Lake Biome Study Guide
General Biome Information
1. Location
- There are over 304 million lakes in the world
- Total surface area of lakes is about 2.8% of the planet’s land surface area
- Lakes occur in specific regions depending on the geology and geography of that region
o To support lake, a region must have depressions in the ground capable of
holding water and enough rainfall to sustain the lake’s water supply by balancing
evaporation and other losses.
- Distribution:
o North America: Eastern United States and Canada
o Northeastern and central Eastern South America
o Europe: uniform distribution
o Africa: central regions
o Asia: India, China, Japan, Russia, and the surrounding countries
o Australia: coastal regions
2. Lake Zonation
- Climate:
o Summer: Distinct temperature
Littoral Zone: 65-75 degrees F
Limnetic Zone: 45-65 degrees F
Profundal Zone: 39-45 degrees F
o Spring and Fall: more uniform temperature because of the lake’s turnover
o Winter: ice/ cold water covers the surface
- Lake’s Turnover:
o Fall Turnover: Warm surface of lakes in the summer prevent mixing of the water
(warm water is less dense than cold water). The surface water is enriched in
Oxygen (from air and photosynthesis). In Fall, the surface water cools, sinks, and
brings oxygen with it.
o Spring Turnover: same phenomenon, when the ice melts, sinks, and mixes with
the deeper water.
- Aquatic Species:
o Littoral Zone: absorbs most of the sun’s heat -> diverse community: algae,
rooted and floating aquatic plants, grazing snails, insects, fish, amphibian
o Limnetic Zone: the open water where photosynthesis can occur. Dominated by
plankton, also has some kinds of fish
o Profundal Zone: too deep that light cannot reach the bottom, therefore the
nutrition comes from the dead organic matters from littoral zone and limnetic
zone.
3. Example of a lake—Lake Ontario
- Typical plants
o Cattails
o Bulrushes
-
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o Algae
Typical animals
o Caspian Tern
o the Great Black-Backed Gull
o the American Black Duck
o Osprey
o native Burbot
o Lake Trout
Food web: 5 levels, from producer to quaternary consumer.
Major threats: bioaccumulation
Specially terms:
Phytoplankton: 'Phyto' is a Latin form of the word 'plant', and 'plankton' refers to the free-floating
nature of these organisms, thus phytoplankton are free floating plant-like organisms.
Bioaccumulation : refers to the accumulation of substances, such as pesticides, or other organic
chemicals in an organism
Stream and River Study Guide
Group 7 : Glen Handoko, Florencia Chua, Tam To, Long Trinh and Sean Darmadi
I/ Where is the biome found?
- Streams and rivers can be found everywhere. The largest one is the Nile River at the lenght of 4160
miles in Africa. The second largest river is the Amazon River 4000 miles in South America. Yangtze
3900 miles in Asia is the third largest river. The Mississippi River in at 3870 miles in the USA. There
are many more river in Russia like Ob and Yenisei River. There are rivers and streams in very
continent.
II/ Environmental conditions
- Rivers and streams are bodies of flowing water that move in one direction.
- Rivers come in lots of different shapes and sizes, but they all have some things in common. All
rivers and streams start at some high point. The high point can be a mountain, hill or other
elevated area.
-They get their starts from some source like a spring, snow melt or a lake starts at the high points
and begins to flow down to lower points.
- Small rivers and streams may join together to become larger rivers. Eventually all this water from
rivers and streams will run into the ocean or an inland body of water like a lake.
- Along the way, the river biome serves as an important life-giving source to many plants and
animals.
III/ Plant Adaptions
A- Algae a great variety of algae grow in streams and rivers throughout the world.
- In some areas, algae merely covers rocks, making them slippery, and in other places
algae grow prolifically, tinting the water green and making the whole stream appear lush and soft.
-Tiny animals such as insects and crayfish feast on algae, which contain many nutrients
B- Mosses are sometimes confused with algae because they have a similar appearance, but
mosses grow in dryer areas.
-They usually grow on rocks on the riverbank instead of in the water.
-Mosses don't have roots, but they absorb through their rhizomes, which are like stems. Moss must live in damp areas to survive, which is why it's often found in stream and river biomes.
