Cindi Augsjoost
Error Analysis Project
San Francisco State University
Article Use, Omission, and Error Treatment in Data from a Brazilian ELL
“I love Los Angeles. Cithy is very very Hot. Peple’s nice. In San Francisco is cold,
cold, cold.” - Excerpt from an essay written by Rodrigo1, an English language learner
For this error analysis project, I tutored and collected data from an English
language learner from Brazil whose first language is Portuguese. In this analysis I will
refer to the ELL by the pseudonym Rodrigo. Rodrigo is a 22-year old male from the city
of Goyanya, Brazil, who is a hair stylist by profession. His first language is Portuguese.
Rodrigo came to the United States nine months ago to study English intensively, and
plans to stay one more year before going back to Brazil. This ELL had limited exposure
to English in his home country. He did not learn English or another second language in
school, and his parents did not speak any English. He began studying English for the first
time one month before he travelled to the United States, during which time he took
classes for two hours a day, seven days a week. Rodrigo now lives in Concord, California
and takes English classes at The English Center in Oakland, a private, not-for-profit
school. He does not have any English-speaking friends in this area. I tutored Rodrigo at
The English Center and collected four of his essays for this analysis. The essays were
written for different classes and span one month in the fall of 2011.
The data show a strong presence of both global and local error patterns. Global
errors are mainly comprised of verb form errors (omission and wrong choice). Pronoun
1
Pseudonym
Article Use, Omission, and Error Treatment in Data from a Brazilian ELL
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omission is the most prevalent local error, followed by article omission. Spelling and
punctuation errors were present in this paper but were not included in analysis. Chart 1 in
appendix A shows errors by type, along with examples from the data for each type.
I will focus on the ELL’s use and misuse of articles in this analysis. Although
articles are a local grammar issue, articles are used with such frequency in English that
they can interfere with communication when they are used incorrectly. Marianne CelceMurcia explains (1985), “…when evaluating the formal writing of ESL students, trained
judges are so put off by minor but frequent errors in surface grammar that the judges can
no longer properly evaluate the writers’ organization or ideas and simply rate (them)…as
…not passing.” Article errors occur so frequently in parts of this data set that they distract
the reader and so are worth treating here. Omission is by far the most common article
error, followed by incorrect choice of article type and use of article when not needed.
In English, articles are used in a system of reference and determination to mark
definite and indefinite nouns. The English articles are as follows: the definite article the;
the indefinite article a/an and occasionally one; and the use of no article (called the
“zero” or “null” article) (Celce-Murcia & Larsen, 1999). Some grammarians describe
some as an unstressed indefinite article (Celce-Murcia & Larsen-Freeman, 1999) and
some omit it (Langan, 2001 and Masters, 1995). Articles occur in the position before the
noun, so they can also be called noun markers (Langan, 2001).
The use of articles varies widely by language, which often poses a problem to
ELLs. English uses articles heavily, and while Portuguese does use articles, there are
some differences. In contrast to English, articles in Portuguese must agree with the noun
Article Use, Omission, and Error Treatment in Data from a Brazilian ELL
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in number and gender, and abstract nouns may require an article (e.g. Truth is beauty
as compared to A verdade é beleza).
Correct article usage is dependent on an understanding of the English noun
classification system. Nouns are classified as either common nouns or proper nouns, with
common nouns further distinguished as count or noncount. The count/ noncount noun
concept differs from language to language. Some nouns in English can be used as either
count or noncount. Count nouns describe things that can be counted, can be made plural,
have clear boundaries, and often are concrete, such as the nouns girl, book, and city.
Noncount nouns are those things without clear boundaries that cannot be made plural and
are often abstract, such as water, oil, and air. Count nouns can take the definite article the
or the indefinite articles a/an and some according to their number. Noncount nouns can
take the definite article, the zero article, or the indefinite article some, but noncount nouns
cannot use the indefinite article a/an (all references Celce-Murcia, 1999, p. 271-276).
