In the Case of Ethnic Studies at Kailua High School the Philosopher’s Pedagogy
Offers a Meaningful Option for High School Reform
Amber Strong Makaiau
maniniz@yahoo.com
Abstract
Introduction
In 2004, the National Academies, Committee on Increasing High School
Students’ Engagement and Motivation to Learn, published a comprehensive study
regarding the current state of the American public high school. In their findings they
wrote,
The instruction typical of most urban high schools nevertheless fails to engage students
cognitively, emotionally and behaviorally. As typically taught in urban high schools,
most subject matter appears disconnected and unrelated to students’ lives outside of
school. Students spend much of their time passively listening to lectures or doing
repetitive, formulaic tasks. Instruction and tasks are commonly very easy or impossibly
difficult for many students, and getting right answers is stressed over understanding
(Board of Children, Youth, and Families, 2004, p. 4 & 213).
They went on to explain, as a result of this type of instruction “it is common for fewer
than half of the ninth graders who enter [our public schools] leave with a high school
diploma” (p. 2). Based on this evidence, found in their report, it safe to say that the
American public high school is in a full-on educational crisis.
This conclusion lead the committee to ask the question, what can be done to help
our failing schools? Their response to educators, concentrate on student engagement.
Thus a focus on engagement calls attention to the connection between a learner and the
social context in which learning takes place. Engaging schools promote a sense of
belonging by personalizing instruction, showing an interest in students’ lives, and
creating a supportive, caring social environment (Board of Children, Youth, and
Families, 2004, p. 3).
Sounds good on paper, but what does an engaging school, engaging classroom, engaging
teacher, or engaged students look like in practice?
The purpose of this article is to demonstrate how a p4c Hawaii approach to
education has helped me answer these questions. I have been a public high school social
studies teacher for over ten years. Through deep thinking, experimentation in the
classroom, and feedback from my students I have come to believe that Philosophy for
Children (P4C), as it is practiced in Hawaii, has both the theoretical and practical
foundations needed for meaningful student engagement. In the following pages, I will
elaborate on my experiences with teaching and researching p4c Hawaii in an effort to
demonstrate how accessible p4c Hawaii is as a possible solution to our current
educational crisis. I will do this by (a) describing how I have adapted Matthew Lipman’s
version of P4C to create a “philosopher’s pedagogy” that better fits the secondary context
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that I teach in, and (b) reporting the findings of a qualitative study, which examined the
impact of a “philosopher’s pedagogy” on students taking ethnic studies at Kailua High
School. The data from this study will demonstrate how p4c Hawaii has the power to
bring about meaningful high school reform in Hawaii and beyond.
From P4C to a Philosopher’s Pedagogy
In the late 1960’s Matthew Lipman, a professor of Philosophy, created
Philosophy for Children in an effort to improve education for students across the globe.
Through P4C, Lipman (1988) wanted to “enlist the social impulses of the child by
creating classroom communities of inquiry” (p. 110). P4C, he wrote, “will cease to treat
children as passive blotters whose education consists merely of learning of inert data and
will instead stimulate their capacity to think” (Lipman, 1988, pg. 110). By 1984, P4C
gained international recognition as a growing movement in education with several centers
around the world and thousands of individual practitioners in countries from Austria to
Zimbabwe. The p4c Hawaii center, at the University of Manoa is an outgrowth of
Lipman’s original efforts.
It is important to recognize that over the past fifty years, in addition to expanding
geographically, Lipman’s original conceptualization of P4C has evolved. Practitioners in
diverse contexts like Hawaii have tailored P4C to meet the needs of their students.
Thomas Jackson, at the University of Hawaii at Manoa has been devoted to pioneering
fresh approaches to P4C in the Hawaii State Department of Education (DOE) since 1984.
From the beginning of his work he identified several limitations of Lipman’s approach.
Among them were: (1) the reliance of the curriculum on the presence of someone in the
classroom with Philosophical training; (2) the perception of K – 12 classroom teachers
that philosophy should be reserved for education at the college level; and (3) the cultural
incongruence between Lipman’s novels and the experiences of many children in Hawaii.
Awareness of these issues pushed Jackson to be inventive in many ways. The outsourcing
of University of Hawaii graduate students of philosophy to Department of Education
classrooms was his first move. This helped to create the Hawaii State Legislature’s
“Philosophy in the Schools Project” (1987 – 2003), which funded a healthy partnership
between the University of Hawaii and the DOE, ensuring the longevity of P4C in Hawaii.
Second, Jackson created the handbook Philosophy for Children: A guide for teachers
(1989). This handbook opened up the world of P4C making it accessible to a vast amount
of educators who may or may not have had previous experience with philosophy. It did
this by presenting a concise set of classroom conditions (community, intellectual safety,
thinking, reflection, and inquiry), and a clearly presented set of flexible classroom
practices (community ball, Plain Vanilla, The Good Thinker’s Tool Kit, Magic Words,
and evaluation criteria). 1This handbook was my introduction to P4C.
Jackson’s version of P4C, now referred to as p4c Hawaii, gave me, a high school
social studies teacher, flexibility not previously awarded by Lipman. Bound to specific
content, and state standards measured through high stakes testing, I needed an approach
For a more detailed description of Jackson’s approach see Jackson, T. (2001). The art
and craft of gently socaratic inquiry. ASCD.
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to P4C that would allow me to select teaching materials that were specific to the courses I
taught. Jackson’s p4c Hawaii helped me to find methods that both helped my students to
meet state standards and think philosophically about the content they were studying.
What’s more, it helped my students build intellectually responsible relationships within
our classroom community of inquiry. Since my original work with p4c Hawaii in the
context of teaching high school psychology, United States history, and a contemporary
issues course (Strong, 2003), many other high school teachers have found ways to make
p4c Hawaii work in their content-driven classrooms (Miller, 2005; Jones, 2005). I like to
call this style of p4c Hawaii, which is useful in a secondary setting, a “philosopher’s
pedagogy” (Makaiau, 2010).