C- Cattails found in wetland habitats such as rivers, streams, ponds and lakes, cattails have
rhizomes instead of roots, just like moss.
-Cattails are tall, grass-like plants that can grow to be 10 feet tall. The male plants have
flowers at the top of the stem. Cattails make great shelter for many animals that live in the stream
and river biome.
-Birds, insects, muskrats, raccoons, frogs, salamanders, and fish all benefit from cattails.
Frogs and salamanders lay their eggs in the water between cattails.
D- Lily Pads found in temperate and tropical areas, lily pads grow long roots that anchor
them to the soil beneath the water.
-They grow flowers, which close up at night in cooler areas and stay open all night in tropical
areas.
-Lily pads have a waxy coating that makes them very durable and allows small animals to
perch safely on them. Because they have a large surface area, lily pads produce a lot of oxygen.
IV/ Animal Adaptions:
A - Fish
-The river biome is the natural habitat of many species of fish. They include
catfish, bass, minnow, carp, gar and suckers. Other types of freshwater river fish
include American eel, rainbow trout and paddlefish.
-Freshwater river bass are divided into black bass and true bass. Black bass
include spotted bass, largemouth bass and Guadalupe bass. True bass include striped
bass, white bass and yellow bass.
- Catfish are big river fish which are found in tributaries and main channels of
river systems. The piranha is found in some rivers, including the Amazon in Brazil.
B - Reptiles
cannot
to keep
-Reptiles are classified as cold-blooded animals due to the fact that they
regulate their body temperature. As such, they rely on various external sources
warm.
-Most of them bask in the sun when the water or weather becomes too cold.
The main reptilian species found in rivers are turtles and crocodiles. Crocodiles feed
on fish and on land animals.
-They usually hunt by stealth when they are in the water; they remain
submerged, resembling pieces of log, until they lunge at their prey.
C - Amphibians
-Amphibians are those animals capable of living in both water and on land.
Some of them start their lives in the water and mature into adults that can breathe air.
-Examples of freshwater river amphibians include salamanders, frogs and
mudpuppies. Frogs usually spawn in water, including rivers.
-They also spawn in a variety of other habitats where water is available. Their
tadpoles usually develop inside water.
D - Mollusks
- Mollusks are animals with hard outer shells that protect a soft inner body.
They are found in any freshwater habitat, including rivers.
- Examples of mollusks include snails, clams and mussels. Some freshwater
river snails include the spiny river snail and geniculate river snail.
- River mussels include the pocketbook mussel, blacksa mussel, mapleleaf
mussel and Wabash pigtoe. Mussels feed on particles of food in flowing river
currents. They serve an important function in the freshwater ecosystem by helping
filter out waste particles.
V/ Food Web
VI/ Threats
- Water pollution due to:
+Abandoned mines: source of trace metals, especially those near Lake Shasta
+Pesticide: Much of the region’s economy is based on its agriculture production. However,
the use of pesticide has had a major contribution to polluting the river. DDT is one of the largest
problems we faced today. DDT is moderately toxic to certain species of fish, amphibians and birds.
+Fertilizer: nitrate from fertilizer runoff contaminates the water.
+Urban runoff: pollutant like volatile organic compounds comes from the metropolitan area
of Sacramento
-Impact on Stream and River ecology:
+Construction and operation of dams to control flood and water flow have thinned the
population of fish.
For example: Red Bluff Diversion Dam: barrier to fish movement and migration in
the river. Anadromous fish like Chinook salmon is being reduced in population since their spawning
streams are being blocked by dam constructions
+Wetlands are either preserved or artificially constructed for agriculture demands, takes
away important stop for migratory birds as well as naive birds’ territory. Other amphibian species
are also reduced due to the loss of their habitats
+Introduction of invasive plants also have a great impact on the number of naïve species.
