Evidence for Jesus and Parallel Pagan "Crucified Saviors"
Examined
Pagan Parallel "Saviors" Examined
Adonis | Attis | Baal | Bacchus | Balder | Beddru | Devatat | Dionysos | Hermes | Horus | Krishna |
Mithras | Orpheus | Osiris | Tammuz | Thor | Zoroaster
see also Part 2: The Evidence
for Jesus
The World's Sixteen Crucified
Saviors?
Dying and Rising Gods?
The "Parallel Pagan" Gods (17
listed above)
Conclusion: Christianity versus
Pagan "Mystery" Religions
Sources and Links
This is a detailed response to the
claim that there are many parallel
pagan gods and "crucified saviors"
that rival Christianity's founder
Jesus Christ. All the pagan names
linked above appear in a scrolling
background graphic of the DVD
"The God Who Wasn't There"
produced by amateur filmmaker
and former fundamentalist Brian
Flemming.
The DVD makes two major antiChristian assertions: (1) Jesus of
Nazareth didn't exist as a person in
history (also called "mythicism"); and (2) the events of Christ's life in the Gospels were
copied from "previous saviors" of non-Christian pagan religions. This article (Part 1) will
answer the second claim; Part 2 will answer the first on historicity and the reliability of the
New Testament. As a Catholic, those are the claims that interest me and matter to historical
Christianity. Flemming's commentary dealing with his past Protestant fundamentalism,
dispensationalism (the "Rapture"), Mel Gibson's bloody Passion of the Christ, statements
from evangelical pentecostal preachers and the so-called "Religious/Christian right" while
sometimes interesting, are irrelevant to historical Christianty, so I will ignore those.
Overlaying the background graphic is a scrolling list of "Some Attributes of Previous
Saviors":
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Born of virgin on December 25;
Stars appeared at their births;
visited by Magi from the east;
turned water into wine;
healed the sick;
cast out demons;
performed miracles;
transfigured before followers;
rode donkeys into the city;
betrayed for 30 pieces of silver;
celebrated communal meal with bread and wine;
which represented the savior's flesh and blood;
killed on a cross or tree;
descended into hell;
resurrected on third day;
ascended into heaven;
to forever sit beside Father God and become Divine Judge.
The argument is that since these same things are reported about deities of rival religions
that pre-date the Christian religion (we'll see below that few if any even make such claims),
therefore the New Testament and historical Christianity simply "copied" these elements
from the non-Christian pagan religions. Other sources that make this argument are the
infamous 19th century "freethought" tome The World's Sixteen Crucified Saviors by
Kersey Graves (discussed below) and The Christ Conspiracy (1999) by Acharya S both
published by Adventures Unlimited Press (who also has books on UFOs and the "Lost
City" of Atlantis).
In this article we'll examine nine general criteria for Christian parallels and put a green
check ( for Yes) or red x (
for No) or question mark ( for unknown) where
appropriate. I've combined a few of Flemming's "attributes" into one ("performed
miracles"), and ignored others ("rode donkeys into the city") since they are not as crucial,
or there is no evidence for them in "previous saviors." The December 25th date is not in the
Gospels and was adopted later by the Church (see a brief history of Christmas and Santa
Claus) so I'll ignore that one as well.
I'll try to be as fair and objective as possible using standard scholarly sources (see my
sources and links below). There is not an attempt in Part 1 to prove the validity of miracles
or the historicity of these gods (although see Part 2: The Evidence for Jesus). This is
merely reporting what the historical sources and religious documentation actually state
about these pagan gods, religions, and myths. So for Jesus Christ from the New Testament
we have the following :
Virgin Born?
A "Son of God" ?
A Savior?
Performed miracles?
Communal Meal of Bread/Wine?
Crucified?
Resurrected?
Ascended / Descended ?
Divine Judge?
Yes.
Yes.
Yes.
Yes.
Yes.
Yes.
Yes.
Yes.
Yes.
The prominent three "parallel pagan" gods appear to be Dionysos (spelled Dionysis or
Dionysus in the DVD), Mithras, and Osiris so I want to pay special attention to these
three. They are mentioned in short interview clips with unsuspecting Christians leaving a
Billy Graham crusade. "Have you heard of Osiris, or Mithras, or Dionysos?" (hear MP3
clip) with the common answer being "No" since most Christians, indeed your average
person off the street, and even most well-read skeptics and atheists are unfamiliar with
Greek, Roman, Persian or Egyptian religions and deities. So the argument goes: All of
these gods and religions are based on myths, fables, or legends; Jesus is on par with
Dionysos, Mithras, and Osiris.