Theoretical Framework of a Philosopher’s Pedagogy
An extension of Lipman’s (1988; 1989; 1991; 1993a; 1993b; Lipman & Sharp,
1978; 1985; Sharp & Reed, 1992) and Jackson’s (1984; 2001) versions of P4C, the
philosopher’s pedagogy applies what Miller (2008) refers to as “little p” philosophy to
the art of teaching. “Little p” philosophy is characterized by each individual’s capacity
for wonder, and the basic premise that the world is “problematic” (Lipman, 1991, p. 16;
Peirce, 1955; Freire, 1970) and worth wondering about. Given the right circumstances, a
sense of safety and the tools for critical analysis, “little p” philosophy means doing
philosophy, and is experienced on high, when done within a community of others (Sharp,
1993; Lipman, 1991; 1993; Jackson, 2001; Brown & Campione, 1990; 1994). The
philosopher’s pedagogy is an invitation to teaching that utilizes “little p” philosophy to
engage high school students in learning about content (e.g. ethnic studies, biology or
algebra), which is the basic requirement of most American public high schools.
The philosopher’s pedagogy is defined by a set of conditions found in a teacher’s
curriculum and practice. They are: (1) time for conscientious reflection and philosophical
activity; (2) an intellectually safe space; (3) a disposition for learner-centered inquiry; (4)
tools for critical and problem-based philosophical analysis; and (5) a commitment to the
social construction of knowledge. Each of these conditions is rooted in additional
theoretical frameworks.
Time for Conscientious Reflection and Philosophical Activity
Time for conscientious reflection and philosophical activity is the first condition
of a philosopher’s pedagogy. “Due to a variety of pressures, both internal and external,
the typical classroom teacher does not appear to have time for children’s genuine
wondering and questioning from which structured inquiries can grow,” (Jackson, 2001, p.
459). A teacher who uses a philosopher’s pedagogy recognizes that time spent
wondering, and questioning is not wasteful. Instead, time allotted for conscientious
reflection and philosophical activity is characteristic of authentic engagement in the
learning process, and a teacher’s ability to foster these conditions are essential. Peirce
(1940/1955) explains, only through philosophical activity do we realize that “there are
certain flatteries to the vanity of man which we all believe by nature, until we are
awakened from our pleasing dream by rough facts” (Peirce, 1940/1955). Opening
ourselves to doubt, becoming aware of what we take for granted, and searching for “new
3
truths” arms students with the tools they need for productive learning. Teachers who
utilize a philosopher’s pedagogy recognize, “we aren’t in a rush to get anywhere,”
(Jackson, 2001, p. 461), and they practice the art of facilitating their students’ genuine
wonderment as it arises.
An Intellectually Safe Space
Teachers who use a philosopher’s pedagogy must also make sure that learning
takes place in an intellectually safe space.
Certainly, classrooms must be physically safe places. For dialogue and inquiry to occur
they must be emotionally and intellectually safe as well. In an intellectually safe place
there re no put-downs and no comments intended to belittle, undermine, negate, devalue,
or ridicule. Within this place, the group accepts virtually any question or comment, so
long as it is respectful of the other members of the circle. What develops is a growing
trust among the participants and with it the courage to present one’s own thoughts,
however tentative initially, on complex and difficult issues (p. 460).
Intellectual safety is an agreement between class members, students and teachers, about
how to engage with one another as they learn. It ensures that “all members of the
community have the right to ask virtually any question or make any comment as long as
respect for all persons is honored” (Jackson, 1989). This relationship between students,
and students and teacher is a work in progress. If a teacher is devoted to the necessity of
creating an intellectually safe classroom, it builds over time. From my experience,
intellectual safety is a necessary condition for teachers and students to engage in
meaningful learning.
A Disposition for Learner-Centered Inquiry
Dewey (1916) wrote, “engage [the student in] activities, and in the process of
engagement he learns” (p. 168). Viewing learners as “self-activated makers of meaning,
as actively self-propelled agents of their own growth and not as passive organisms to be
filled or molded by agents outside themselves,” (Schiro, 2008, p. 103) learner-centered
theorists, like Dewey remind teachers that students want to learn, and if they are given
the freedom to follow their natural abilities they will do so. “What is required,” wrote
Dewey (1916) of learner-centered methods “is that every individual shall have
opportunities to employ his own powers in activities that have meaning” (Dewey, 1916,
p. 172). Dewey (1916) recognized that each individual has a unique way of learning,
particular interests, and “method[s] or way of attack upon a problem…found ultimately
in his native tendencies and his acquired habits” (p. 173). “Imposing an alleged uniform
general method [of teaching] upon everybody breeds mediocrity in all but the very
exceptional” (Dewey, 1916, p. 173), and for these reasons the philosopher’s pedagogy
asserts that teachers must have a disposition for learner-centered inquiry.
Learner-centered teachers create classroom communities of inquiry, where the
teacher takes on the role of co-inquirer. In this “reflective paradigm, students and
teachers query each other” (Lipman, 1991, p.14)
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Through dialogue, the teacher-of-the-students and the students-of-the-teacher cease to
exist and a new term emerges: teacher-student with student-teachers. The teacher is no
longer merely the-one-who-teaches, but one who is himself taught in dialogue with the
students, who in turn while being taught also teach. They become jointly responsible for a
process in which all grow (Freire, 1970, p. 80).
“In charge of their own lives and learning,” (Schiro, 2008, p. 105) teachers and students
are in the process of becoming educated together. There are no “recipes and models to be
followed in” (Dewey, 1916, p. 170) this type of teaching. Instead, teachers and students
must find their way together.
This does not mean that the classroom is an unstructured “free for all.” Teachers
who have a philosopher’s pedagogy create well-thought-out strategies for cultivating
productive communities of inquiry. Jackson suggests, “creating a community ball” (1989)
to facilitate turn taking, and using a “plain vanilla” (2001) discussion outline to support
philosophical discourse in the classroom. “Whenever possible, students and teacher sit in
a circle during inquiry time. Students call on each other, no longer relying on the teacher
to carry out this responsibility. Each has the opportunity to speak or to pass and remain
silent. In this environment inquiry will grow” (Jackson, 2001, p. 460). With careful
planning on the part of the teacher the inquiry can arise out of the “questions and interests
of the children and move[s] in the direction that the children indicate” (Jackson, 2001, p.
462).
Tools for Critical and Problem-Based Philosophical Analysis
Having the tools for critical and problem-based philosophical analysis is the
fourth condition of a philosopher’s pedagogy. In an effort to develop a critical
consciousness (Freire, 1970) “the curriculum should bring out aspects of the subject
matter that are unsettled and problematic in order to capture the laggard attention of the
students and to stimulate them to form a community of inquiry” (Lipman, 1991, p. 16).