VII/ Bibliography
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*
http://www.kidcyber.com.au/topics/biomewater.htm
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/exhibits/biomes/freshwater.php#streams
http://www.calacademy.org/science/discoveries.php?startPane=1
http://www.thewildclassroom.com/biomes/stream.html
http://www.sacramentoriver.org/srcaf/publications/handbook/Ch2_SacRivHand03_webrea
dy
http://www.sacramentoriverportal.org/fish/fish
http://www.science.calwater.ca.gov/pdf/eco_restor_sac_river
http://pubs.water.usgs.gov/circ1215/
http://www.sacriver.org/aboutwatershed/plants/background-invasive-plants
http://ca.water.usgs.gov/sac_nawqa/study_description.html
http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=earth-talks-salmon
http://wildequity.org/species/32
*
http://www.nwfsc.noaa.gov/publications/techmemos/tm35/chapters/02lifhis.htm
*
http://elibrary.unm.edu/sora/wb/v18n01/p0071-p0076.pdf
*
http://www.altacal.org/BANSBrochure_final2010.pdf
Ocean Pelagic Study Guide
Kaushika Vayyala
Richard nelson
Niloofar Siahpolo
Shunny singer
Group 4
Plagic Zone
A.General information:
Open ocean, or pelagic: The Open ocean, or pelagic zone, is the area of the ocean outside
of coastal areas, and where you’ll find some of the biggest marine life species. The sea floor
(demersal zone) is not included in the pelagic zone.
Epipelagic zone: The top layer of the ocean with 200 meters deep.
Environmental conditions:
The pelagic zone is separated into several subzones depending on water depth:
• Epipelagic zone (ocean surface to 200 meters deep)
• Mesopelagic zone (200-1,000m)
• Bathypelagic zone (1,000-4,000m)
• Abyssopelagic zone (4,000-6,000m)
• Hadopelagic zone (deep ocean trenches, greater than 6,000m).
The upper portion of the epipelagic zone receives sunlight that drives photosynthesis in
microscopic floating plants called phytoplankton. Phytoplankton form the base of the
complex and diverse open-ocean food web.
The deep-ocean environment includes depths greater than 200 meters (650 feet). The deep
ocean contains a dark, cold environment that includes a variety of habitats from the midwater region to the abyss; these habitats are populated by a wide array of animals that are
specially adapted to live under the tremendous water pressure and low oxygen level of this
harsh environment.
Water Characteristics
• The pelagic oceanic biome is physically characterized by the makeup and behavior
of the waters. The pelagic zone is a salt-water biome, making it completely distinct from the
various freshwater biomes. The water in the pelagic zone is generally cold, though it is
crisscrossed throughout with both warm and cold ocean currents. Tides and waves are also
characteristics of the pelagic zone, which discern the pelagic zone from the more stable
zones that lie below it: the benthic and abyssal zones.
B.The sub biome, Epipelagic zone:
The epipelagic, sunlit, or euphotic zone is the top layer of the ocean zones. This is the ideal
place for about 90 percent of all ocean life to live because of warm temperatures and
sunlight that goes down about 660 feet. This is the only zone to support plant life because it
has the light needed for photosynthesis, which is important because it produces a lot of
oxygen and some carbon. Because of the variety in plant life there is a variety of animals
including sharks, mackerels, tuna, seals, jellyfish, sea lions, sea turtles, sting rays, and etc...
Algae and plants
● A. Free-floating algae -- often called seaweed
● Red algae ( Rhodophyta) -- Porphyra (from which edible nori is made), dulse,
Ceramium and maerl Green algae (Chlorophyta) --thongweed, sea lettuce (Ulva)
● Brown algae (Phaeophyta) -- like fast-growing kelp, Sargassum, Turbinaria,
Dictyota, and wrack
● Phytoplankton -- tiny, one-celled photosynthetic plankton like diatoms,
dinoflagellates, and coccolithophorids
*phytoplankton are a passively floating form of algae that filter feeders eat as
well as copepods and tiny fish
B. Plants
● Flowering plants (angiosperms)
● Submerged: Seagrasses -- flowering plants like eelgrass and thalassia
● Not Entirely Submerged: Mangroves -- trees that root in the shallow seafloor but
grow above water.
● really, the dominant producers/photosynthesizers are phytoplankton and certain
bacteria that are sweep around by ocean currents and waves
● dinoflagellates are neat plants that can exist in a heterotrophic form-eating small bits
of organic matter.
● diatoms-”golden algae,” silica skeleton plant like organisms on the very bottom of the
food chain.
