLINS DICTIONARY AND THESAURUS, 2005, 448. Its: Of or belonging to it.
Carol-June Cassidy, (Managing Editor), CAMBRIDGE DICTIONARY OF AMERICAN ENGLISH, 2nd Ed.,
2008, 464. Its: Belonging to or connected with the thing or animal mentioned; the possessive form of it.
Frederick Mish, (Editor-in-chief), WEBSTER'S COLLEGIATE DICTIONARY, 10th ed., 1993, 623. Its: Of or
relating to it or itself, esp. as possessor.
“Exploration” is defined.
“Exploration” means to search or travel into for the purpose of discovery.
Steven Kleinedler, (Editor), AMERICAN HERITAGE DESK DICTIONARY AND THESAURUS, 2005, 270.
Explore: To search or travel into for the purpose of discovery.
Augustus Stevenson, (Editor), NEW OXFORD AMERICAN DICTIONARY, 3 rd Ed., 2010, 611. Exploration:
The action of traveling in or through an unfamiliar area in order to learn about it.
“Exploration” means scientific discovery.
Fabio Tronchetti, (Prof., Law, Leiden U., The Netherlands), THE EXPLOITATION OF NATURAL
RESOURCES OF THE MOON AND OTHER CELESTIAL BODIES: A PROPOSAL FOR A LEGAL
REGIME, 2009, 22. The term exploration did not generate any particular debate. It refers to discovery activities
of the space environment for scientific reasons. The problems arise with regards of the interpretation of the term
"use". The "use" of outer space and its resources may refer to such use either for scientific or for commercial
purposes.
Most satellites are designed to explore Earth; they are not engaged in the “exploration of space.”
Kim Evans, (Journalist), SPACE EXPLORATION: TRIUMPHS AND TRAGEDIES, 2009, 103. Only a handful
of robotic spacecraft are sent to other planets. The vast majority of them circle Earth or the Sun. Spacecraft in
Earth orbit serve commercial, military, and scientific purposes. Scientists rely on satellites to collect data about
Earth's weather, climate, atmospheric conditions, sea levels, ocean circulation, and gravitational and
electromagnetic fields. These satellites are not space explorers but Earth observers that reside in space.
“Exploration of space” presumes human presence as opposed to robotic missions.
Raja Menon, (Chair, Task Force on National Assessment, National Security Council), SPACE SECURITY AND
GLOBAL COOPERATION, 2009, 75-76. If satellites are the greatest use that humankind has got out of space,
then it is relevant to note that 760 satellites out of 800 look at the earth, while the remaining 40 look outwards at
outer space. So, in the most useful segment of space use, man is most concerned, not with inter-stellar discovery
or travel but with gaining an advantage, competitively on earth.
John Logsdon, (Former Dir., Space Policy Institute, George Washington U.), NASA’S FIRST 50 YEARS:
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES, 2010, 283-284. The MIT white paper provides an insightful definition of
exploration: Exploration is a human activity, undertaken by certain cultures at certain times for particular
reasons. It has components of national interest, scientific research, and technical innovation, but is defined by
none of them. We define exploration as an expansion of the realm of human experience, bringing people into
new places, situations, and environments, expanding and redefining what it means to be human.
Gregory Lamb, (Staff), CHRISTIAN SCIENCE MONITOR, Nov. 17, 2010. Retrieved Mar. 18, 2011 from
Nexis. A fundamental debate over what is exploration lies beneath the discussion of human missions to Mars,
[Dr. Michael] Robinson, [professor of history at the University of Hartford] says. Already, unmanned Mars
rovers called Spirit and Opportunity have done amazing things. Another called Curiosity is set to land in 2012.
"They're getting piles of data, really great data" for scientific study, Robinson says. Yet for some in the space
community, "robots don't really count" as true exploration, he says.
Wolfgang Baumjohann, (Dir., Austrian Academy of Sciences), HUMANS IN OUTER SPACE:
INTERDISCIPLINARY ODYSSEYS, 2009, 170. To use humans for purely scientific exploration of outer space
is prohibitive, in terms of excessive cost as well as because of the high risk involved. For exploration in its
classical meaning, i.e., travelling to unknown regions, human involvement is essential and the high cost and risk
become bearable.
Observation of asteroids constitutes “exploration.”
Richard Binzel, (Prof., Planetary Science, MIT), REPORT OF THE NASA ADVISORY COUNCIL AD HOC
TASK FORCE ON PLANETARY DEFENSE, Oct. 6, 2010, 12. Although some NEOs are potentially hazardous,
their periodic close approaches to Earth also make them among the most accessible objects in the solar system
for robotic and human exploration. A space-based IR survey telescope would efficiently find both exploration
targets and threatening NEOs currently inaccessible to observation by ground-based systems.
Human travel to asteroids constitutes “exploration.”
John Kross, (Analyst, National Space Society), AD ASTRA, Winter 2010, 18. Advocates of human exploration
of deep space have generated exciting mission scenarios with a broad range of launch vehicles. Perhaps most
advanced among these proposals are flights to near-Earth asteroids.
Telescopic photographing of the sky constitutes “exploration.”
Joseph Burns, (Prof., Astronomy, Cornell U.), TAKING SIDES: CLASHING VIEWS IN SCIENCE,
TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY, 2009, 244. The ability to create and play a "motion picture" of the night sky
will also provide new insights in a wide variety of disciplines from cosmology to astrophysics to solar system
exploration. A suitable analog might be the deepened knowledge that is obtained from dynamic movies of
swirling clouds and weather patterns, as compared to an occasional static photo.
Robotic space missions constitute “exploration.”
John Hickman, (Prof., Political Science, Berry College), REOPENING THE SPACE FRONTIER, 2010, 146.
That robots might prove competent to conduct all asteroid mining is strongly suggested by several decades of
uncrewed lunar and planetary exploration and more recent experience of using space probes to physically
explore a handful of asteroids and comets.