Teachers begin by selecting texts, and classroom resources that stimulate students’
questions, and offer multiple perspectives. Then they provide students with “thinking”
tools to be used during their engagement with the classroom materials. Provided with a
tool kit for critical thinking students come to recognize that “no claims of fact will be
made without evidence, no opinions will be proffered without accompanying reasons,
and no judgments will be made without appropriately relevant criteria” (Lipman, 1991, p.
18). To Jackson (2001) these tools come in the form of the Good Thinker’s Tool Kit2 and
“they are the means for giving shape and direction to the notion that, although we aren’t
in a rush to get anywhere, we do have an expectation that we will get somewhere” (p.
462).
2
Created by Thomas Jackson (2001) the good thinker’s tool kit consists of seven indicators for critical
thinking which are: W- what do you mean by that? R- what are the reasons? A- what is being assumed? Or
what can I assume? I – can I infer ____ from _____? Or where are there inferences being made? T- is what
is being said true and what does it imply if it is true? E – are there any examples to prove what is being
said? C – are there any counter-examples to disprove what is being said?
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A Commitment to the Social Construction of Knowledge
The final condition for putting a philosopher’s pedagogy into practice is the teacher’s
commitment to the social construction of knowledge. Social constructivist theory “rejects
the notion of objective knowledge and argues instead that knowledge develops as one
engages in dialogue with others” (Palinscar, 1998, p. 347). Building community becomes
a necessity, an essential prerequisite to all other learning that takes place in the classroom
setting (Vygotsky, 1978) and not just a feel-good activity at the beginning of a semester.
Teachers facilitate relationships, practice equity pedagogy, and design curricular
opportunities for students to learn alongside their peers. In a socially constructed learning
environment we recognize that “people cannot separate how thinking takes place from
what knowledge is available in the place where learning happens” (Oakes & Lipton,
1999, p. 77).
Using a Philosopher’s Pedagogy to Teach a Self-Concept Unit Within a High School
Ethnic Studies Course
In 2004, I collaborated with a fellow social studies teacher to design and
implement a high school ethnic studies course. We were commissioned by the Asian
Pacific Islander Youth Violence Prevention Center at the University of Hawaii to create
this the course to assist in a school wide effort to reduce incidents of violence both on our
campus and within the larger communities that our high school serviced. The
philosopher’s pedagogy was at the foundation of the course curriculum, which had six
major units of study.
In an effort to demonstrate what the philosopher’s pedagogy looked like in action,
this paper will focus on the third unit of the course. Titled, “Self-Concept from the
Perspective of Ethnic Studies,” unit three of the Kailua High School ethnic studies
curriculum built off of the first two units of the course. After establishing an intellectually
safe community of inquiry (unit one), and learning fifty-four ethnic studies concepts,
which were philosophically problematic (unit two), the students were asked to turn
inward. Unit three provided an opportunity for students to “scratch beneath the surface”
and “dig deeper” into the meaning of their self-concept.
To engage the students in this self-study (Beck, Freese, & Kosnick, 2004), the
philosopher’s pedagogy was used to design a seven-step inquiry process.
Focus Question: What are some examples of my self-concept from the perspective of
ethnic studies?
1) QUESTION themselves using the Good Thinker’s Tool Kit (Jackson, 2001) and the
fifty-four ethnic studies terms;
2) GATHER INFORMATION using a variety of sources (introspection, interviews
with family and friends, and primary documents);
3) ANALYZE their data (Strauss and Corbin, 1998) in an effort to construct a THESIS
about their identity;
4) OUTLINE the evidence needed to support their identity thesis;
5) WRITE an identity narrative;
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6) PRESENT their identity narrative to our classroom community inquiry; and
7) REFLECT on the inquiry/intervention process.
Figure 1. The learning steps taken by students during unit three of the Kailua High
School ethnic studies curriculum
As I guided students through the process of generating their questions, conducting
interviews, reflecting within, analyzing their notes, constructing their identity narratives,
and sharing their writing out loud, I was blown away by the curriculum’s transformative
effect on my students lives. Not only did my students develop a more sophisticated
understanding of their self-understanding, they also learned tremendously about their
peers. Inspired by my students’ work, and recognizing the course’s potential for
addressing many of the issues facing our public high schools (Board of Children, Youth,
and Families, 2004), conducting a formal study of the course’s impact became my main
research interest.
Purpose of the Study and Objectives of This Article
From 2004 to 2007 a large qualitative study was designed, and carried out to
study the impact of the ethnic studies curriculum on students at Kailua High School
(KHS). The study focused on unit three of the curriculum, and was framed by a central
research question asking, “What are the impacts of a secondary ethnic studies curriculum
on the adolescent process of identity exploration within a multicultural community
context?” To help with the large scale of this study, a series of sub-questions were also
designed. Among them, “What do the identity narratives (created in unit three of the
ethnic studies curriculum) tell us about the impact of a high school ethnic studies course
that utilizes a philosopher’s pedagogy?” The purpose of this article is to report on the
select portion of the study’s findings, which related to this sub-question.
School and Community Context
KHS is located in the State of Hawaii, on the windward side of the Hawaiian
Island of Oahu. It serves the four communities of Kailua, Maunawili, Waimanalo and
Waimanalo Beach. These communities range from suburban to rural, and are
characterized by a broad socio-economic range, from low income to upper middle class
residents. Within two of these communities are Hawaiian Homestead lands. This helps to
explain why KHS services such a large portion of Native Hawaiian residents, most of
which, come from the town of Waimanalo.
In general students from KHS school tend to self - identify with two main
communities-Waimanalo (sometimes referred to as Nalo by students from both
communities) and Kailua. Although these two communities are close in proximity, they
do not share a common intermediate or middle school. It is at KHS that students from the
more affluent community of Kailua meet students from the more rural community of
Waimanalo for the first time. This separation, between students in the two communities
creates a unique cultural context.
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One aspect of this cultural context is tension between the students from the two
communities. In minutes from Parent Community Collaboration Day (October, 2007)
participants rated “communities fighting communities- Kailua vs. Nalo mentality,” as one
of the top five challenges facing Kailua High School. This data demonstrates how the
socially constructed differences between students from Kailua verses Waimanalo are
perpetuated and used to justify conflict on campus.