Animals
In the surface waters, temperature, light, topography, and distance from land tend to
determine organism distribution. .Examples of Epipelagic zone animals include most ocean
fish (including sharks and rays), man-o'-war, jellyfish, sea turtles, seals, coral, and
zooplankton. Some bottom-dwellers live in the euphotic zone - this zone is defined in terms
of light, not depth. In the well-lit epipelagic-zone, most predators use vision to seek out prey.
There are several adaptations that allow prey organisms to survive here. One adaptation is
small size for example zooplankton are small and they are hard to see. Larger gelatinous
organisms, like jellyfish are also very hard to see because they are transparent and they
have a density close to that of water ; this allows them to be both hard to see and neutrally
buoyant.
Coloration or countershading is another important adaptation in the epipelagic zone.
Countershading is when an animal is light on its underside and dark on its upper parts for
example tuna have countershading adaptation. When a predator looks down at a
countershaded animal, it blends into the darker waters; when a predator looks at a
countershaded animal from below, the light underbelly disappears into the light. This
adaptation helps camouflage the organism, hiding it from predators and allowing it to sneak
up on prey. Most sharks, for example, are countershaded.
Food web:
In oceans, phytoplanktons and seaweed together are known as autotrophs. That is,
organisms that make their own food. Such organisms are also known as primary producers.
Organisms that do not make their own food but depend on other organisms to provide
nutrients are heterotrophs. Heterotrophs obtain a share of the captured solar energy by
consuming autotrophs as well as heterotrophs to support their daily activities. Heterotrophs
include primary, secondary, and tertiary consumers. Primary consumers are herbivores
(plant feeders) like manatees and zooplanktons, that feed directly on autotrophs. Secondary
consumers then feed on primary consumers, etc. The natural chain of nutrient and energy
interdependency obtained through food consumption or feeding is known as the food web or
food chain.
Examples of primary producers: diatoms, dino flagellates, microfllates. Primary consumer:
microzooplankton, crustaceans, larve, chordates. Secondary consumers: gelatinous zoo
plankton, crustrations, fish larve. Tertiery consumers: Squid, Salmon, Sharks, birds.
Important Human Impacts on the epipelagic zone
●
●
various human activities that have effect on the pelagic Zone.
Fishing has harmed the pelagic Zone, this zone is the top layer of the ocean, it consists of
lots traveling fish and migrating marine mammals, making it easy for fishermen to catch them.
Fishing targets certain species and disrupts the natural food web of the pelagic Zone.
●
Other dangers to the Epipelagic Zone are oil spills and pollution. Polluting causes for many
plastic or unfriendly substances to traveled into the oceans. This ends up affecting the
Epipelagic zone the most because it is the top most layer. For example styrofoam or plastic
items will float at the top of the water until they catch or hurt fish or marine mammals. Also,
fertilizers and gases travel and find their way into the oceans. They too really affect the life in
the Epipelagic Zone. Oil spills are also a form of pollution that extremely harms the marine
ecosystems and can entirely wipe out marine organisms around the spill.
●
shipping around the world has damaged the open ocean with ships releasing: ballast,
chemical waste, fuel leaks, air pollution of sulfur dioxides, nitrogen oxides, carbon
dioxides, biocides, septic, and transfer of invasive species
Citation :
Ilyas, Z.. N.p.. Web. 22 May 2013. <http://www.ehow.com/list_7445737_plants-pelagiczone.html>.
Amsel,
Sheri
.
N.p..
Web.
22
<http://www.exploringnature.org/db/detail.php?dbID=44&detID=583>.
May
Gungther,
M..
N.p..
Web.
22
May
<http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/blue_planet/problems/shipping/>.
2013.
2013.
"The Open Ocean - MarineBio.org". MarineBio Conservation Society. Web. Tuesday, May
21, 2013. <http://marinebio.org/oceans/open-ocean.asp>.
. N.p.. Web. 22 May 2013. <http://faculty.scf.edu/rizkf/OCE1001/OCEnotes/chap11.htm>.
Tangient LLc, . N.p.. Web. 22 May 2013.
<http://tbsecosystemsold.wikispaces.com/Epipelagic Zone>.
