Б-1
Stylistics is a branch of general linguistic. It deals mainly with two independent
tasks: 1.the investigation of the inventory of special linguistic media 2. Certain
types of texts (discourse). The two objectives of stylistic clearly discernible as
two separate fields of investigation. The inventory of special language media can
be analyzed if presented in a system in which co-relation between the media
becomes evident. The types of texts can be analyzed if their linguistic
components are presented in their interaction. The types of texts that are
distinguished by the pragmatic aspect of the communication are called functional
styles of language, the special media of language which secure the desirable
effect of the utterance are called SD and EM.
The word style derived from the Latin word “Stilus” which meant a short stick
sharp at one end and flat at the other used by Romans for writing on wax tablets.
Now the word “Style” is used in so many senses that it has become a breeding
ground for ambiguity.
Stylistic classification of the English vocabulary.
The English language divides into three main layer: the literary layer, the neutral
layer, the colloquial layer. The literary and the colloquial layer contain a number
of subgroups each of which has property it shares with all the subgroups within a
layer. The literary layer of words consists of group accepted as legitimate
members of the English vocabulary. The lit. vocabulary consists of the following
groups of words: common literary, terms and learned words, poetic words,
archaic, barbarisms and foreign words.
The colloquial vocabulary falls into the following groups: common colloquial
words, slang, jargonisms, professional word, dialectical, vulgar words.
SPECIAL LITERARY VOCABULARY. Terms is generally very easily coined
and easily accepted. They used in special works dealing with the notions of some
branch of science. Poetic words form a rather insignificant layer of the special
literary vocabulary. They are mostly archaic or very rarely used highly literary
words which aim at producing an elevated effect. Archaic words are words which
are no longer recognizable in modern English, words that were in use in Old
English. Barbarisms are words of foreign origin which have not entirely been
assimilated into the English language. They bear the appearance of the borrowing
and are felt as something alien to the native tongue.
SPECIAL COLLQUIAL VOCABULARY. Slang seems to mean everything that
is below the standard of usage of present-day English. Jourganisms
Professionalism are the words used in a definite trade, profession or calling by
people connected by common interests both at work and at home. Like terms they
are monosemantic. Vulgarisms as used to single out a definite group of words of
non-standard English, is rather misleading. Vulgar means words or names
employed in ordinary speech, common, familiar, They are often used in
conversation out of habit, without any thought of what they mean. .
A metaphor becomes a stylistic device when two different phenomena are
simultaneously brought to mind by the imposition of some or all inherent
properties of one object on the other by nature is deprived of these properties. The
idea of metaphor is based on similarity of two objects. It can be classified
according their degree of unexpectedness. Absolutely unexpected are called
genuine metaphor. Those which are commonly used in speech and sometimes
fixed in dictionaries are trite or dead metaphor. The metaphors which can be
hardly felt are called sustained metaphor.
Б-2
EM and SD
The special media of language which secure the desirable effect of the utterance.
Expressive means of a language are those phonetic, morphological, wordbuilding, lexical, parasitological and syntactical forms which exist in language
as a system for purpose of logical and emotional intensification of the utterance.
The most powerful EM of any language are phonetic.
SD is a conscious and intentional intensification of some typical structural and
semantic property of a language unit promoted to a generalized status and thus
becoming a generative model.
Functional styles of the English language.
FSof L is a system of interrelated language means which serves a definite aim in
communication. According to Galperin there are 5 main FS. They are:
1.the belles-letters style.
2. Publicistic
3. Newspaper.
4.Scientific prose
5. The style of official documents.
1 the belles-lettres style is a generic term for three substyles in which the main
principles and the most general properties of the style are materialized. This 3
substyles are:
1. The language of poetry, or simply verse
2. Emotive prose or the language of fiction
3. The language of the drama.
The purpose of the belles-letters style is not to prove but only to suggest a
possible interpretation of the phenomena of life by forcing the reader to see the
viewpoint of the writer. This is the cognitive function of the BL style.
The BL style is individual essence. This is one of its most distinctive properties.
Publicistic style falls into three varieties, each having its own distinctive features.
Oratorical substyle (featuries direct address to the audience, the use of the 2nd
person pronoun you, the use of colloquial words.)
An essay is a series of personal and witty comments than a finished arguments or
a conclusive examination of any matter. It was popular in the 17th and 19th
centuries. (features1 brevity of expression, 2 . the use of 1st person singular the
use of 1st person singular. 3. The rather expanded use of connectives. The
abundant use of emotive words, the use of similas ans sustend metaphor )
Journalistic articles. The character of the magazine affects the choice and use of
SD. Words of emotive meaning are few. Their exposition is more consistent and
the system of connectives more expanded. It contain defferent bookish and rare
words, neologisms, traditional word-combinations and parenthesis.