One of the main uses of the indefinite article or the zero marker is the first
mention of a new entity (Master, 1995, p. 216-217). These two articles are also used for
general characteristics with have and be, generic nouns as opposed to specific nouns (also
called nonspecific referents), and after the existential there (Master, 1995, p. 217). In
contrast, the definite article is used with a specific referent, which is an object or concept
known to the speaker and hearer (Celce-Murcia & Larsen-Freeman, 1999). When
listeners by virtue of their general, cultural, or social group knowledge, or due to
immediate or perceptual situational use know an entity, the definite article can be used
(Celce-Murcia & Larsen-Freeman, 1999, p. 279). The definite article is also used in
certain textual situations, such as when an entity is unique by anaphoric mention or
Article Use, Omission, and Error Treatment in Data from a Brazilian ELL
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cataphoric mention (Biber et al., 2002, p 70). Finally, there are two structurally based
rules on locating a referent: usage with order or rank, and usage with post-modifiers
(Celce-Murcia & Larsen-Freeman, 1999, p. 279-280).
Zero articles are used with noncount nouns that are indefinite, general or abstract
and plural count nouns (Biber et al., 2002, p. 68). Zero articles are also used with most
singular proper nouns, including most cities, countries and places with clearly defined
boundaries. The notable exception is that country names that are a group of something
(islands, states, territories) take the definite article (Celce-Murcia & Larsen, 1999, p.
287). Peter Master’s distinction between the two “zero” articles will be used in this
analysis. Master says that a distinction should be made between the zero article as used
with nonspecific noncount and plural nouns, and the “null” article as used with proper
nouns and certain singular count nouns (Master in Celce-Murcia & Larsen, 1999, p. 280).
In this data set, the ELL uses the null article correctly for proper nouns in 16 out
of 17 instances, such as when referring to his hometown (see Chart 2 in appendix A). He
uses the zero article correctly in 3 out of 3 instances (notably, all instances occur with the
noun hair, which pertains to his profession). Correct usage of articles in overt use is less
accurate. In 14 instances, the ELL omits an article where one is needed; in 5 instances he
uses an article where one is not needed; and in 4 instances he uses the wrong article. The
ELL uses the overt article form correctly in 4 instances, all of which are the definite
article. The indefinite article is not used at all in this data set, either correctly or
incorrectly.
The last two essays in the data set contain no article errors, which gives me some
information about the learner’s ability to self-correct. Because the essays were
Article Use, Omission, and Error Treatment in Data from a Brazilian ELL
5
handwritten, it is evident in the fourth essay that the ELL made mistakes but recognized
and corrected them. This may be notable, except that the fourth essay was on a personal
topic- a family member- so the determiners my and her are more natural to this kind of
writing than indefinite or definite articles. There are only 2 overt usages of the article
form in the last essay. Also, Rodrigo wrote the fourth essay specifically for my data
analysis, so he may have been more conscious of correcting mistakes, or he may have
been avoiding the article form in order to avoid anticipated mistakes. I do think this ELL
has the ability to recognize mistakes and self-correct, given the time and energy (he is
currently balancing classes at two schools). He clearly needs more exposure to the
indefinite article, however, since he did not use it at all in this data set.
In order to tutor this ELL on form, meaning, and use of the English article, I
would begin with an inductive discovery of the rules for the indefinite article. This
exercise might be having the ELL read an authentic newspaper article and underline each
instance of article usage, drawing conclusions on how each form is used if possible. Then
I would provide a rule summary as in Essential Grammar in Use (Murphy, p. 140,
appendix B). Next, using a good learner picture dictionary such as Oxford, I would have
the learner practice the indefinite article forms by reviewing the grocery store and
cooking sections and pointing out the different types of vegetables in both singular and
plural forms (see appendix C). I would also review the jobs page of the picture
dictionary, in order to practice stating different jobs (He’s a teacher, She’s a dentist, She
works in a shop). With some oral practice and the concept clear in the ELL’s mind, I
would have him work through some selected exercises to practice a/an (Murphy, p. 141,
appendix D).
Article Use, Omission, and Error Treatment in Data from a Brazilian ELL
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Over the course of several tutoring sessions, we would progress to the concepts of
singular/ plural nouns and countable/ uncountable nouns with support from the deductive
rules and exercises presented in Murphy (Murphy, 2007, p. 142-146, appendix E). When
the ELL became more confident about these distinctions (as shown by oral and written
practice), I would formally introduce the distinction between a/an and the, using the
explanations and selected exercises from this textbook (Murphy, 2007, p. 148-151,
appendix F). For homework or extra in-session practice in this later stage I would assign
the picture exercise practicing a/an and the (Murphy, p. 269, appendix G). For this ELL, I
would not review the zero article because the data shows he is strong in this concept.