A human visit to Mars constitutes “exploration.”
Michael Meltzen, (Environmental Scientist, Formerly at Lawrence Livermore Naitonal Laboratory), NASA’S
FIRST 50 YEARS: HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES, 2010, 474. Michael J. Rycroft of the International Space
University has argued that "the overarching goal of space exploration for the twenty-first century should be to
send humans to Mars, with the primary objective of having them remain there," so that our human species might
have a second home in the event that a disaster on Earth rendered it uninhabitable.
Space colonization constitutes “exploration.”
Al Koller, (Former Program Manager, Kennedy Space Center), AD ASTRA, Summer 2010, 43. From my
perspective not much has changed over the past fifty years in terms of space exploration and our ultimate goal:
colonization.
Commercial space missions constitute “exploration.”
Kim Evans, (Journalist), SPACE EXPLORATION: TRIUMPHS AND TRAGEDIES, 2009, 61. In 2004 a major
milestone in space exploration was achieved when the first nongovernmental manned spacecraft traveled to
space and back. The spacecraft was called SpaceShipOne, and it was funded by the private investor Paul G.
Allen, the cofounder of the Microsoft Corporation.
Programs designed to find resources in outer space constitute “exploration.”
Philip Harris, (Fellow, American Institute of Aeoronautics & Astronautics), SPACE ENTERPRISE: LIVING
AND WORKING OFFWORLD IN THE 21ST CENTURY, 2009, 69. Space is not just for doing science and
astronomy, but a place for exploration, settlement, and utilization of its vast resources. Whether manned or
unmanned, both represent human extension into space. Experience has demonstrated the value of human
inventiveness in space when computers and mechanical equipment fail and need to be repaired or replaced.
Reducing the cost of going to space constitutes an increase in “exploration.”
Roger Launius & Howard McCurdy, (Former NASA Chief Historian/Prof., Public Affairs, American U.),
ROBOTS IN SPACE, 2008, 246. Reductions in the overall cost of designing and building spacecraft would
advance the cause of space exploration considerably — no matter which direction exploration goes.
Improvements in space suits empower “exploration.”
Erik Seedhouse, (Aerospace Scientist, Ph.D. from the Institute for Space Medicine, Cologne), MARTIAN
OUTPOST: THE CHALLENGES OF ESTABLISHING A HUMAN SETTLEMENT ON MARS, 2009, 244.
The Bio-Suit will also help astronauts stave off the debilitating effects of osteoporosis and general
deconditioning, thanks to its ability to provide crewmembers with resistance levels to maintain muscle and bone
integrity. Perhaps the most striking capability of the Bio-Suit is, by virtue its flexibility, its ability to enhance
human performance on the Martian surface and thereby empower exploration.
Lunar missions constitute “exploration.”
Jeffrey Foust, (Editor, The Space Review), AD ASTRA, Fall 2009, 17. "We are in a new era of lunar
exploration," Jim Adams, deputy director of NASA's planetary sciences division, said about the ILN last year.
"Scientific coordination of the international armada of missions being sent to the Moon in the next decade will
greatly leverage our scientific capabilities." That spirit of cooperation might prove more sustainable in the long
run than the competition that burned brightly but briefly a half-century ago. Let's hope so.
The International Space Station is engaged in space “exploration.”
Kelly Mellone, (Analyst, National Space Society), AD ASTRA, Winter 2010, 30-31. Ironically, the current and
future utilization of the International Space Station is perhaps the most eloquent realization of NASA's original
three-part mission conceived long before the notion of such an orbiting asset was even a glimmer in NASA's eye:
To improve life here, to extend life to there, to find life beyond. The use of the space station as a technology
demonstration test bed for the hardware, software, instrumentation, and processes for space exploration systems,
as well as a potential "base-camp" for future exploration missions, means space settlement is a possibility upon
which we can continue to hang our space-faring dreams.
Tabatha Thompson, (Staff, National Space Society), AD ASTRA, Fall 2010, 34. "Scientists from all over the
world are using station facilities, putting their talents to work in almost all areas of science and technology,"
wrote Julie Robinson, NASA program scientist for the Space Station, in the Houston Chronicle earlier this year.
"They're sharing this knowledge to make life on Earth better for people of all nations and expanding the horizons
of our exploration capabilities."
Charles Bolden, Jr., (NASA Administrator), NASA’S FUTURE AND ITS PURSUITS, 2010, 197. ISS can also
play a key role in the demonstrations and engineering research associated with exploration. Propellant storage
and transfer, life support systems, and inflatable technology can all benefit by using the unique research
capabilities of ISS.
Kelly Mellone, (Analyst, National Space Society), AD ASTRA, Winter 2010, 28. Our nation's requirements of
the space station come from government agencies other than NASA, such as the National Institutes of Health
(NIH), the National Science Foundation (NSF), the Department of Defense (DoD), the Defense Advanced
Research Projects Agency (DARPA), and the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). As Dr. Neal Pellis,
senior scientist of Space Life Sciences at Johnson Space Center explained, designating the space station as a U.S.
National Laboratory fits the exploration format extremely well. It's the kind of scientific exploration that leads to
discovery, which in turn leads to breakthrough developments and innovation back on Earth.
Expansion of nuclear propulsion systems constitutes space “exploration.”
Lou Varricchio, (Analyst, Earth System Science Institute), SPACE EXPLORATION AND HUMANITY, 2010,
1232. Nuclear power and propulsion have long been considered essential by space experts for the long-term
exploration and colonization of space.
“Exploration” means investigation or search.
Ulrike Bohlmann, (Lawyer, European Space Agency), HUMANS IN OUTER SPACE: INTERDISCIPLINARY
ODYSSEYS, 2009, 184. In general, the term "exploration" signifies investigation, search, study, or travel for
discovery parallel to a geographic expedition. In a narrower sense, the term is understood to mean investigation
of the universe beyond the Earth's atmosphere by means of manned and unmanned spacecraft.