NWP style: brief news items and communities, headlines, advertisement and
announcement, the editorial.
Scientific prose style: LS of humanitarian studies, the LS of exact sciences and
popular scientific prose.
OF doc: the language of business documents, legal documents, diplomacy,
military.
Metonymy. Synecdoche. Antonomasia.
M. is based on different type of relation between the dictionary and contextual
meanings. It may be based on 3 different lines: The principle of affornity, the
principle of proximity, the position of two logical meanings.It is a figure of
speech that contrast the analogy between two things or ideas.
S.
A. – interplay between the logical and nominal meaning of a word. It is a lexical
SD in which proper name is used instead of a common noun of vice versa.
Б-3
Meaning from a stylistic point of view.S-c is adomain where meaning assumed
paramount importance. The term “meaning” is applied not only words, wordcombinations, sentences but also to the matter of ezpression into which the matter
is cast. In s-cs meaning is viewed as a category which is able toacquire meaning
imposed on the words by the context. That is way such meaning is called
contextual manings.In s-cs it is important to discriminate shades of meaning
which are now called semes the smallest units of which meaning of word consists.
Lexical meaning refers the mind to some concrete concept, phenomenon or thing
of objective reality. Grammatical meaning refers to our mind to relation between
words or to some forms of words bearing upon their structural function in the
language-as-a-system.
Special literary vocabulary is generally very easily coined and easily accepted.
They used in special works dealing with the notions of some branch of science.
Poetic words form a rather insignificant layer of the special literary vocabulary.
They are mostly archaic or very rarely used highly literary words which aim at
producing an elevated effect. Archaic words are words which are no longer
recognizable in modern English, words that were in use in Old English.
Barbarisms are words of foreign origin which have not entirely been assimilated
into the English language. They bear the appearance of the borrowing and are felt
as something alien to the native tongue.
Types of connection (asyndeton, polysyndeton)
Asyndeton is connection between parts of a sentence or between sentences
without any formal sigh. It is becomes a stylistic device if there is an omission of
the connective where it is generally expected according to the norm of literary
language.
Polysyndeton is a stylistic device of connecting sentences or phrases, or words by
using connectives before each component part. The repetition og conjunction and
other means of connection makes an utterance more rhythmical.
Б - 4.
Lexical expressive means and SD. Words in context, may require additional
lexical meanings not fixed in dictionaries, what we call contextual meaning.
Transferring meaning is the interrelation between two types of lexical meaning:
dictionary and contextual. When we perceive two meanings of a word
simultaneously, we are confronted with a SD in which the two meanings interact.
The SD based on principle of identification of two objects is called a metaphor,
the SD based on principle of substitution of one object for another is called
metonymy and the SD based on contrary concepts is called irony. Interaction of
primary and derivative logical meanings Zeugma and pun. Interaction of logical
and emotive meanings the epithet and oxymoron. I. of logical and nominal m-s –
antonomasia.
The belles letters style. style is a generic term for three substyles in which the
main principles and the most general properties of the style are materialized. This
3 substyles are:
1. The language of poetry, or simply verse
2. Emotive prose or the language of fiction
3. The language of the drama.
The purpose of the belles-letters style is not to prove but only to suggest a
possible interpretation of the phenomena of life by forcing the reader to see the
viewpoint of the writer. This is the cognitive function of the BL style.
The BL style is individual essence. This is one of its most distinctive properties.
Sentence length. One-word sentences. Sentence structure. Punctuation.
Б-5.
compososial patterns of syntactical arrangement (stylistic inversion) SI – is a
SD in which the direct word order is changed either completely so that the
predicate proceeds the subject or partially so that the object proceeds the subject,
predicate pair. SI aims at attaching logical stress or additional emotional coloring
to the surface meaning of the utterance.1 OBJ in the beginning. 2. The attribute
after the word it modifiers. 3. P-S. 4. ADV MOD before subject. 5. MOD and
PRED – Sub.
Detached construction – when one of the secondary part of a sentence by some
specific consideration of the writer is placed so that it seems formally
independent of the word it logically refers to. The detached part assumes a
greater degree of significance and is given prominence by intonation. A variant
of a DC is a parenthesis. P 8is a qualifying, explanatory word, phrase, clause,
sentence which interrupts a syntactic construction without otherwise affecting it,
having often a characteristic intonation and indicated in writing by commas,
brackets or dashes.
Repetition is a EM of l. used when speaker is under the stress of strong emotion.