The ethnic composition of KHS over the three years that the study took place was
relatively stable. Native Hawaiians/Part Hawaiians compromised approximately 51
percent of the student body. Twenty – two percent of the students were of Asian descent
(Japanese, Filipino, Chinese, Korean, Indo-Chinese), thirteen percent Caucasian, and
Hispanics/Latinos represented two percent. In general the school can be characterized as
multicultural, but as the U.S. Proximity Census 2000 showed, the school has more than
twice the State’s average (23.33%) of Native Hawaiian and Pacific Islander population.
In 2000, the U.S. Census data listed the median household income of the entire
school community to be $57, 623 as compared to the State of Hawaii’s average of $49,
820 and at the same time the at – risk population3 in the school community was 4.5%,
more than double the State of Hawaii’s average of 2.1%. Over the course of the study
approximately 45%4 of the students received free and reduced lunch. While,
academically the students demonstrated increased performance on the Hawaii State
Assessment (HSA), given to 10th graders statewide every spring. It was in the 2006-07,
during the third year of this study that KHS met Adequate Yearly Progress under the No
Child Left Behind Act.
Social issues reflected in the KHS community over the course of this study were
homelessness, spouse and child abuse, substance abuse, domestic violence,
discrimination, poverty, teen pregnancies and crime. Economic/political problems, a
reduced tourist industry affected by international political crises and failing markets,
national and local scandals and limited resources available for public education also
impacted students at KHS directly and indirectly over the course of the study. These
descriptors and the others provided in this section may have impacted the study’s
findings, but more importantly provide some insight into the lives of the student
participants.
Methods
The methods used for this study were qualitative because of the need to “obtain
the intricate details about phenomena such as feelings, thought processes, and emotions”
expressed in both the students’ writing and oral discussions, that otherwise would be
“difficult to extract or learn about through more conventional research methods” (Strauss
& Corbin, 1998). A grounded theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967) approach was applied as
data was collected, analyzed and then more data was collected to “fill out, refine, and
An “At – risk,” school aged child is defined as an individual, age four to nineteen, and living with his/her
mother, who is not a high school graduate; single, divorced or separated; and subsisting below the poverty
level.
4
Students who receive free and reduced lunches increased from 27% in the 1995 –96-school year to a high
of 45% in the 2003-04 school year. The increase in the number of students applying and receiving free or
reduced lunch is directly related to the school’s concerted effort for all students to apply regardless of
income.
3
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check the emerging conceptual categories” (Charmaz, 2005, pp. 508). Grounded theory
helps researchers “remain close to their studied worlds” in the hope that they will develop
an “integrated set of theoretical concepts from their empirical materials that not only
synthesize and interpret them but also show processual relationships” (Charmaz, 2005, p.
508). In this study qualitative (Patton, 2003; Creswell, 2007), constructivist, grounded
theory methods (Bryant & Charmaz, 2007; Charmaz, 2005; 2006) were used to develop
thematic qualitative outcomes about the curriculum’s impact and to generate a theory
about adolescent identity exploration in a multicultural community context.
Participants
The student participants were selected based on their voluntary or involuntary
enrollment in ethnic studies at KHS during the 2004-2005 SY (school year), the 20052006 SY, and the 2006-2007 SY. Out of the population who was enrolled in ethnic
studies during each of those school years, it was the students who were randomly placed
into one of my class sections, and not those of the second ethnic studies teacher, who
ultimately became eligible for participation. The most important factor in selecting
research participants was the students’ and their parents’ (if they were under 18) consent
to participate. Consent and assent forms were distributed to, and collected from each of
the students enrolled in my ethnic studies classes. At the end of the three school years
spanning this study, eighty-nine out of one hundred and thirty seven students agreed to
participate in the research project. The following table outlines and describes the details
of this selection process.
Year One Pilot
(2004- 2005)








Ten out of eleven gave
consent to participate (but
two essays were lost). N=8
Voluntary
½ elective credit provided
After school
Ages: fourteen to eighteen.
Mixed grade level.
Heterogeneously grouped in
regards to academic ability.
Seven females/three males
Year Two
(Senior Elective, 2005 - 2006)








Fifty – five out of one
hundred and seven gave
consent to participate (but
eight out of the fifty-five did
not turn in essays). N=47
Voluntary
½ social studies elective
needed for graduation.
Regular school day.
Ages: sixteen to eighteen.
Primarily twelfth grade.
Heterogeneously grouped in
regards to academic ability.
Thirty-four females/twentyone males








Year Three
(Ninth Grade Requirement,
2006- 2007):
Thirty-four out of thirty – six
gave consent participate.
N=34
Students were assigned to the
course by counselors
½ social studies credit
needed for graduation.
Regular school day.
Ages: fourteen to eighteen.
Primarily ninth grade (eight
seniors).
Heterogeneously grouped in
regards to academic ability.
Eight females/twenty-two
males
Figure 2. Year-by-year participant information
Role of the Researcher
My role in this study was dynamic. I was a participant observer who studied the
impact of a curriculum that I co-authored, taught, reflected on, revised, and eventually
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created a formal program of research for. Patton (2002) writes, “the participant observer
employs multiple and overlapping data collection strategies: being fully engaged in
experiencing the setting (participation) while at the same time observing and talking with
other participants about whatever is happening” (pp. 265 – 266). Juggling all of these
roles, and studying my own backyard, as Creswell (2007) would say, had benefits and
limitations (p. 122).
Data Sources
There are three sources of data in this study. The primary data were the eightynine, student-written “identity narratives.” Students who participated in ethnic studies at
Kailua High School from 2005 – 2008 produced these narratives at the end of unit three
of the curriculum. Considered “elicited text” (Charmaz, 2006), the social context
(Charmaz, 2006, p. 40) or narrative reality (Gubrium & Holstein, 2009) in which the
identity narratives were created required that I collect additional data. This second set of
data was made up of my personal memos, written before, during, and after the collection
of the eighty-nine identity narratives. In total, there were seventy-five pages of these
memos. The third and final source of data, which was secondary to the study, included
other forms of student work (journal entries, course worksheets, and student handouts),
and video recorded class discussions.
Procedures for Collecting Data
For each year that I taught ethnic studies (2005-2006, 2006-2007, 2007-2008),
IRB approval was granted and permission to participate was obtained by both students
and their guardians. The following table gives an organized account of my procedures for
collecting data over the three years that the study progressed.
