Instructional Implications
for Teaching Connectives
General
“The presence of an appropriate connective between two clauses leads
to faster reading times, better memory, higher ratings of textual
coherence, and facilitates inference making when the relation between
events is not explicitly stated (Caron, Micko, & Thuring, 1988; Ferstl &
von Cramon, 2001; Millis, Golding, & Barker, 1995; Murray, 1997).
Given that connectives benefit skilled readers, the expectation is that
they will also be helpful to developing readers, provided they
understand their meanings” (c.f. Cain & Nash, 2011, p.429 ).
Cohesive ties (e.g., connectives) are a necessary part of comprehension in
that they serve as the “glue” to bind ideas put forth in language and text
(Carlisle & Rice, 2002).
All activities should be preceded with a discussion of why authors use
connective words.
Think-Alouds: Teacher models identifying conjunctions and their meaning
while reading a text.
Students struggling at the decoding level may not benefit from these
activities as much as those students whose decoding skills are
developmentally appropriate.
Activities that focus on connectives using isolated sentences are appropriate.
However, some students will need explicit instruction on how to make the
transfer to contextual reading.
There is a taxonomy to understanding various types of conjunctions
Teach conjunctions in related groups. They are generally acquired in the
following order.
Additive – and, in addition,
Temporal – before, finally, next
Causal – because, so, if/then
Adversative – but, although
Explicitly teach the meaning of conjunctions in the context of reading
expository texts.
Include conjunctions as vocabulary words in school-wide systematic
vocabulary instruction.
Provide opportunities for students to use conjunctions orally, in writing and
reading.
Regularly embed conjunctions in classroom discussion and activities rather
than teaching them in isolation.
Encourage students to expand the variety of the conjunctions they use when
discussing or writing.
Activities
These activities can be used in a variety of formats such as: introduction to
connectives, pretests, practice, formative assessments, etc.
Sentence Fragments
1. Teacher creates sentence fragments that contain conjunctions
(sentences can be extracted from content area text).
2. Students complete the sentences.
3. Determine students’ level of understanding based on responses.
Example sentences:
a. We weren’t able to play outside because ____________________
b. There are plenty of healthy foods that taste good; for example,
______________________________
c. I would love to go to the movies with you; however,
_________________________ .
Find the Conjunctions
1. Teacher creates sentences (or extract from a text) that contain
conjunctions.
2. Students read and underline conjunctions
Example Sentences
a. We tried to do our research online, but the internet was down.
b. Can you pick up the mail next week since I’ll be out of town?
Replace One Connective for Another
1. Teacher creates sentences (or extract from a text) that contain
conjunctions.
2. Students underline connective(s).
3. Students replace underlined connective(s) with another.
- A word bank can be used
Example sentences:
a. We browsed through the whole book and the table of contents.
i. (e.g., change and to including)
b. First, find a recipe you like. Then write down the ingredients you
will need to buy.
i. (e.g., change then to next)
Split it Up
1. Teacher creates sentences (or extract from a text) that contain
conjunctions.
2. Students identify the conjunction.
3. Students delete the conjunction and form two new sentences.
Example sentences:
a. Jose cooked the burgers while Anna made the salads.
b. I missed the plane; consequently, I was late for the interview.
Sentence Combining
1. Teacher creates sentences (or extract from a text) that can be
combined with a conjunction.
2. Students combine sentences with a conjunction.
Example sentences:
a. We are going to the lake. We can relax for a few days.
(We are going to the lake where we can relax for a few days.)
b. He broke his foot. He won’t be able to play football.
(Since he broke his foot, he won’t be able to play football.)
It’s all in the Words
1. Teacher creates simple sentences (or extract from a text) and provides
two connectives.
2. Working in pairs, students read sentences and choose a connective to
combine the sentences into one.
3. Students can form small groups or as a whole class, discuss how
meaning of the sentence changes depending on which conjunction is
used.
Example sentences:
a. John snored. He was sleeping. (while, before)
b. Eduardo bought a ticket for the movie. He bought some
popcorn. (even though, then)
c. I stubbed my toe. I couldn’t see where I was going in the
dark (when, because)
d. Beth hopes to become a doctor. She spends a lot of time
studying. (therefore, next)
What does it mean?