Repetition is classified according to compositional patterns. If the repeated word
comes at the beginning of the sentemce, we have anaphora. If the repeated unit is
placed at the end we have epiphora. Other model of repetition is linking or
reduplication (anadiplosis). The last word or phrase of one part of an utterance is
repeated at the beginning of the next part. Sometimes the writer use thelinking
device several times in one utterance. It is called chain-repetition. Another variety
of repetition called synonymical repetition. This is repetition of the same idea by
using synonymous words and phrases. There aretwo terms frequently used to
show negative attitude of the critic to all kind of syn. Repetitions. Pleonasm the
use of more word in sentence than are necessary to express the meaning.
Tautology the repetition of the same statement.
Publicistic style falls into three varieties, each having its own distinctive features.
Oratorical substyle (featuries direct address to the audience, the use of the 2nd
person pronoun you, the use of colloquial words.)
An essay is a series of personal and witty comments than a finished arguments or
a conclusive examination of any matter. It was popular in the 17th and 19th
centuries. (features1 brevity of expression, 2 . the use of 1st person singular the
use of 1st person singular. 3. The rather expanded use of connectives. The
abundant use of emotive words, the use of similas ans sustend metaphor )
Journalistic articles. The character of the magazine affects the choice and use of
SD. Words of emotive meaning are few. Their exposition is more consistent and
the system of connectives more expanded. It contain defferent bookish and rare
words, neologisms, traditional word-combinations and parenthesis.
Irony. Play on words. Zeugma and pun.
Irony is a stylistic device based on the simultaneous realization of two logical
meanings – dictionary and contextual, but the two meanings stand in opposition
to each other. Irony express a feeling of irritation, displeasure, pity or regret.
Zeugma is the use of a word in the same grammatical, but different sentactic
relation to two adjacent words in the context, the semantic relation being, on the
one hand, and. On the other, transferred.
Pun is based o n interaction of two well-known meanings of a word or phrase.
Zeugma with a verb which is made to refer to different subject and object. The
pun is more independent. Puns is often used in riddles, jokes.
Б-6.
Phonetic expressive means and stylistic devices. Onomatopoeia is a
combination of speech sounds which aims at imitating sounds produced in nature,
by thing, by people and by animals. Alliteration is a phonetic SD which aims at
imparting a melodic effect to the utterance. The essence of this device lies in the
repetition of similar sounds, in particular consonant sounds, in close succession,
at the beginning of a successive words. Rhyme is the repetition of identical or
similar terminal sound combinations of words. We distinguish full rhyme and
incomplete.
Syntactical expressive means and stylistic devices.
Antithesis and oxymoron. Antithesis is based on relative opposition which arises
out of the context through the expansion of objectively contrasting pair.
Antithesis has the following functions: rhythm-forming, copulative, dissevering,
comparative. These functions often go together but as a rule antithesis displays
one of the functions more clearly than the others.
Oxymoron is a combination of two words (mostly an adjective and a noun or an
adverb with the adjective) in which the meaning of the two clash, being opposite
in sense.
Б-7
Special colloquial vocabulary.
Slang seems to mean everything that is below the standard of usage of presentday English. Jourganisms
Professionalism are the words used in a definite trade, profession or calling by
people connected by common interests both at work and at home. Like terms they
are monosemantic. Vulgarisms as used to single out a definite group of words of
non-standard English, is rather misleading. Vulgar means words or names
employed in ordinary speech, common, familiar, They are often used in
conversation out of habit, without any thought of what they mean. .
Newspaper style. It falls into brief news items. Principal function – to inform
the reader. It has specific vocab. Features and is characterized by use of special
politic terms and economic terms. Non- term-political vocabulary. Newspaper
clichés, abbreviations, neologisms. Gram. peculiarities: complex sentence with
developed system of clauses, verbal constructions, syntactical complexes,
attributive noun groups. Specific word order (5W&H pattern rule who what why
how where when) S-P-O-Adv mod of reason (manner), of place, of time.
Advertisements and announcements function- to inform the reader. The
headline is a dependent form of newspaper writing. To inform the reader briefly
what the text that follows is about. Syntactically headlines are very short
sentences or phrases of a variety of patterns: full declarative sentence,
Interrogative, nominative sen-s, elliptical with aux verb omitted, with subj
omitted, phrases with verbals, etc. The editorial. To influence the reader by
giving an interpretation of certain facts. E. comment on the political and other
events of the day. Their purpose is to give the editors’ opinion and interpretation
of the news.
Compositional patterns of syntactical arrangement (enumeration, suspense,
climax) enumeration is a SD by which separate things, objects, phenomena,
actions are named one by one so that they produce a chain, the links of which,
being syntactically in the same position, are forced to display some kind of
semantic homogeneity, remote though it may seem. Suspense is a compositional
device which consists in arranging the matter of a communication in such a way
that the less important, descriptive, subordinate parts are amassed at the
beginning, the main idea being withheld till the end of the sentence. Climax is an
arrangement of sentences which secures a gradual increase in significance,
importance, or emotional tension in the utterance.