Year One
I wrote:
 Reflective
journals
 Observational
notes
 Analytic
memos
I collected and
photo copied:
 All student
work from
ethnic studies
assignments
Year Two
I continued to write:
 Reflective journals
 Observational notes
 Analytic memos
Year Three
I continued to write:
 Reflective journals
 Observational notes
 Analytic memos
I collected, photo copied,
organized and catalogued:
 All student work from
ethnic studies
assignments
I continued to collect, photo copy, organize and
catalogue:
 All student work from ethnic studies
assignments
I identified the students’
identity narratives as
essential data.
I video recorded:
 All ethnic
studies class
discussions
I video recorded, copied,
organized and catalogued:
 All ethnic studies class
discussions
I kept all of this
I kept all of this data in a
With the identity narratives I:
 Created special binders of the students’ work
organized by year
 Assigned each with a number and pseudo name
(a key was made and locked away)
 Eliminated all identifying information
 Commissioned a transcriber to put them into
electronic format
I video recorded, copied, organized and catalogued:
 All ethnic studies class discussions
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data in a secure
location.
secure location.
I kept all of this data in a secure location.
Figure 3. Procedures for collecting data
Procedures for Analyzing Data
Qualitative methods, characteristic of a constructivist approach to grounded theory
(Charmaz, 2006) were used to analyze the data. This analysis progressed through four
distinct phases. The following table gives an organized account of the specific procedures
used for analyzing data in this study.
Phase One
Characterized by:
teacher assessments
 Teacher
assessment of
identity narratives
using ethnic
studies course
rubrics
 Analysis of all
eighty-nine
identity narratives
using ethnic
studies course
objectives
 Conceptualization
of initial
qualitative labels
 Memos
Phase Two
Characterized by:
reorganization and opencoding
 Initial coding of each
identity narrative to
produce eighty-nine
“summative lists”
 Reorganization of
summative lists into four
categories (Ethnicity,
Place, Gender, Year in
School) and sub-categories
within each of the four
categories
 Open-coding between and
within sub-categories
 Some sub-categories
dropped
 Resulted in one set of
initial codes for the
between category analysis
and ten sets of initial
codes for within category
analysis
 Memos
Phase Three
Characterized by: axial and
theoretical coding
 Axial and theoretical
coding were used to
refine the initial codes
developed during
Phase Two
 Help from a critical
friend was employed
 Resulted in three
distinct sets of findings
(Identity Mosaics, A
Summary of the
Qualitative Data
Analysis, Pedagogical
Impact of the
Curriculum-Based
Identity Intervention
 Student quotes were
found to support the
qualitative themes
under each set of
findings
 Memos
Phase Four
Characterized
by: writing
 Writing up
the findings
and referring
to my
analytic
memos
helped to
refine the
qualitative
findings
 Conclusions
and
theoretical
models
resulted
from the
writing
process
Figure 4. Procedures for analyzing data
Findings
The results of this study provided many valuable insights into what happens when
a teacher uses a philosopher’s pedagogy to inform her practice. In general, the findings
demonstrated how a philosopher’s pedagogy created a supportive and caring social
environment in which higher-level thinking and meaningful inquiry flourished. More
specifically, because this study was set within the context of ethnic studies at Kailua High
School, examples of the philosopher’s pedagogy related to self-concept exploration were
used to demonstrate its impact.
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Throughout the students’ identity narratives, there were frequent references to
very specific aspects of the ethnic studies curriculum that the students found to be helpful
to their social, cognitive, and emotional development. These comments, about the
pedagogical impact of the ethnic studies curriculum, were not prompted (by me, the
teacher/researcher), and at no time did I formally ask the students to evaluate their
learning process. Instead, on their own accord, the students wrote about the curriculum as
a part of their identity narrative. Quotes from their writing were highlighted and
reorganized to show, from a students’ perspective how the philosopher’s pedagogy aided
in engaging their learning on a profoundly deep level.
Concluding his identity narrative, Nick (2007) wrote, “I now believe that it is
important as an individual to develop and discover you self-concept, and that ethnic
studies is an excellent tool in that search.” He was not alone, in fact most of the students
participating in this study commented directly on the impact of the curriculum on their
exploration process. April wrote, “Ethnic studies has gotten me to focus on my identity
and my background from a cultural perspective. It has gotten me to look at myself from a
different point of view to see what is important and what has made me, me” (April,
2007). Kahala explained, “ethnic studies is to enlighten us about the different types of
people that live all around us and it is a good learning experience to also find out about
our own culture as well” (Kahala, 2007). To many of the students, their experience with
the third unit of ethnic studies was meaningful, helpful, and definitely worth their while.
As Marcus summarized at the end of his identity narrative,
Coming into ethnic studies class was out of nowhere. I really didn’t know anything about
this class, I haven’t even heard of before. I thought would be a “cruise” class at first…it
is a class where history is not just studied from the dominant race or gender point of
view. At first I thought I wouldn’t really care about this class, but this class made me
think beyond what I know about my self. Now I think the things that represent my selfconcept the most are my family & friends, my culture verses my community, and how I
changed (Marcus, 2008).
Each having a different take on the course’s impact, when reviewing the identity
narratives as a whole, it was apparent that there were specific pedagogies that impacted
the students’ quest for self-discovery.
Additional student quotes were broken down into two main themes. First, the
students explained how the seven-part inquiry process had an impact on their learning
experience. Second, the students commented on the importance of learning within a
philosophical community of inquiry. Sub-themes were used for further organization.
Pedagogical Impact of the Curriculum in Student Voices
Themes
Sub-Themes
The Seven-Part Inquiry Process
Questioning and Information Gathering
Analyzing, Thesis Construction, and Writing
A Philosophical Community of Inquiry
Reflection
Figure 5. Summary of the pedagogical impact of the curriculum-based identity
intervention
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The Seven-Part Inquiry Process
To begin with, many of the students saw the “Seven Part-Inquiry Process” as
having an overall important impact. Kirsty (2007) explained, the “process helps you to
better define yourself… Using the historical inquiry process has also helped me
remember things” (Kirsty, 2007). Other students elaborated on this comment.