Coral Reefs Study Guide
A. General Information
I.Coral reefs are an important biome on earth
a.) they house a variety of marine life, they are a valuable source of
organisms for potential medicines, they create sand for beaches, and serve
as a buffer for shorelines.
II. Coral reefs can be found in tropical waters near the equator
a.) They thrive in warm waters: 17-34 degrees Celsius
b.) Water salinity: cannot exceed the salinity of typical open ocean water
(30-38 parts per thousand).
c.) Sufficient sunlight: supports photosynthesis
d.) Shallow waters: allows sunlight to warm the water and for
photosynthesis to occur
B. Great Barrier Reef in Australia: World’s Largest Coral Reef
I. Plants of the reef
a.)The plants of the reef be as small as microscopic algae and seaweeds
(500 species) or as large as forests of soft corals and seagrass meadows-home to a quarter of all known sea-grass species.
b.) Seagrass adaptations: fast growing, high production rates of seagrass
meadows are so clustered together that they help slow water movement,
trap suspended sediments, and provide an excellent home/nursing area for
many species of reef fishes.
c.) Green algae adaptations: some green algae incorporate calcium
carbonate into their tissues, therefore increasing sediment formation for
the reef ecosystem.
II. Animals of the reef
a.) The reef is home to over 400 species of coral, 1500 species of fish, 14
species, of sea snakes, 30 species of whales, dolphins, and porpoises, and
many more animals.
b.) Some corals use nematocysts (stinging cells), located on tentacles that
extend outside its body, to sting their prey and digest them.
c.) Some species of soft coral have sclerites, which are small pointed
skeletal elements that keep predators away.
d.) Butterflyfish have small, pointed mouths adapted to eating coral
III. Food web (see image)
IV. Threats to Coral Reefs
a.) Water Quality and Runoff: Sediments and nutrients, fertilizers,
pesticides, toxic chemicals, sewage, garbage, detergents, and oil run
into rivers and out to the Great Barrier Reef lagoon, which threaten
plants and animals on the Reef.
b.)Global Warming: greenhouse gases in the atmosphere as a result of
human activities changes the temperature of the sea. A temperature rise of
just 1 or 2 degrees centigrade can cause coral bleaching (coral death).
References:
“Coral Reef Animals”. Coral-reef-info.com. 2010-2012.
http://www.coral-reef-info.com/coral-reef-animals.html
“Great Barrier Reef”. Unesco.org. n.d.
http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/154
“The Importance of Coral Reefs”. Marinebio.org. May 16, 2013.
http://marinebio.org/Oceans/coral-reefs.asp
“Threats to the Reef”. Reef.crc.org. n.d.
http://www.reef.crc.org.au/discover/threats/index.html
Marine Benthic Study Guide
Group 5A
Cam-Ha Nguyen
Hong Hoang
Hoa Thai
Lau Hoi Lee
Marine Biome: Benthic Zone
1
World Location:
● Deep down at the bottom of the ocean, lays the Benthic Zone. The benthic
zone is home to many different creatures and dead organisms. This zone
begins at the end of the intertidal zone through the dark abyss of the deep
ocean.
● There are 2 different types of environment:
● Just away from Intertidal Zone
● Not too deep
● Light and oxygen still can reach
● Many creatures and life still live
Organisms that live in the Benthic Zone can be broken down into two
categories
Epifauna: live on the surface of the ocean floor
Infauna: live within the ocean floor
Area below the pelagic zone. It’s in the aphotic zone (no light!)
● Really deep and high pressure
● No light can reach this region
● Home to many dead organisms
Environmental Factors:
● Photic zone:
Pressure:
● Not too much pressure in this zone.
Temperature:
● Warm water around 73-84 degree Fahrenheit
Light:
● In water, light becomes very limited in its significance at depths below about
200 meters.
● Between 200 and 1000 meters, the intensity of light quickly dissipates.
●
2
a
b
c
●
d
e
f
3
Aphotic zone:
Pressure:
● The water pressure increases one atmosphere every 10 meters; meaning that it
is an area of high pressure.
● The sea varies from 700m to 10,000m, so the pressure can be from 20atm to
more than 1,000atm.
Temperature:
● Temperature is very low ranging from 2 to 4 degrees Celsius.