“Exploration of space” includes the study of global warming on Earth.
Joseph Pelton, (Dir., Emeritus, The Space & Advanced Communications Research Institute, George Washington
U.), THE FARTHEST SHORE: A 21 ST CENTURY GUIDE TO SPACE, 2010, 19-20. Today the exploration of
space, plus space science and applications, has spread to a dizzying array of activities. Whilst we now know that
our space systems are imperiled by magnetic storms, we use space as a vantage point for making key
observations to understand more about environmental issues such as global warming or the holes in the
protective ozone layer. We now use space for astronomy, telecommunications and broadcasting, navigation and
surveying, education and medical training, new developments in materials, and a growing array of business
services.
“Exploration of space” can be either human or robotic.
Chris Shank, (Dir., Strategic Investments, NASA), SPACE SECURITY AND GLOBAL COOPERATION,
2009, 185. Space exploration, whether human or robotic, is the grandest and most technically challenging
expression of human imagination of which one could possibly conceive. Thus, it is the US's best interests to
work with other people in this unique human endeavor, to learn from each other, as different countries and
cultures, how we go about solving the unique problems presented by the exploration of space.
“Exploration” means going to a place not yet visited; there is no exploration value in going back to the
Moon.
NASA Aerospace Technology Working Group, ENERGY CRISIS: SOLUTION FROM SPACE, 2009, 132.
There is neither significant (or short-term) science value nor space exploration and operation value in revisiting
an earth-orbit destination that was explored by mankind four decades ago. Given today's decimated American
economic condition, we must adapt a concurrent and comprehensive space exploration and space development
strategy that is not only affordable but can be mutually supported.
“And/or” is defined.
“And/or” means one or the other.
Frederick Mish, (Editor-in-chief), WEBSTER'S COLLEGIATE DICTIONARY, 10th ed., 1993, 43. And/or:
Used as a function word to indicate that two words or expressions are to be taken together or individually.
Justin Crozier, (Editor), COLLINS DICTIONARY AND THESAURUS, 2005, 27. And/or: Either one or the
other or both.
“And/or” means either or both.
Stuart Flexner, (Editor-in-chief), RANDOM HOUSE DICTIONARY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE,
UNABRIDGED, 2nd Ed., 1987, 77. And/Or: Used to imply that either or both of the things mentioned may be
affected or involved.
Susan Spitz, (Sr. Editor), AMERICAN HERITAGE DICTIONARY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, 4th Ed.,
2006, 67. And/Or: Used to indicate that either or both of the items connected by it are involved.
“And/or” does not mean “both.”
WORDS AND PHRASES, Vol. 3A, 2007, 221. The expression “and/or” means either “and” or “or” and, when
used in a pleading, does not mean both. Kuttner v. Swansen, 2 S.E. 2d, 230. (Georgia Appeals Court)
“And/or” means “or.”
WORDS AND PHRASES, Vol. 3A, 2007, 224. As used in the constitutional amendment and statute relating to
the creation of public utility districts, the hybrid phrase “and/or” may be construed as meaning “or.” Ollilo v.
Clatskanie Peoples’ Utility District, 132 P. 2d 416 (Oregon)
Use of “And/or” in a statute is inadvisable.
WORDS AND PHRASES, Vol. 3A, 2007, 220. In a pleading, the phrase “and/or” should not be used since the
law requires pleader to state a cause of action or ground or defense with certainty to a common intent. Clay
County Abstract Co. v. McKay, 147 So. 407. (Alabama Court )
WORDS AND PHRASES, Vol. 3A, 2007, 221. The use of “and/or” in statutes should be discouraged. Eysink v.
Board of Superiors of Jasper County. Holmes v. Gross, 296 NW 376 (Iowa Case).
Use of “And/or” in a statute is acceptable.
WORDS AND PHRASES, Vol. 3A, 2007, 224. As used in the constitutional amendment and statute relating to
the creation of public utility districts, the hybrid phrase “and/or” may be construed as meaning “or.” Ollilo v.
Clatskanie Peoples’ Utility District, 132 P. 2d 416 (Oregon)
“And/or” is ambiguous.
WORDS AND PHRASES, Vol. 3A, 2007, 220-221. The expression “and/or” is equivocal, a deliberate
amphibology, and is neither positively conjunctive, nor positively disjunctive, and is purposefully ambiguous as
ordinarily used in contracts. Bank Bldg. & Equipment Corp. of America v. Georgia State Bank, 209 S.E.2d, 82.
(California Court)
WORDS AND PHRASES, Vol. 3A, 2007, 220. Whether use of expression renders pleading demurrable,
depends on whether, when considered in light of its context and meaning, it creates defective or ambiguous
status. Hays v. McCarty, 195 So. 241. (Alabama Court)
“And/or” is a confusing expression.
WORDS AND PHRASES, Vol. 3A, 2007, 222. A Texas court had the following to say of its use: “At the very
threshold of this case, we are confronted with the onerous task of determining what is meant by the word or
symbol “and/or” appearing in the indictment. If the pleader meant the conjunctive, he should have employed the
word “and,” but if he meant the disjunctive, he should have use the word “or.” To use both leads to uncertainty
and confusion.” Adler v. Douglas, 95 S.W. 2d 1179 (Missouri case)
WORDS AND PHRASES, Vol. 3A, 2007, 222. An indictment charging commission of murder by use of metal
or steel knuckles, “a deadly weapon,” “and/or” the use of hands, fists, and feet, “deadly weapons when so used
and employed” was sufficient as against contention that is charges commission of crime by alternative modes
disjunctively, though use of words “and/or” was confusing and improper. Boggs v. Commonwealth, 148 W.W.2d
703. (Kentucky case)
WORDS AND PHRASES, Vol. 3A, 2007, 222. The American Bar Association Journal, in commenting on the
growing use of “and/or” said: It is indicative of confused thought and should have no place in either a statute or a
legal document as “and/or” makes confusion worse. Adler v. Douglas, 95 S.W. 2d 1179 (Missouri case)
WORDS AND PHRASES, Vol. 3A, 2007, 225. The words “and/or” have oftentimes been criticized as of
doubtful meaning and should not be accepted in jury’s finding and verdict, nor utilized in court’s judgment.