One of them was Orion (2007). Orion (2007) made sure to highlight the good
things about having a project in school that related to an investigation into his selfconcept. He wrote,
Now I'm a senior in Kailua High School's Ethnic Studies Class, a class that helps us learn
through other perspectives of society other than the middle age white man. It is definitely
an interesting class. One thing that I was interested about was the idea of identity and
self-concept. I always thought that identity and self- concept was focused more in
psychology. These concepts are actually proving to be meaningful in my life, because
they are basically what I have been living by, without ever realizing it until now. My
race/ethnicity, my values of diversity, and being a local boy in Hawaii have shaped my
self-concept. In turn my self-concept has shaped my life (Orion, 2007).
In this quote Orion highlights how his learning had become “meaningful.” Other students
agreed.
At the end of his narrative, Dayton (2007) described how he planned to use what
he learned further down the road in his life. He explained,
In conclusion, this lesson in ethnic studies [the self-concept Historical Inquiry project]
has really made me step back, look at my life and realize who I truly am and not be
ashamed of that. I have learned not to be someone I’m not, and take pride in where I’m
from. I also learned to be aware of other peoples’ self-concept and not be so judgmental
of other people because I do not know what has happened in their life that made them the
way they are today. I will use what I have learned here to maybe help my friends figure
out there self concepts and maybe this would end a lot of problems we have. I will also
try and go out into our community through programs like the safes school task force to
better my community and my state to make Hawaii a true paradise.
Committed to teaching his friends about the process used the course, Dayton’s (2007)
quote shows how the students saw the philosopher’s pedagogy as applying to life outside
the classroom.
Another student who commented on the benefit of the process was Gina (2008).
I have learned a lot about myself and to be proud about the person I am by going through
this [self-concept Historical Inquiry] process. I think that if I show that I'm proud of
whom I am and my ethnic background then everyone will start to feel the same.
Hopefully if everyone looks back to their history of where they come from, they will be
more respectful of who they are and where they're from. When people learn more about
each other, it might decrease racism in the world and help better everyone's future. That
means less wars and hatred amongst each other.
Gina’s comment is particularly encouraging. In a traditional ethnic studies class students
come to see the course as a study of the other, far removed from the study of oneself.
Gina left her experience in ethnic studies at Kailua High School with an alternative
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conclusion. Her comment beautifully expressed how understanding of others is inherently
linked to understanding ourselves.
To further explain how the philosopher’s pedagogy produced these types of
student outcomes it is important to hear what they had to say about each step of the
process individually. This began with the students’ impressions of the questioning and
information gathering part of the project. It was followed by a description of how the
students viewed analyzing, thesis construction, and writing as an important part of the
curriculum as well.
Questioning and information gathering
The first two steps of the inquiry process required students to: 1) generate Good
Thinker’s Tool Kit questions (Jackson, 2001) about themselves based on the fifty four
ethnic studies terms; and 2) to gather information in an effort to find possible answers to
their questions. About the questioning phase of the process Marcus (2008) wrote, “this
hard essay made me think of questions I would never have thought about. And with this it
gave me a deeper understanding of who I am.” This shows how the types of questions
that the students were required to ask (inferential and philosophically-based) set the tone
for the entire project. Linked to their questions was the students’ task of gathering
information.
The students were asked to take three different approaches to answering their
questions: introspection, interviewing, and analysis of primary documents. Although
many students were observed using the process of introspection, Kent (2008) actually
commented on it in his essay. He wrote, “by doing this paper I have introspected and
remembered many events that creates my self-concept and only now I can look even
deeper and understand my self-better” (Kent, 2008). At the end of his narrative Kent had
revised his self-concept and was proud of his new self-knowledge.
In addition to introspection there were a number of comments on the benefits of
interviewing. Deb (2008) explained how interviewing and introspection went hand in
hand. She wrote, “This investigation into myself has started off with me saying 'I don't
know who I really am.’ But now my understanding has evolved to a point where I believe
that I may understand my self-concept. Well, just enough to write this essay about it.
After I went through deep self-thinking and tons of interviews, I have came up with the
things that make up my self-concept” (Deb, 2008). Going on further to explain how the
gathering of interview data worked, she wrote, “existing in this world for 14 years and
having two to three weeks of discovering my self-concept was the hardest thing that I
have ever done. I have learned that it is not mostly me that is answering my questions but
other people who have watched my actions. I looked more into perception than I usually
do. I had never really gone this deep about figuring my self-concept out” (Deb, 2008).
Thinking sophisticatedly about the importance of point of view in the interview process,
Deb’s comments illustrate the level of engagement, and the quality of thinking
experienced by students in this process.
In relation to Deb’s insights, many of the students highlighted the people they
interviewed and the value of the information that they received from their interviewees.
Michelle (2008) wrote, “After interviewing my Mom, and Dad, I seem to have found out
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a lot of information about my family's past, and myself. Some examples of my selfconcept are my family and our religion, my ancestry, and my culture and ethnicities.”
With similar comments (Lani (2007) explained how interviewing her grandfather
helped her to build knowledge about her ethnic background.
My ethnic groups are a big part of my identity. There are three major parts that make up
my ethnicities, African American, Native American, and Portuguese. I know that being
African American plays a big role in me concept. Talking to my grandfather showed me a
lot about my ancestry. During this investigation I found out that my ancestors were freed
slaves. When I was younger I didn't realize that all my ethnicities make me a whole and I
didn't portray myself as being African American. People could never tell that I was black
by looking at me. I was shame because I thought people would look at me differently.
Some reasons why thought people would look at me differently is because of all the
negativity that certain, people have towards, black people. One day I was with my friend
and they were talking about some encounter they had with a black person, and they were
saying some bad things about African, Americans, and hearing these things and thinking
to myself, “what If they knew I was black?” Would they not say these things or if I told
them- would the apologize? What would their reactions be? I always did wonder these
things. By self reflecting and going to research about my ethnicities made me open up
about being black. Also, made me realize it’s who I am and it shouldn't matter how
people see me or judge me.
Interviewing her grandfather, and thinking philosophically became a powerful tool for
self-transformation for Lani. At the end of her narrative she expressed overcoming the
negative feelings that she had harbored about identifying as Black. There were other
students who benefited from the interviewing.
Eli wrote about soliciting information from his friends.