Salinity and Currents:
● The benthic zone contains constant salinity.
● Deep waters are often denser and saltier than surface waters.
● Circulation in the deeper oceans in driven by differences in seawater density
caused by temperature and salinity.
Typical plant species:
The most abundant plants in the euphotic zone are large algae called seaweed. There
are three types of seaweed distinguishable by color: green, brown, and red.
Giant Kelp (a type of brown seaweed)
● grows in brackish salty water
● have chloropasts, so giant kelp can receive its energy and nutrients from
sunlight
● is very large and strong root system to attach itself to sea floor to withstand
large storms.
● The blades of the giant kelp are long and wide to catch sunlight for
photosynthesis.
● having a holdfast, which keeps it anchored to the seafloor, preventing the kelp
from drifting away from kelp forests
Seagrasses (flowering plants that grow and live in the euphotic zone)
●
Have horizontal roots called rhizomes that enable them to cope with the
tugging of currents and waves.
● Roots extending from the rhizome also assist in anchoring and taking up
dissolved nutrients.
● The ribbon-shaped grass blades are flexible, bending with any water
movement. Air spaces extending through the blades, rhizomes, and roots
provide flotation and reparations mechanisms.
4. Animals and their adaptation
Shell fish:
●
Strong feet: they live in shallow water that is subjected to strong current. Muscular foot poke
out of its shell and dig in the sand to hold them in place, preventing drift away with the tides
●
Thick shell: protect themselves from being eaten
●
Special gill: to filter food from water
●
Sensitive antennae: Lobster with poor eye sight so they need this to find food on ocean floor
Ray fish
●
Dense and have negative buoyancy: allowing them to efforlessly lie on the bottom or bury
themselves
●
Lack of swim bladder
●
Flattened body shape
Tube worm
●
They have no mouth and digestive system so they rely on the bacteria for food
●
Bacteria do chemosynthesis which absorb chemicals in the vent water to make food
●
Have a bright red feather, full of hemoglobin that provides nutrients for bacteria
5. Threat to shell fish
●
Ocean acidification: CO2 rise up in the atmosphere causes pH to drop as a result of burning
fossil fuel, the sea absorbs much of it. The acid level rose so high that the larvae could not
form their protective shell
●
Over harvesting: 85% has dissappeared and the remaining 15% are imperiled
●
Over development along coast: many new building are built, more waste so quality of water
decrease
●
Oil spilling: causes contamination of water, decrease the salinity
Estuaries Study Guide
Pareet Raju, Paula Ng Lam, Shanna Lee
Professor Kent Johnson
Bio 6C
May 22, 2013
Estuaries Aquatic Biome
● What’s an estuary?
An estuary is an area where a freshwater river or stream meets the ocean. In estuaries, the salty
ocean mixes with a freshwater river, resulting in a brackish water. Brackish water is somewhat salty,
but not as salty as the ocean. An estuary may also be called a bay, lagoon, sound, or slough.
● Where in the world is your biome found?
There are over 100 estuaries around the world located especially along the Atlantic, Gulf, and Pacific
coast and in Puerto Rico. Some of the world estuaries are:
In the United States: Chesapeake Bay, San Francisco Bay, Morro Bay, etc.
In South America: Gulf of Nicoya and Rio de la Plata
In Africa: Kosi Bay, Sundays River Estuary, St, Lucia Estuary System, etc
In Europe: Severn Estuary, Solway Firth and Wadden Sea
In Asia: Phang Nga Bay, Bay of Bengal and White sea
In Australia and New Zealand: Gulf of Carpentaria and Milford Sound.
●
Appropriate environmental conditions such as climate, soil characteristics, water
characteristics (salinity, depth, flow, layering, etc). Use specific statistics as appropriate.
○ Four different estuaries:
■ Coastal plain estuaries-are formed by the sea level rising and filling an
existing river valley.
■ Tectonic estuaries-are caused by the folding or faulting of land surfaces.
■ Bar-built estuaries-form when a shallow lagoon or bay is protected from the
ocean by a sand bar or barrier island.
■ Fjord estuarine-are U-shaped valleys formed by glacial action. Fjords are
found in areas with long histories of glacier activity, like northern Europe,
Alaska and Canada.