Allen v. State, 136 S.W. 2d 232. (Texas Criminal Court of Appeals)
“And/or” is imprecise.
WORDS AND PHRASES, Vol. 3A, 2007, 220. The expression “and/or” is equivocal and is neither positively
conjunctive nor positively disjunctive. Cochrane v. Florida East Coast Ry. Co. 145 So. 217. (Florida case)
WORDS AND PHRASES, Vol. 3A, 2007, 220. “And/or” phrases used in subpoena duces tecum requested by
special agent of internal revenue service, for production of personal records and data of secretary of close
corporation, as well as corporate records, made for impreciseness, and tended toward lack of clarity rather than
particularity. Wright v. Detwiler, 241 F.Supp. 753. (Pennsylvania Court)
The use of “and/or” has been condemned in the legal context.
WORDS AND PHRASES, Vol. 3A, 2007, 222. I confess that I do not know that is meant by the use of the
phrase “and/or.” There is no reason why a statute, contract, or legal document of any kind cannot be stated in
English. The use of the symbol “and/or” has been condemned by some courts and should be condemned by every
court. Adler v. Douglas, 95 S.W. 2d 1179 (Missouri case)
“And/or” means one or the other or both.
WORDS AND PHRASES, Vol. 3A, 2007, 220. Words “and/or” for contract purposes, commonly mean one or
the other or both. AFL-CIO v. Com. Of Mass., 666 F.2d 618. (Massachusetts Case)
“Development” is defined.
“Development” means the process of being developed.
Christine Lindberg, (Editor), OXFORD COLLEGE DICTIONARY, 2 nd Ed., 2007, 380. Development: The
process of developing or being developed.
“Development” means the creation of something new.
Augustus Stevenson, (Editor), NEW OXFORD AMERICAN DICTIONARY, 3 rd Ed., 2010, 476. Development:
An event constituting a new stage in a changing situation.
Augustus Stevenson, (Editor), NEW OXFORD AMERICAN DICTIONARY, 3rd Ed., 2010, 476. Development:
A new or refined product or idea.
“Development” means to make usable.
Princeton
U.
Language
Lab,
WORDNET,
2011.
Retrieved
Mar.
3,
2011
from
http://www.google.com/search?sclient=psy&hl=en&safe=active&site=&source=hp&q=define%3A+develop&aq
=f&aqi=&aql=&oq=&pbx=1 . Develop: Change the use of and make available or usable.
MERRIAM-WEBSTER’S SCHOOL DICTIONARY, 2004, 261. Develop: To make more available or usable.
Steven Kleinedler, (Editor), AMERICAN HERITAGE DESK DICTIONARY AND THESAURUS, 2005, 208.
Develop: To make available and usable.
“Development” means to work out the possibilities of something.
MERRIAM-WEBSTER’S SCHOOL DICTIONARY, 2004, 261. Develop: To work out the possibilities of.
“Development” means to evolve from a lower state to fulfillment.
Steven Kleinedler, (Editor), AMERICAN HERITAGE DESK DICTIONARY AND THESAURUS, 2005, 208.
Develop: To bring, grow or evolve from latency toward fulfillment.
To “develop” means to make us of.
Steven Kleinedler, (Editor), AMERICAN HERITAGE DESK DICTIONARY AND THESAURUS, 2005, 208.
Develop: To make available and usable.
“Development” means to use resources.
Christine Lindberg, (Editor), OXFORD COLLEGE DICTIONARY, 2 nd Ed., 2007, 380. Develop: Construct or
convert so as to improve existing resources.
Development of space can mean looking back at the Earth from space.
Al Globus, (Senior Research Associate for Human Factors Research and Technology at San Jose State
University),
AD
ASTRA,
Winter
2009.
Retrieved
Apr.
13,
2011
from
http://www.nss.org/spacemovement/environment.html. Space development has been good for the environment. It
was a satellite that detected the ozone hole in the atmosphere, and today that hole is shrinking. It was satellite
photos of the massive destruction of the Brazilian rain forest that convinced their government to pass laws to
protect the Amazon Basin. A fleet of dozens of Earth-observing satellites are filling data archives with the
information needed to understand the land, sea, air, and ecosystems of the only place in the universe that we
know life exists: a thin layer on the outside of the third planet circling the Sun, just one of hundreds of billions of
stars in the Milky Way, which is just one of 80 billion galaxies in the observable universe.
The construction of solar satellites in space constitutes the “development of space.”
Ed McCullough, (Analyst, National Space Society), AD ASTRA, Winter 2010, 46. The gradual development of
space solar power would create a space transportation infrastructure that would drive down launch costs. This
would provide a means to commence the up front engineering investigations and experiments needed to optimize
our development and construction plans (build a little, test a little).
Space tourism constitutes the “development of space.”
Lewis Solomon, (Prof., Law, Cornell U.), THE PRIVATIZATION OF SPACE EXPLORATION, 2008, 3. With
for-profit enterprises seeking to carve out a new realm, the exploration and commercialization of space, the
development of space as a tourist destination will likely soon become a reality.
The construction of the space elevator constitutes the “development of space.”
Lewis Solomon, (Prof., Law, Cornell U.), THE PRIVATIZATION OF SPACE EXPLORATION, 2008, 120.
Despite the technological, financial, legal, and security obstacles, at least three American companies, LiftPort,
Inc., Carbon Designs, Inc., and X-Tech Projects, beyond the scope of this book, exist and are pursuing
commercial space elevator projects. NASA has studied the concept, which is coming within practical reach as a
result of advances in carbon nanotube manufacturing, and is sponsoring the development of space elevatorrelated technology as part of its Centennial Challenges prize program, discussed in Chapter 2.