Б-8
Scientific word order. The language of science is governed by the aim of the
functional style of scientific prose, which is to prove a hypothesis, to create new
concepts. The 1st and most noticeable feature of this style is the logical sequence
of the utterances. A 2nd and no less important feature is the use of terms specific
to each given branch of science. A 3rd feature is what we may call sentencepatterns. They are three types: postulatory, argumentative, formulative. A4 th is
the use of quotations and references. A 5th is the frequent use of foot-notes
digressive in character.
Simile is a figure of speech which draws a comparison between two different
things in one or two aspects. Galperin wants that ordinary comparison and simile
must not be confused. They represent 2 diverse processes. Comparison means
weighing two objects belonging to one class of thing with the purpose of
establishing their sameness or difference. The use of a simile is characterized
one object by bringing it into contract with another object belonging to entirely
different class of things.
Periphrasis is a device which denotes the use of a longer phrasing in place of a
possible shorter and plainer form of expression. Euphemism is a word or phrase
used to replace an unpleasant word or expression by a conventionally more
acceptable one. It can be divide into several groups according to their spheres of
application. The most recognized are the following: religious, moral, medical,
parliamentary. Dysphemism is rude form of expression, which is expressed by
neutral word combination.
Б-9
The style of official documents. Like other styles, the style of official documents
is not homogeneous and is represented by the follow substyles: the language of
business documents, of legal doc-s, of diplomacy, of military doc-s. the AIM is to
state the conditions binding two parties in an undertaking. The most straiten
feature is a special system of clichés, terms, and set expressions by which each
substyle can be recognized. Each of the subdivision has its own particular terms,
phrases. A feature common to all the variants of the documents: use of
abbreviations, convensational symbols.
Completeness of sentence structure. Ellipsis is a typical phenomenon in
conversation, arising out of the situation. But this typical feature of the spoken
lang. assumes a new quality when used in written lang. It becomes a stylistic
device inasmuch as it suprasegmental information. An elliptical s-ce in direct
intercourse is not a stylistic device. It is simply a norm of the spoken language.
One-member sentences. Apokoinu constructions. Aposiopesis is a device
which define as “a stopping short for rhetorical effect”.
Hyperbole. It can be defined as a deliberate overstatement or exaggeration of a
feature essential to the object or phenomenon Understatement. Litotes is a SD
consisting of a peculiar use of negative constructions. The negation plus noun or
adjective serves to establish a positive feature in a person or thing. L. is used in
different styles of speech, encoding those which may be called the matter-of-fact
styles, like official style and scientific prose.
Б-10
Peculiar use of set expressions. The cliché is a generally defined as a expression
that become hackneyed and trite. Proverbs and sayings are facts of language.
They are collected in dictionaries. \there are special dictionaries of proverbs and
sayings. \The most characteristic feature of a proverb lies in the content-form of
the utterance. P. are brief statements showing in condensed form the life
experience of the community. Epigram is a SD akin to a proverb, the only
difference being that epigrams are coined by individuals whose names we know.
A quotation is a repetition of a phrase or statement from a book, speech and used
by way of authority, illustration, proof. Allusion is an indirect reference, by word
or phrase , to a historical, literary . mythological fact or to a fact of everyday life
made in course of speaking or writing.
The rhetorical question is special syntactical SD the essence of which
consists in reshaping the grammatical meaning of the interrogative sentence. The
question is no longer a question but a statement expressed in the form of the
interrogative sentence. Repetition is a EM of l. used when speaker is under the
stress of strong emotion. Repetition is classified according to compositional
patterns. If the repeated word comes at the beginning of the sentences, we have
anaphora. If the repeated unit is placed at the end we have epiphora. Other model
of repetition is linking or reduplication (anadiplosis). The last word or phrase of
one part of an utterance is repeated at the beginning of the next part. Sometimes
the writer use the linking device several times in one utterance. It is called chainrepetition. Another variety of repetition called synonymical repetition. This is
repetition of the same idea by using synonymous words and phrases. There are
two terms frequently used to show negative attitude of the critic to all kind of syn.
Repetitions. Pleonasm the use of more word in sentence than are necessary to
express the meaning. Tautology the repetition of the same statement. Parallel
constructions is a device which may be encountered not so much in the sen-c as
in the macro-structures.the necessary condition is similar structure in two or more
sen-s or parts of a sen-s. Chiasmus – cross order of words and phrases.
Epithet is SD based on an interplay of emotive and logical meaning in an
attributive word, phrase or even a s-s, used to characterized an object and pointing
out to the reader, and frequently imposing on him.