This project has forced me to actually go back and look at my life. While taking notes for
this project, I asked different friends a certain question: How do you perceive me? Most
people gave me answers, which I thought they would give me... easy going, Chinese,
animated... But one friend I asked gave a different set of answers. Overly self-conscious,
little self-confidence, love to make others laugh... I was a little insulted at first, but then
as I looked at myself...that's really how I am. That friend, whom I consider to be my best
friend... saw through my bullshit and was able to see who I really am...Even I wasn't able
to do that. I'm trying to change those parts of me, but who knows what will happen. I
think what this project has taught me the most, is that experience shapes who you are.
The poor man is rich with experience and the rich man is still in poverty. I'm going to
continue to strive to be a better individual, and enrich both my life and those around me
(Eli, 2007).
Evidence from quotes like Eli’s confirms that the philosopher’s pedagogy provided the
necessary structures for meaningful identity exploration in the context of a regular school
day. This is what student engagement has the potential to look like in our public schools.
Analyzing, thesis construction, and writing
In addition to the first two steps of the seven-step inquiry process the students also
reported on the benefits of steps 3) analysis and thesis construction; and 5) writing. To
begin with, in Nick’s (2007) identity narrative, he elaborated on the benefits of analysis.
He wrote,
15
What makes a person who they are? What identifies a person and makes them an
individual within society? These are questions that an individual has to answer by
analyzing themselves and coming to conclusions based not only on how they see
themselves, but also how others see him or her. Through my own self-analysis, I found
that being Japanese, with its cultural and racial ties defines a significant part of who I am.
Facing discrimination both in my past and present helped shape who I am today. I also
found that having a lack of religion has also had a significant impact on how I see myself.
In truth, our identities are made up of millions of factors. There are however certain
elements defined within ethnic studies, that play, or have played, the most important and
influential roles in our lives and our identities. Even though playing clarinet is only a
hobby for me, it none-the-less plays a significant role in my identity (Nick, 2007).
Nick’s comments illustrate how the students linked the analysis process to the
conclusions that were drawn at the end of their identity exploration.
Working to fit these conclusions into a coherent thesis statement was also an
important step in the students’ thinking. Marcus (2008) wrote, “when reviewing
everything, it made me think twice trying to figure out my self-concept, using only three
[main points in the thesis statement].” Requiring the students to draw a conclusion, based
on the evidence they had gathered, thesis writing was a powerful tool for helping the
students commit to an identity that they could write about in their narrative.
Next, writing up their research, and building in examples to prove their thesis
statement also helped the students to progress their thinking about themselves. Becki
(2007) said, “I realized while writing this that me being Mexican and doing things I think
are normal around my family and how I was brought up with them both tie in to the racist
remarks that I make about other people make. This helped me to see why I see things the
way I do why I think the way I think. Everything linked from one thing to another. It was
crazy and actually worth writing.”
Chad also drew conclusions while writing his narrative.
I could have been like some of the other people in our class and just complained about
the names I'm called and how I'm treated because of it. I could have talked about my race
and how racist people are, but I didn't. This reflection essay's purpose is to discover what
really shapes who you are, not what bothers you. I don't let those things that bother me
influence me because I know they are just stereotypes and are coming from people who
don’ t know what the hell they are talking about. I keep my mind open and try to bypass
all of the racial ideologies and lies that people come up with; to what, describe
differences between us. The truth is, I know I will be a better person if I don't let that
stuff bother me and just focus on the really important things in life. Like many of the
things I have learned in this class, this has shown me a new perspective of life and made
me a better more informed person. I really value this class and feel that out of all the
classes I have had this year, this is by far the class that has made me reflect on who I am
and persuaded me to change and better my life (Chad, 2008).
Chad’s quote, and the others included in this section of the findings clearly demonstrate
the degree to which a philosopher’s pedagogy cultivated student engagement and
produced meaningful student outcomes. Each of the pedagogical decisions, outlined in
the seven-step inquiry process helped to lead to lead to these results. In addition, to these
seven learning steps the students explained that doing the project in the context of a
philosophical community of inquiry was also important.
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A Philosophical Community of Inquiry
A philosophical (Jackson, 2001) community of inquiry (see a personal,
constructivist, and collaborative approach to self-study, Beck, C., Freese, A., Kosnick, C.,
2004) was the second part of the philosopher’s pedagogy that had a significant impact on
the students’ learning. In Rick’s (2008) identity narrative he wrote about the importance
of exploring himself within a community of other learners who were doing the same. “In
my ethnic studies class they’re [the other students in my class are] helping me define who
I am. I want to know more about my grandparents and how they influenced my life. I
know that my grandfather & father were in the military. I am in JROTC; I want to know
if their background will have an impact on my decision whether or not to join the
military. I also want to know my home culture makes me who I am. Rick’s comment
demonstrates how the students came to see the very personal process of identity
exploration as profoundly social. . Laying out very specific examples of what he wants to
learn, within this community of inquiry it is evident that in the eyes of Rick his identity
exploration depended on the feedback from his classmates.
In addition to Rick, there were other students who expressed the benefits of
conducting their “self-search” within a community of their peers. Christian (2008) used
one of his early experiences in the class to frame his entire identity narrative. He wrote,
In the beginning of this Ethnic Studies class, it was one of the first times I became aware
of what it feels like to be discriminated. We were going around the circle talking about
ethnicity and one of my classmates said to me, “I thought you were Asian.” This bothered
me because he assumed that I was just Asian when in my own mind I was thinking of
myself as Hawaiian. Right at that moment I realized it hurts to be discriminated by other
people. I understand his mistake because other people might think I'm just Asian by the
way I look, but what they don't know is that I have other ethnic backgrounds. Other then
being Chinese and Filipino I'm also Hawaiian and Portuguese -my self - concept is more
diverse than others might think (Christian, 2008).
Coming from a mixed-ethnic background, Christian’s experience within the community
of inquiry awakened him to the complexity involved in exploring his identity. Wrestling
with these issues head on within the parameters of an intellectually safe classroom
environment, Christian used the experience with his peers as a starting point for
discussion about his identity. Engaging in open and honest dialogue, Christian worked
through his experience and at the end of his identity exploration process was able to come
to greater clarity about how he chooses to identify himself. This probably would have not
happened if the students were seated in rows and learning on their own.