“Development” can include the construction of solar sails.
Edward Weiler, (Dir., Goddard Space Science Institute), TAKING SIDES: CLASHING VIEWS IN SCIENCE,
TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY, 2009, 247. NASA's bold new technology initiatives, the In-Space Propulsion
(ISP) Initiative and the Nuclear Systems Initiative (NSI), together offer new opportunities to enable capable new
missions to NEOs early in the next decade. Improvements in solar-electric propulsion and development of solar
sails are examples of new capabilities that might allow a spacecraft like NEAR-Shoemaker to visit many NEOs
during a single mission rather than just one (and at the cost of a Discovery mission). If we are ever faced with the
requirement to modify the motion of an NEO over time to ensure that the object will not come close to the Earth,
nuclear propulsion may very well be the answer.
“Development” can include the creation of heavy-lift space vehicles.
Aeronautics & Space Engineering Board of the National Research Council, DEFENDING PLANET EARTH:
NEAR-EARTH-OBJECT SURVEYS AND HAZARD MITIGATION STRATEGIES, 2010, 82-83. Current
technology allows the delivery of payloads for purposes of mitigation to NEOs in a wide range of orbits.
However, in cases of short warning (under, say, a decade), payloads are likely to be severely limited in mass but
may often be sufficient to deliver a nuclear device. The development of the next generation of heavy-lift launch
vehicles will considerably improve the situation. The development of advanced engines for in-space propulsion
will considerably improve the capability of delivering rendezvous payloads (for characterization, to act as gravity
tractors, or to emplace surface explosives) when the warning time is in decades.
“Development” can include the construction of a layered ballistic missile system in space.
William Van Cleave, (Prof., Defense & Strategic Studies, Missouri State U.), FREQUENTLY ASKED
QUESTIONS ABOUT BALLISTIC MISSILE DEFENSE, 2009, 6. In order to field an effective layered defense,
it is essential that the United States develop and deploy systems that include space-based interceptor components,
together with sea- and land-based elements. Given the existing and increasing ballistic missile threat arrayed
against it, the United States should move ahead with development of a robust, layered defense.
Kim Evans, (Journalist), SPACE EXPLORATION: TRIUMPHS AND TRAGEDIES, 2009, 47. As of March
2008, the DOD continued the development and testing of components for the ballistic missile defense system
(BMDS). These include ground- and sea-based interceptor missiles and space-based tracking systems. Things
that were once considered science fiction are slowly becoming viable components in the DOD arsenal.
“Development” can refer to the economic exploitation of space resources.
John Hickman, (Prof., Political Science, Berry College), REOPENING THE SPACE FRONTIER, 2010, 128.
Crewed space missions are essential if the space frontier is to be opened to human settlement and the economic
development it would engender. Crewed missions mean learning how to live and work in the environments of
space. In choosing a mix of uncrewed and crewed space missions over just uncrewed space missions, the
American and Soviet space programs undertook the important work of preparing our species to settle the space
frontier.
“Development of space” includes space colonization.
Al Globus, (Senior Research Associate for Human Factors Research and Technology at San Jose State
University), AD ASTRA, Winter 2009/2010, 43. Space settlement will give life what it lacks today: room to
grow without degradation of the home planet. Space development can thus go far beyond preserving and
restoring life on Earth. It can extend life throughout the cosmos. Think about that next time you look up at the
stars.
“Development” includes designing an asteroid deflection capability.
Aeronautics & Space Engineering Board of the National Research Council, DEFENDING PLANET EARTH:
NEAR-EARTH-OBJECT SURVEYS AND HAZARD MITIGATION STRATEGIES, 2010, 3. A spacecraft
reconnaissance mission might make good sense to conduct on an object that, without human intervention, would
hit Earth with near certainty. Such a mission would be feasible provided there was sufficient warning time for the
results to suitably inform the development of an attack mission to cause the object to miss colliding with Earth.
“Development” includes the design of new space vehicles.
Aeronautics & Space Engineering Board of the National Research Council, DEFENDING PLANET EARTH:
NEAR-EARTH-OBJECT SURVEYS AND HAZARD MITIGATION STRATEGIES, 2010, 83-84. For a wide
range of impact scenarios, launch capability exists to deliver an appropriate payload to mitigate the effects of a
NEO impact. For some scenarios, particularly short-warning scenarios, the capability is inadequate. The
development of foreseen heavy-lift launch vehicles, such as the Ares cargo vehicle, should enable the use of a
variety of methods for NEOs up to two times larger than is possible with current launch vehicles.
“Development” includes the deployment of space weapons.
William Van Cleave, (Prof., Defense & Strategic Studies, Missouri State U.), MISSILE DEFENSE, THE
SPACE RELATIONSHIP, AND THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY, 2009, 45-46. Russia and China are
pressing for a new prohibition on the development and deployment of space weapons, even preparing a draft
treaty for consideration in the United Nations. This periodic proposal from Russia and China is intended to
constrain the United States from protecting its space assets and also would have the effect of denying the use of
space for missile defense. Such a treaty is neither enforceable nor verifiable.
“Space” is defined.
“Space” includes everything outside of the Earth’s atmosphere.
Peter Topychkanov, (Research Associate, Institute for Asian and African Studies, Moscow State U.), OUTER
SPACE: WEAPONS, DIPLOMACY, AND SECURITY, 2010, 3. Outer space is understood as everything
beyond the Earth's atmosphere.
Erik Gregersen, (Associate Editor, Astronomy & Space Exploration, Brittanica Educational Publishers),
UNMANNED SPACE MISSIONS, 2010, 20. Space, as considered here, is defined as all the reaches of the
universe beyond Earth's atmosphere. There is no definitive boundary above Earth at which space begins, but, in
terms of the limiting altitude for vehicles designed for atmospheric flight, it may be considered to be as low as 45
km (28 miles). The lowest practical orbit for an artificial satellite around Earth is about 160 km (100 miles).