1. Teacher creates sentences (or extract from a text) which contain at
least one connective.
2. Students read sentence and underline connective.
3. Students write connective under appropriate column heading according
to their meaning/function.
Example sentences:
a. First we will go to the store and then we can go to the park.
b. He didn’t go to school because he had a high fever.
c. People from the United States as well as from all over the world
made contributions to the victims.
d. You can work on your project or mow the lawn.
Time
(when)
Cause
(why)
Time
(when)
Cause
(why)
After
As soon as
At first
At once
Before
Finally
Meanwhile
Next
Now
Now that
Since
Then
Until
When
While
Adding
(joining
alike)
Adding
(joining
alike)
Although
And
As a result
Also
Because
As well as
By
Besides
Consequently Including
Despite
Similarly
Incase
In order that
In that case
in this way
Otherwise
Since
So
Therefore
Though
Thus
Unless
yet
Contrasting
(comparing)
Contrasting
(comparing)
But
However
Alternatively
Except for
If not…then
Instead of
Or
Whereas
Graphic Organizer
Use graphic organizers to help students understand the use of conjunctions
as markers of important information and relationships of ideas: comparecontrast, cause-effect, problem-solution, time/order.
Directions: Use one of the coordination conjunctions in the blue boxes to
make the two simple sentences into one complex sentence.
It was raining.
since
and
The game was cancelled.
but
for
nor
Explicitly teach conjunctions and their use within texts. See Youtube for
many teaching examples:
Coordinating Conjunctions
Compound Sentences with Coordination Conjunctions
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bp2YRRotE1o
Coordinating conjunctions
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d0pnBs3uJbc
Subordinating Conjunctions
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k8VUUa3VISs
Subordinate Conjunctions Part I (song)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AEF5wreLh9U
Subordinate Conjunctions Part II
so
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E1D7STokN3c
Subordinate Conjunctions Part III
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2RvMJ9LcnsU
Connectives: Steve Ladbrook
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G42gREtfti8&list=PLW7MlFR2Q3Yfuy8Imi
XiXx-obUkG0mfmd
Connections
Provide the student with text containing examples of anaphora (pronouns
with antecedents)
1. Students read and identify both by underling anaphora and drawing
arrow back to antecedent.
e.g.,
Mary was so excited she couldn’t sleep all night
This activity can increase in complexity depending on the students’
developmental level.
a.
the anaphora can reference an antecedent in a previous sentence
(e.g., Paul threw the ball high in the air. Luckily, Maria caught it.)
b.
the anaphora can be a noun
(e.g., The ballerinas performed flawlessly. All the girls danced in graceful
unison
References:
Baumann, J. F. (1986). Teaching third-grade students to comprehend
anaphoric relationships: The application of a direct instruction model.
Reading Research Quarterly, Vol. 21, No1 70-90.
Cain, K. (2003). Text comprehension and its relation to coherence and
cohesion in children’s fictional narratives. British Journal of Developmental
Psychology. 335-351.
Cain, K., & Nash, H. M. (2011). The influence of connectives on young
readers’ processing and comprehension of text. Journal of Educational
Psychology, 103, 2 429-441.
Carlisle, J. F., & Rice, M.S. (2002). Improving reading comprehension:
Research–based principles and practices. (pp. 120-134). Baltimore, MD:
York Press.
Geva, E., & Ryan, E. B. (1985). Use of conjunctions in expository texts by
skilled and less skilled readers. Journal of Reading Behavior. Vol. XVII, No. 4
(331-346).
Graesser, A. C. McNamara, D. S., & Louwerse, M. M. (2003). What do
readers need to learn in order to process coherence relations in narrative
and expository text? In A. P. Sweet & c. E. Snow (eds.), Rethinking reading
comprehension (pp. 82-98). New York , NY: Guilford Press.
McNamara, D. S., Kintsch, E., Songer, N.B., & Kintsch, W. (1996). Are good
texts always better? Interactions of text coherence background knowledge
and levels of understanding in learning from text. Cognition and Instruction,
14, 1-43.