Deb (2008) elaborated on this finding by explaining how asking and answering
questions within her community of inquiry was beneficial to her identity exploration
process. She wrote, “For example, I was asked [by one of my classmates] if I did
anything based on my home-culture and I said no. This person then asked me where my
family emigrated from and I said that I have no idea. Well, this example may not have
told much but for me it seemed really weird to answer all these questions without even
knowing the answer and I believe that if I found out maybe I could try doing things based
on some of my home-culture” (Deb, 2008). Interacting with her peers, bouncing
questions off one another during class time, helped Deb realize particular aspects of her
identity that she wished she had known more about. It forced her to become reflective,
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and then go out into the world and gather more information. Having this type of peer
interaction, within an intellectually safe (Jackson, 2001) community of inquiry (Lipman,
1991; Brown & Campione, 1990; 1994; Palinscar, 1998; and Samaras et. al, 2008)
promoted meaningful self-growth in many of the students.
Reflection
Contributing to the community of inquiry were the reflective exercises that helped
to make the students experience with one another philosophically rich. Throughout the
project, mini self-reflection exercises were set up to get the students to think on their
own, and then to debrief their writing via dialogue with their peers. One of these
exercises required the students to do a free write at the beginning of the project. Kehau
(2008) explains,
Before the class started their introspection and interviews to find examples of their selfconcept from the perspective of ethnic studies we all were asked to free write what we
believed our identity was. My thoughts were pretty negative. I didn’t know what I was
supposed to say in this paper and didn’t believe that anything I would say could tell
anyone who I really am. However, after making questions using the ethnic studies terms
it was easier to understand how this project could help me get a better understanding of
who I am. Some examples of my self-concept are being raised in the military, community
of diverse cultures and how other people perceive me changes the way I view myself
(Kehau, 2008).
Starting out the project with very little to say, and not much to share with her classmates
Kehau was able to measure her growth through the tool of self-reflection. At the end of
the identity exploration process Kehau came closer to articulating her identity and
benefited from having a starting point from which she could see the gains in her selfknowledge.
Lani (2007) also commented on the utility of self-reflection throughout the
project.
Researching and investigating really showed me who I am and I like it. Through this
investigation I found out that I contradict myself. By self-reflecting I noticed that I say
people shouldn’t judge people, but here I am judging people. Another example that
shows I contradict myself is when I say that I am diverse but then that I am also prejudice
towards other ethnicities. I think that me, myself makes me prejudice. Maybe If I hung
out with those certain ethnicities and got to know them better, then I wouldn't be
judgmental towards them. I think that I have grown a lot through this investigation (Lani,
2007).
Reinforcing the skill of self-reflection, and sharing these reflections within a
philosophical community of inquiry, the ethnic studies curriculum was clearly a
powerful. The students learned more about themselves and they became increasingly
tolerant of their diverse peers.
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Discussion
The field of ethnic studies is a relatively new in the scope of American academia.
Growing out of the 1960’s civil rights movement, ethnic studies courses are part of a
formal program of study, which center on the concept of ethnicity, and aim to promote
social justice (Dewey, 1916; Freire, 1970; Nieto, 1996; Oakes and Lipton, 1999; Adams,
Bell, & Griffin, 2007). Most ethnic studies teachers work hard to expose their students to
the history of minority groups in the United States and they aspire to build tolerance
between peoples. The data in this study demonstrates that using a philosopher’s pedagogy
to teach ethnic studies provided my students with the academic structures necessary for
reaching this lofty second goal.
By applying the philosopher’s pedagogy to the context of teaching a public high
school ethnic studies course I was able to cultivate, in my students, a critical stance
towards social studies. Nelson and Pang (2006) write, “the dual focus, study of the
human condition and examination of controversy, makes social studies the ideal location
for study of racism and prejudice. Social studies, in its best forms, use ideas and
information from a variety of disciplines to understand and evaluate conceptions of race
and ethnicity” (p. 125). By employing the five conditions of the philosopher’s pedagogy
to the content of ethnic studies, the Kailua High School ethnic studies classes became the
hotbed for radical thinking and community transformation that is sought out by politically
active forms of multicultural (Banks, 1996; 1997a; 1997b; 2002; & 2006; Nieto, 1996),
social justice (Dewey, 1916; Freire, 1970; Nieto, 1996; Oakes and Lipton, 1999; Adams,
Bell, & Griffin, 2007), and culturally responsive (Gay, 2000; Castagno & Brayboy, 2008)
educators.
Banks (1997) frequently calls on educators to make their classrooms
transformative, and full of social action.
This approach changes the basic assumptions of the curriculum and enables students to
view concepts, issues, themes and problems from several ethnic perspectives and points
of view…[it] requires students to make decisions and take actions related to the concept,
issue or problem they have studied (Banks, 1997, p. 24).
The philosopher’s pedagogy made this possible at Kailua High School. Ethnic studies
was not a passive discipline, it was relevant to the lives of our students. Pedagogically,
traditional power structures in the classroom were broken down. The social construction
of knowledge was encouraged through student-centered class discussions and
individualized inquiries, which required students to apply the concepts they were learning
about to the changing world they live in. Taking on the characteristics of a socially just
multicultural education, students in ethnic studies were not only required to
intellectualize about the class topics but were also expected to make personal and
systematic changes to unequal power structures as they experienced them in their own
lives. This is what philosopher’s pedagogy did the public high school classroom where I
teach. Imagine what it could do in yours.
The philosopher’s pedagogy can be applied to any content area. I have used it to
teach a variety of other subjects in social studies and have observed teachers applying it
to disciplines such as Language Arts, Mathematics, and Science. The philosopher’s
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pedagogy is flexible, and as the student voices in this article demonstrate, it offers a
meaningful option for high school reform.
A Grounded Philosophy of Education
Philosophy for Children started as an idea, for the “future revision of education”
(Lipman, 2008, p. 53). Today it is a thriving catalyst for school reform all over the world.
Located at the University of Hawaii, Manoa the p4c Hawaii center is a vital and growing
part of the P4C revolution.
p4c Hawaii is dedicated to preparing, supporting and sustaining educators,
researchers and students who engage or are interested in engaging in p4c worldwide. The
work I have done over the past ten years has helped me to ground my contributions to the
p4c Hawaii movement in the voices of my students. I have learned from them that p4c
Hawaii does make our schools better. When teachers incorporate the four pillars of p4c
Hawaii (Community, Inquiry, Philosophy, and Reflection) into their classroom pedagogy
engagement happens. Students want to learn, teachers enjoy teaching, classrooms become
intellectually safe communities of inquiry, schools thrive, and education lives up to its
potential for making our world a better place.
Works Cited
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