Sybil P. Parker, (Editor), MCGRAW-HILL DICTIONARY OF ASTRONOMY, 1994, 178. Space: Specifically,
the part of the universe lying outside the limits of the earth's atmosphere.
It is difficult to say where space begins and ends.
Lewis Solomon, (Prof., Law, Cornell U.), THE PRIVATIZATION OF SPACE EXPLORATION, 2008, 94.
Despite its name, the Outer Space Treaty does not define where air space ends and outer space begins. The
Preamble to the treaty recognizes "the common interest of all mankind in the progress of the exploration and use
of outer space for peaceful purposes," but it fails to define the term "outer space." According to Article I, the
1967 treaty applies to "outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies," but does not state what the
term "outer space" includes. Possible definitions could include low-Earth orbit, orbital space, or any national
airspace once one reaches a certain altitude.
“Space” is the void between heavenly bodies.
FACTS ON FILE DICTIONARY OF ASTRONOMY, 2006, 443. Space: The near-vacuum existing beyond the
atmospheres of all bodies in the Universe.
Simon Mitton, (Prof., Astronomy, Cambridge U.), CAMBRIDGE ILLUSTRATED DICTIONARY OF
ASTRONOMY, 2007, 317. Space: The regions between the planets and stars, excluding their immediate
atmospheres.
E. Julius Dasch, (Editor), A DICTIONARY OF SPACE EXPLORATION, 2005, 307. Space: The void that
exists beyond Earth's atmosphere.
Sybil P. Parker, (Editor), MCGRAW-HILL DICTIONARY OF ASTRONOMY, 1994, 178. Space: More
generally, the volume in which all celestial bodies, including the earth, move.
Timothy Kusky, (Prof., Natural Science, St. Louis U.), ENCYCLOPEDIA OF EARTH AND SPACE SCIENCE,
2010, 451. Space: The interstellar medium, which consists of the areas or voids between the stars and galaxies,
represents a nearly perfect vacuum, with a density a trillion trillion times less than that of typical stars.
“Space” is not just a void – it includes heavenly bodies such as planets and stars.
Ralph Nansen, (Former Program Manager, Boeing Solar Power Satellite Program), ENERGY CRISIS:
SOLUTION FROM SPACE, 2009, 145. The term "space" may be somewhat misleading because even though it
appears to be a great void, it contains many things: the earth, our moon, the other planets, asteroids, the sun, and
billions and billions of stars in the heavens.
Joseph Angelo, Jr., (Editor), ENCYCLOPEDIA OF SPACE AND ASTRONOMY, 2006, 554. Space:
Specifically, the part of the universe lying outside the limits of Earth's atmosphere. By informal international
agreement, outer space is usually considered to begin at between 100 and 200 kilometers altitude.
“Beyond” is defined.
Augustus Stevenson, (Editor), NEW OXFORD AMERICAN DICTIONARY, 3 rd Ed., 2010, 161. Beyond:
Further reaching than.
Augustus Stevenson, (Editor), NEW OXFORD AMERICAN DICTIONARY, 3 rd Ed., 2010, 161. Beyond: At or
to the further side of.
Augustus Stevenson, (Editor), NEW OXFORD AMERICAN DICTIONARY, 3 rd Ed., 2010, 161. Beyond:
Above or greater than.
Steven Kleinedler, (Editor), AMERICAN HERITAGE DESK DICTIONARY AND THESAURUS, 2005, 74.
Beyond: On the far side of, past.
Augustus Stevenson, (Editor), NEW OXFORD AMERICAN DICTIONARY, 3 rd Ed., 2010, 161. Beyond:
Outside the physical limits or range of.
“Mesosphere” is defined.
Joseph Angelo, Jr., (Editor), ENCYCLOPEDIA OF SPACE AND ASTRONOMY, 2006, 393. Mesosphere: The
region of Earth's atmosphere above the stratosphere that is characterized by temperature decreasing with height.
The top of this layer, called the mesopause, occurs between 80 and 85 kilometers altitude.
Steven Kleinedler, (Editor), AMERICAN HERITAGE DESK DICTIONARY AND THESAURUS, 2005, 471.
Mesosphere: The portion of the atmosphere from about 30 to 80 km. (20 to 50 miles) above the earth’s surface.
HANDY SCIENCE ANSWER BOOK, 1994, 59. The mesosphere — (above the stratosphere) extends from 30
miles (48 kilometers) to 55 miles (85 kilometers) above the Earth.
Simon Mitton, (Prof., Astronomy, Cambridge U.), CAMBRIDGE ILLUSTRATED DICTIONARY OF
ASTRONOMY, 2007, 222. Mesosphere: A region of Earth's atmosphere above the stratosphere, between heights
of about 50 and 85 km (30 and 50 miles), in which the temperature decreases with height to — 90°C at its upper
boundary, the mesopause.
Ian Ridpath, (Editor), A DICTIONARY OF ASTRONOMY, 2007, 316. Mesosphere: The middle layer of Earth's
atmosphere, lying above the stratosphere and below the thermosphere, at altitudes of 50-85 km.
FACTS ON FILE DICTIONARY OF ASTRONOMY, 2006, 39. Above the stratopause is the mesosphere, in
which the temperature falls with height to reach about -- 90 °C at the mesopause at an altitude of about 85 km.
Augustus Stevenson, (Editor), NEW OXFORD AMERICAN DICTIONARY, 3 rd Ed., 2010, 1098. Mesosphere:
The region of the earth’s atmosphere above the stratosphere and below the thermosphere, between about 30 and
50 miles in altitude.
Martin Ince, (Editor), DICTIONARY OF ASTRONOMY, 1997, 107. Mesosphere: Part of the Earth's upper
atmosphere stretching from the top of the stratosphere at about 50km above sea level to the base of the
ionosphere at about 90km.