○
Depth- Estuaries are very shallow compared to open ocean.
○
Salinity- Salinity varies vertically and horizontally in the water of estuaries for several
reasons. First of all, freshwater from rivers and streams flows only one-way into
estuaries, while salt water flows in and out with the tide. Secondly, salt water is
denser, thus heavier, than fresh water so it sinks, making the water at the bottom of
the estuary generally saltier than at the surface. Finally, water at the mouth of a
river, the point where it mixes with the sea, tends to have higher salinity than at any
point upstream, especially at high tide. So it follows, that salinity at the mouth then
decreases at low tide, when the salt water of the sea recedes. During normal
conditions, seawater is about 35 percent, while fresh water ranges from 0.065 to
0.30 percent. The concentration of dissolved salts in stream water increases
incrementally as it mixes with seawater. However, in dry climates and during
summer in many climates, evaporation of water from the estuary is sometimes
greater than the flow of fresh water into the estuary, causing an increase in salinity.
On the other hand, heavy rainfall during a hurricane and snow melt in spring cause a
decrease in salinity.
○
Temperature- Water temperature in estuaries fluctuates on both a daily and
seasonal basis. The sun heats the water and high tide can cause an increase or
decrease in estuarine temperature depending on the season. The upper layer of
water is cooler in winter and warmer in summer compared with the dense bottom
layer of water. When water temperature increases, less oxygen dissolves in the
water compared with cooler temperatures and the amount of oxygen in the water
directly affects the condition of an estuarine ecosystem. Most organisms have a
temperature range they tolerate best and deviation from this range stresses the
population. Seasonal changes in temperature and oxygen level impact the habitat of
estuarine species.
○
Soil types■ Peat/Salt Crust: The top soil layer found in an estuary or salt marsh is
composed mostly of peat or salt crust. In dense areas with higher
concentrations of organic material, this layer will contain undecomposed
plants and sea animals. Invertebrates are an integral part of this type of soil
creation, helping to break down the peat ingredients into plant nutrients.
■ Clay: Clay is an interesting and ever-changing soil. On an atomic level, the
negatively charged particles that make up clay tend to repel each other. Yet,
it is these negative charges that allow the soil to attract positive particles
such as the nutrients of potassium and magnesium. Upon drying, the soil
cracks and breaks apart, providing habitat for flora and fauna.
■ Yellow Earth: Yellow soils, ranging from sand to clay loams, are produced by
high concentrations of sulfur. The existing sulfur oxidizes, producing a
butter-yellow appearance. These soil types are extremely acidic in pH.
Sometimes the soil can become too acidic, due to water table depth and
water salinity, providing additional challenges to plant life proliferation.
■ Alluvial: Alluvial soils are found in floodplain areas. These soils are quite rich
in nutrients. They exist due to the erosion of small particles washed down
from higher areas and deposited into an estuary or delta. These fine
particles, a compilation of sand, clay and silt, are called alluvium. Alluvium
contains potash, lime and phosphoric acid, all which are beneficial to plant
life.
● What kind of plant or algae can be found in the estuaries?
Plants/Algae Adaptations:
■
■
Varying salinity levels, strong currents & storm waves
Varying exposure to sunlight and wind, low oxygen levels
Plants found in estuaries:
○
Smooth Cordgrass:
■ Form of vegetation found in Rhode Island salt marshes.
■ Essential to high volume of organic material it contributes during
decomposition
■ Complex root system helps it bind to the banks, preventing the tide from
eroding the shoreline
○
Seagrass:
■ Only plant that is capable of living submerged in seawater.
■ survive in the intertidal zone especially in sites sheltered from wave action
or where there is entrapment of water at low tide
○
Purple Loosestrife:
■ consists of rigid stalk with matted roots. Lives in marshland and near
shorelines. Capable of living in harsh environment and easily colonize
getting rid of surrounding plants.
Type of algae found in estuaries
Algae: in general grow by harvesting sunlight using photosynthesis pigments.
○
○
Seaweeds (macroalgae) also classified as red, green or brown algae
Diatoms: (microscopic algae) they have a silicon case and sink to bed of waterway.