The ELL will benefit from authentic practice with these forms at every stage of
the tutoring lessons. An additional exercise that Masters suggests for form/ meaning
practice at later stages of teaching is to have a learner practice describing their
possessions using a/an and some (Master, in Celce-Murcia, 1999, p. 290). This could be
in-session practice if the learner can write down 20 things in his/her room or apartment,
or it could be a homework assignment to be reviewed together at the next session.
In conclusion, my data analysis suggests that Rodrigo is at the emergent stage of
grammar acquisition according to Ferris’ description of learner stages (from classroom
lectures, D. Olsher and M. Santos). I believe that instances of incorrect definite article
usage seen here represent mistakes, not an error pattern. This determination is based the
ELL’s ability to self-correct grammar mistakes in the last essay that were very prevalent
earlier on. The complete omission of indefinite articles in the data set appears to be a
pattern, however. This learner needs targeted instruction and practice on this aspect of the
form in order to integrate the form into common usage. This ELL probably also needs
Article Use, Omission, and Error Treatment in Data from a Brazilian ELL
more exposure to more authentic English language (conversation, movies, newspaper
articles), so he can hear the frequent and varied usages of the article form. With English
language exposure, tutoring instruction, and practice, a motivated ELL can master this
grammar form and enjoy increased fluency and more successful communication.
7
Article Use, Omission, and Error Treatment in Data from a Brazilian ELL
References
Adelson-Goldstein, J. & Shapiro, N. (2009). Oxford picture dictionary, 2nd edition. New
York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Biber, D., Conrad S., & Leech, G. (2002). Longman student grammar of spoken and
written English. Pearson ESL (Longman).
Celce-Murcia, M. (1985). Making informed choices about the role of grammar in
language teaching. TESOL Quarterly, 19(1), 1,4-5.
Celce-Murcia, M., & Larsen-Freeman, D. (1999). The Grammar Book: An ESL/EFL
Teacher’s Course, 2nd edition: Heinle & Heinle.
Langan, J. (2001). Sentence skills with readings, 2nd edition. New York, NY:
McGraw- Hill.
Master, P. (1996). Systems in English grammar. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey:
Prentice Hall Regents.
Murphy, R. (2007). Essential grammar in use, 3rd edition. Cambridge, UK:
Cambridge University Press.
8
Article Use, Omission, and Error Treatment in Data from a Brazilian ELL
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Appendix A
Error Type
VF omission
VF incorrect choice
VF not needed
VT
PRO omission
PRO not needed
ART omission
ART incorrect choice
ART not needed
DET omission
DET incorrect choice
WC
WF omission
WF derivation error/
incorrect choice
PREP incorrect choice
PREP not needed
PREP omission
Fragment
Run-on
Word order
ADJ (order)
Connector
SUB
PL
Subject error
Instances of
Usage
Chart 1- All Grammar Errors in Data Set
Examples of Incorrect Usage from Data
16
10
3
8
19
1
14
4
5
1
6
11
4
4
All the time __ perfect
She is a baby. (to be used in place of to have)
I liked is the girl.
Raquel live in Gyn.
__ is big city.
Youre (your) may (my) mother is pruri (pretty).
__ freeway is clean.
Youre (her) father an big man.
I’m separecion the Raquel.
…Gyn is perfect for you and ___ family.
Youre (her) rasbund (husband) is my friend.
I want to work therefore!
No family, no friends (here).
I’m separecion the Raquel.
4
2
4
6
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
(I’m) studing (studying) ___ two colloge.
Now for here in USA.
…ane (one) __ the morned (morning)…
That’s why I love her very much.
I love Gyn is city perfect.
Today I and Raquel is friends.
Is city perfect.
Studing for two colloge, ane (one) the morned ,two afternono.
My first love __ (poss. was when I was) 18 eyears.
Studing for two colloge__…
This trafec in tunnel everday slow slow.
Chart 2- Correct Usages of the English Article in Data Set
Article Usage
Null article w/ proper nouns
Zero article w/ generic indefinite nouns
Overt article usage
Instances
of Usage
16
3
4
Example of Correct Usage
Raquel live in __Gyn.
I work with __ hair.
My mother is the best mother in the
world.
Article Use, Omission, and Error Treatment in Data from a Brazilian ELL
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Appendix B
Raymond Murphy, Essential grammar in Use, 3rd edition, 2007, unit 65.
Appendix C
Adelson-Goldstein, J. & Shaprio, N., Oxford Picture Dictionary, 2nd edition, 2009, p. 68.
Appendices D, E, F & G
Raymond Murphy, Essential grammar in Use, 3rd edition, 2007, units 66-70.