Sample Cases: A Place to Begin
These are ideas and should get you started. I am going to suggest you learn all of
these—Aff and Neg, because you will likely come up against them, even if you do
not use them. You may even find that you could combine one or two or more of
them to create additional information on a case. The first few are bigger cases, and
likely to be seen quite a bit. (Where evidence is listed, refer to book list above)
I.
SBSPs: Space-Based Solar Power Satellites-Satellites in geosynchronous
orbit—collect solar energy, beam by microwaves, to rectena (receiving
station off the ground)
a. Potential Harms:
i. Climate Change
ii. Peak oil economics (M. King Hubert: Bell curve for supply and
demand)
iii. Oil Wars
b. Inherency
i. No Federal Funding
ii. SBSP falls between bureaucratic cracks (space vs. energy)
c. Solvency
i. Solve all Earth’s energy problems
1. Evidence
a. Space Future Journal. Charles miller. Dec. 17
2008.
b. Ad Astra. Spr. 2008
c. Ralph Nansen
d. Negative
i. Solar cell shortages
ii. Earth-based renewable superior
iii. Commercialization
iv. Space debris
v. Ozone layer (constant piercing)
vi. Deficits
vii. Military links
1. Evidence
a. Rutger Van Santen
b. Hans Dodel
c. John Hickman
d. Ad Astra
e. Peter Marshall
II.
III.
IV.
Planetary Defense
a. Potential Harm Areas:
i. Catastrophic loss of all life on Earth
ii. Air blast mistaken for nuclear attack
b. Inherency:
i. Congress has mandated but not funded
c. Solvency:
i. Can detect and deflect
d. Negative:
i. Harm exaggerated
ii. NASA surveys nearly completed
iii. Deflection attempts could make the situation worse
iv. Military applications of deflection technology
e. Evidence:
i. Schrunk
ii. Friend
Helium-3 Moon Mining
a. Potential Harm Areas:
i. Global Warming
ii. Energy Dependence
iii. Peak Oil
b. Inherency:
i. Obama has turned away from the moon
c. Solvency: Meet all Earth Energy Needs
d. Negative
i. Nuclear Fusion only a dream
ii. Nuclear fusion won’t require H3
iii. Deficits
iv. Politics
e. Evidence
i. Johnson
ii. Livingston
Brilliant Pebbles
a. Potential Harm Areas
i. Iran/North Korea/ Terrorist Threat
V.
VI.
ii. Electromagnetic Pulse (EMP) attack
iii. Russia/China accidental launch
b. Inherency:
i. Obama has allowed only Earth-based
c. Solvency: Could take out all incoming missiles
d. Negative:
i. Re-launch Cold War with Russia/China
ii. No real threat from Iran or North Korea
iii. Terrorists would not use a missile strike
iv. Space Militarization
v. Space Debris
e. Evidence
i. Cooper
Re-Boot the Glory Mission
a. Potential Harm Areas:
i. Need to study global warming
ii. Must know when/whether it is happening
iii. Must know how best to adapt
b. Inherency:
i. Glory Mission Failure
ii. Congressional Republican Opposition
c. Solvency:
i. Satellites will enable climate science success
d. Negative
i. Already know global warming is upon us
ii. Already know what adaptations are necessary
iii. Further study becomes moral hazard, delaying action
iv. Deficits
v. Political backlash
Space Debris
a. Potential Harm Areas:
i. Closing the Space Frontier
ii. Possible cause of war through misunderstanding
b. Inherency:
i. Focus is on prevention rather than remediation
c. Solvency:
i. Net systems can clean space debris
d. Negative:
i. Any disadvantages to big space
ii. Military applications: Can also collect other countries’ satellites
VII. Human Spaceflight
a. Potential Harm Areas:
i. Human spaceflight essential to hegemony
ii. China now challenging U.S. leadership
b. Inherency:
i. Obama de-emphasizing human missions
ii. Moon mission has been abandoned
c. Solvency:
i. Moon mission will re-establish U.S. Lead
d. Negative:
i. Chinese space program is no threat
ii. Nothing of importance is on the Moon
iii. U.S. Hegemony bad
iv. Military race in space
VIII. Robotic Spaceflight
a. Potential Harm Areas:
i. Human spaceflight too expensive
ii. Human spaceflight too risky
b. Inherency:
i. Political expedience trumps scientific need
c. Solvency:
i. Robotic spaceflight will advance exploration
d. Negative:
i. Politics
ii. Will cede U.S. leadership in space to China
iii. Robots are unable to do what humans can do
IX. Asteroid Mining:
a. Potential Harm Areas:
i. Resource Shortages on Earth
ii. Resource wars
X.
XI.