As they sink they absorb nitrogen compounds and have bacteria convert it to
nitrogen gas
●
What kind of animals can be found in estuaries and what are there adaptations?
○ Great Blue Heron: live around coastlines, in marshes or near the shores of ponds.
Expert fishers. They snare their aquatic prey by walking slowly and standing still for
long periods of time and deathblow is a quick thrust of the sharp bill
○ Hermit Crabs: are free swimming aquamarine saltwater animals. Shells is for
survival and protection. Can survive in saltwater and freshwater.
○ River Otter: have webbed feet, tapered tail, small ears, dense fur that keeps them
warm and nostrils that can close underwater.
○ Pacific Staghorm Sculpin: found in shallow coastal waters, have spined antler-like
projections on gill covers as defense mechanism. They feed on invertebrates.
●
Food Web of Estuary
○ Primary producers: plankton
○ Primary Consumers: Mussels, Freshwater mollusc, shrimp, animal plankton, worm
○ Secondary Consumers: crab, small fish, salmon
Threats to the Estuary
○ Urban and Agricultural development
■ Diking, Damming, Filling-ins are to create farmlands in the estuary
○ Poor Water Quality
■ Activities like logging and construction in the watershed: causes erosion and
deposition of excess sediment
■ Excess sediment can smother eelgrass and bottom-dwelling animals
■ Excess nutrient levels may be caused by fertilizers or sewage in the water
■ transporting pollutants such as oils from road surfaces into estuaries cause
chemical pollution
○ Invasive Species
■ altering the natural flows of water and nutrients, and providing less habitat
and food for wildlife
●
Rocky Intertidal Study Guide
Rocky intertidals can be found along coastlines all around the world.
The climate can vary from hot to cold, depending on the tides. During high tide, it is colder
due to the cold water. During low tide, it's hot because of the exposure to the sun.
The soil type is sand, but the plants don't grow in it.
The water changes salinity based on rain and the tides. When there's more rain,
the water becomes less salty. When there's no tide and the water evaporates,
the water becomes saltier.
Mangroves Study Guide
Nabeel Asif, Yeshar Hadi, Samba Njie, H I M Tanzim Saadi
Biol- 6C
Title: Mangrove
What is mangrove?
Mangroves are various types of trees and shrubs that grow in saline coastal sediment habitats
in the tropics and subtropics
Where is it found?
Environmental Condition:



Wet and Warm
Average annual rainfall: 1750mm-2000mm
Saline woodland characterized by depositional coastal environment. Fine sediment
(Often high in organic content)
Plants:
Typical mangrove trees and shrubs belong to Rhizophoraceae, Acanthaceae, Lythraceae,
Combretaceae and Atecaceae families.
Adaptation:



Specialized root system
o Knee root, aerial root and breathing root (pneumatophores)
Reproductive Strategies
o Buoyant Seeds Suited for water dispersal
o Vivipary, meaning seed germinates while still being attached to the parent
tree.
Coping with salt
o Prevent salt from entering by filtering out at the root level
o Specialized salt glands, used to secrete out excess salt.
Common Animals:






Fish
Birds
Reptiles
Cats
Bees/insects
Monkeys
Food Web:
Primary source of energy is produced by the plant, primary producers. Small insects and
other primary consumers obtain their energy from either eating plants or their fruits. Those
primary consumers get consumed by predatory birds and large fish. Some predatory, tertiary
consumers, animals larger than the secondary consumers feed on the secondary consumers.
And any dead stuff is consumes the denitirovores. Human consumes the primary producers,
some primary consumers as well as some secondary consumers.
Threats:





Deforestation
Over harvesting
Over fishing
Pollution
Climate Change
Bibliography
http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/blue_planet/coasts/mangroves/
http://inchinapinch.com/hab_pgs/marine/mangrove/animals.htm
http://inchinapinch.com/hab_pgs/marine/mangrove/plants.htm
http://www.fao.org/forestry/mangrove/3648/en/
http://inchinapinch.com/hab_pgs/marine/mangrove/mangrove.htm
http://www.tiempocyberclimate.org/portal/archive/issue10/t10art4.htm