b. Inherency:
i. NASA budget cuts in human exploration
c. Solvency:
i. Trillions of dollars boost to economy
d. Negative:
i. Moral hazard (ignore need to conserve)
ii. Deficits
iii. Trigger resource wars on earth (flooding markets)
e. Evidence:
i. Pop
Space Elevator:
a. Potential Harm Areas:
i. Access to space closed
ii. Huge cost of the space program
b. Inherency:
i. Mothballing of the space shuttle
c. Solvency:
i. Create a routine access to space
d. Negative:
i. Tether would have to be 45,000 miles long
ii. No tether exists with sufficient strength
iii. Snapping of the cable would be devastating to Earth
e. Evidence:
i. Nanotechnology
Expanding the search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI)
a. Potential Harm Areas:
i. Knowledge: We need to know
ii. Breakthrough: ET will teach us a lot
iii. Peace: Contact will lead to world peace
b. Inherency:
i. Senator Proxmire’s Golden Fleece Award
c. Solvency:
i. SETI search could be greatly expanded
d. Negative:
i. We should lay low: Slaves, fuel, food
ii. Privatization: SETI institute doing fine
XII. One Way to Mars
a. Potential harm Areas:
i. Return trip from Mars too expensive
ii. Need to explore
iii. Space spinoffs
b. Inherency:
i. NASA unwilling to consider
c. Solvency:
i. Dirk Shulze-Makuch and Paul Davies
d. Negative:
i. We would learn nothing beyond what can be gathered from
robotic probes
ii. Suicide missions should be avoided, even for volunteers
iii. Regular re-supply missions would be necessary
iv. The expense would still be significant
XIII. Electromagnetic Pulse (EMP:
a. Potential Harm Areas:
i. High airburst over U.S. Collapses economy
ii. May shut down the economy for years
b. Inherency:
i. U.S. unprepared for EMP attack
c. Solvency:
i. Ballistic missile defense needed to prevent
d. Negative:
i. EMP attack unlikely
ii. Earth-based hardening is the superior solution
iii. Military Space Race
e. Evidence:
i. National Geographic
ii. Cooper
iii. EMP Commission Report
iv. The Space Review
XIV. Space Colonies
a. Potential Harm Areas:
i. Need to abandon Earth in event of catastrophe
ii. Over-population of Earth
b. Inherency:
i. No funding of space colony projects
c. Solvency:
i. O’Neill space colonies free us from Earth
d. Negative:
i. Any disadvantages to big space
ii. Astronomical cost: Deficits
iii. Commercialization
XV. International Space Station:
a. Potential Harm Areas:
i. Need for International Cooperation
ii. U.S. Leadership in Space
iii. Enable science missions in space
b. Inherency:
i. U.S. fails to meet ISS funding commitments
c. Solvency: Space station promotes international peace
d. Negative:
i. Little meaningful science done on the ISS
ii. U.S. Hegemony bad
iii. China militarization disadvantage (if China invited to
participate)
XVI. Nuclear Propulsion:
a. Potential Harm Areas:
i. Chemical rockets limit deep space exploration
ii. Solar energy unavailable in deep space
b. Inherency:
i. Current ban on nuclear propulsion
c. Solvency:
i. Nuclear propulsion enables exploration
d. Negative:
i. Military applications
ii. Possible explosion on the pad
iii. All disadvantages to big space
XVII. Solar Sails:
a. Potential Harm Areas:
i. Chemical rockets limit deep space exploration
ii. Travel time limits deep space exploration
b. Inherency:
i. NASA is too focused on solar system exploration
c. Solvency:
i. Solar Sails can accelerate to near light speed
d. Negative:
i. Military applications: Requires laser pointing
ii. Telescopic study makes travel unnecessary
XVIII. Dyson Dots: Geoengineering:
a. Potential Harm Areas:
i. Unstoppable global warming
ii. Too late to make emission adjustments
b. Inherency:
i. Obama remains focused on Kyoto process
c. Solvency:
i. Sun-shades can remediate global warming
d. Negative:
i. Moral Hazard: Will destroy Earth-based efforts
ii. Unbelievably expensive: Deficits
iii. Undermine Obama environmental objectives
iv. Uncertain results when geoengineering the climate
v. Playing God with the weather will cause international conflicts
e. Evidence:
i. Johnson
ii. Maruice-Bonnet
XIX. Space Situational Awareness (SSA):
a. Potential Harm Areas:
i. Space junk could cause loss of satellites
ii. Lack of SSA risks war
iii. SSA protects U.S. Astronauts
b. Inherency:
i. Funding cuts have endangered SSA
c. Solvency:
i. SSA Discourages attacks/prevents war
d. Negative:
i. SSA is adequate at present
ii. Military space race
Other important Notes: You may need to look up some of the following:
1.
Debates on the definition of space are typically resolved by the wording of
the resolution—area beyond Earth’s mesosphere (no inner space or urban space),
but be prepared for creative arguments that will address the definition.
2.
Geosynchronous orbit—23,000 miles up
3.
Geoengineering—aerosols put into stratosphere, below Earth’s
mesosphere—not topical
4.
Airborne Laser—Not beyond mesosphere; not topical
5.
Know about inflatable balloons
6.
There is a private company that plans to have SBSPs up in 2015.
7.
US using Russia for transport to space
8.
Fed. Cuts to NASA total 1.8 billion—end of James Webb telescope
9.
Airforce wants to provide seed money (as reported in 2007) to benefit
military logistical operations issues solved by SBSP
10.
Potential Harms from microwave beams
11.
What is a terawatt? Gigawatt?
12.
Airburst of asteroid over Siberia 1907
13. Airburst/asteroid over Mexico—Yucatan Peninsula, credited with killing off
Dinosaurs
14. Congress mandated that NASA locate Asteroids but has not given them
funds to do so
15.
Asteroid strikes are believed to be 26 million years apart
16.
NEOs-Near Earth Objects
17.
Disrupting an NEOs orbit—Friend Podcast
18. Some asteroids are black and between the Earth and Sun making it difficult
to see them
19. Constellation project—what is it, what happened to it, what can we expect
from it?
20.
Cape Kennedy-April 15, 2010
21.
Augustine Commission Flexible Plan
22.
hot
NASA scrapped reusable space shuttle—reentering Earth’s atmosphere too
23.
Obama rescinded plan to increase NASA budget
24.
ITER
25.
Sea Water for Nuclear Reactors
26.
Deaths related to Global Warming
27. Nuclear Weapons of Iran, North Korea, China, Russia, and the ACTUAL
ranges of these weapons
28.
Deaths related to oil wars
29. NASA doesn’t actually build anything—no manufacturing—but still owns
what it has built. OWNERSHIP IS IMPORTANT!
30.
Ballistic Missile Defense
31.
Deaths related to asteroid strikes
32.
2007 China Anti-Satellite Weapon
33.
Sputnik and Kennedy
34.
Buckyballs
35.
Hotels in Space
You will need to do a lot of research and attend a lot of contests to be prepared for
district competition