If one has taken a mythology or comparative religions or humanities class these gods
would be talked about. However, the information on them is readily available in any
scholarly encyclopedia. My main source is going to be the multi-volume The Encyclopedia
of Religion (1987) edited by Mircea Eliade (see also the 2005, second edition edited by
Lindsay Jones). Please visit your local public or university library for the relevant
scholarship; it's probably best to avoid web sites at this point when you need historically
accurate material produced by reputable scholars. In this "information age" where
everything and anything is available with the click of a mouse, including extremely bad
and bogus "research," one needs to check sources and credentials very carefully to separate
the "wheat" from the "chaff" (Matt 3:12; Luke 3:17). To repeat what skeptic Richard
Carrier says in the DVD:
"You'll have someone make up a fake quote, or misrepresent a document, misrepresent the
evidence. Then they'll put it on a web site, or put it in a book that's published by what people think
is a respectable publisher. And then hundreds, thousands of Christians will read this and believe it
because they assume, well this guy wouldn't lie. He wouldn't have made this stuff up. And so they
go and repeat it. And so you get the lie repeated many times, mostly by people who aren't lying,
who really do think it's true but just didn't check." (Richard Carrier from "The God Who Wasn't
There" DVD)
Unfortunately for Brian Flemming and his DVD, I've checked. And I wish more people
would.
The World's Sixteen Crucified Saviors?
This "parallel pagan" argument or "copycat" thesis is found on a number of web sites
critical of Christianity (mainly hyper-skeptical or atheist sites), and several Christian
apologetics responses are available as well (see sources and links below). One of the early
"sources" of this argument is the 19th century pseudo-historical work of Kersey Graves
The World's Sixteen Crucified Saviors (35 pagan gods or religious leaders are listed in
chapter 1, several of them overlapping Flemming's list) :
"These have all received divine honors, have nearly all been worshiped as Gods, or sons of God;
were mostly incarnated as Christs, Saviors, Messiahs, or Mediators; not a few of them were
reputedly born of virgins; some of them filling a character almost identical with that ascribed by the
Christian's bible to Jesus Christ; many of them, like him, are reported to have been crucified; and
all of them, taken together, furnish a prototype and parallel for nearly every important incident and
wonder-inciting miracle, doctrine and precept recorded in the New Testament, of the Christian's
Savior. Surely, with so many Saviors the world cannot, or should not, be lost." (Kersey Graves,
chapter 1 "Rival Claims of the Saviors" also here)
Apparently Kersey Graves himself accepted the historicity of Jesus Christ (unlike
Flemming's DVD); he was not a strict "mythicist":
"....Graves's hypothesis [is] that these various godmen were all 'historical personages' who
patterned themselves after this archetype...." and "....[Graves] was an evermerist, i.e. one who
believes that these various crucified saviors and godmen were 'real people' who were deified with
fairytales and myths added to their biographies. He was therefore not a mythicist...." (pages 1, 7 of
The World's Sixteen Crucified Saviors, in the forward by Acharya S from the Adventures Unlimited
Press edition, 2001; see also his chapter 15 "The Saviors are Real Personages").
It should be noted that professional skeptic and historian Richard Carrier (featured in
Flemming's DVD) has disavowed Kersey Graves as a reliable source and doesn't think
much of the "parallel pagan" gods in Flemming's list. The supposed "parallels" either postdate Christianity's founding, or there is no good historical evidence in support of the
"copycat" idea, or the "parallel" is simply mistaken. (Carrier suggests two more promising
candidates -- Inanna or Ishtar of the Sumerians, and Zalmoxis of the Thracians -- not
mentioned by Flemming).
"The World's Sixteen Crucified Saviors: Or Christianity Before Christ is unreliable, but no
comprehensive critique exists. Most scholars immediately recognize many of his findings as
unsupported and dismiss Graves as useless. After all, a scholar who rarely cites a source isn't
useful to have as a reference even if he is right....In general, even when the evidence is real, it
often only appears many years after Christianity began, and thus might be evidence of diffusion in
the other direction." (Richard Carrier, Kersey Graves and the World's Sixteen Crucified Saviors)
Brian Flemming has agreed "Kersey Graves is full of crap" (see Beddru) and says he
will produce a "second edition" of the DVD with the unreliable material and errors
removed. While Flemming rejects the idea his DVD has anything to do with Kersey
Graves' book, nevertheless the pagan parallel thesis is the same: "Just like the other savior
gods of the time, Paul's Christ Jesus died, rose, and ascended all in a mythical realm."
(Flemming from "The God Who Wasn't There" DVD, followed by a quote from Hebrews
8:4 which will be discussed in Part 2). And Robert Price from the DVD: "There are other
similar savior figures in the same neighborhood, at the same time in history: Mithras,
Attis, Adonis, Osiris, Tammuz, and so forth. And nobody thinks that these characters are
anything but mythical. And their stories are so similar, most of them in fact having some
kind of resurrection or another...."
TOP
Dying and Rising Gods?
The assertion made by skeptics is that the story of Jesus found in the New Testament is
patterned after the alleged "dying and rising gods" of antiquity that existed long before
Christianity. This view became popular among scholars during the so-called "history of
religions" school at the turn of the 20th century. The category of "dying and rising gods,"
along with the pattern of its mythic and ritual associations, received its earliest full
formulation in the influential work of James G. Frazer The Golden Bough (1st edition 1890
in two volumes, 2nd edition 1900 in three volumes, 3rd edition in 12 volumes, 1906-1915,
with an abridged one-volume edition published in 1922). This theme was repeated by other
scholars of mythology such as Joseph Campbell who edited Pagan and Christian
Mysteries (1955), and his more famous The Hero with a Thousand Faces (originally 1949),
whose views were made popular through a 1988 PBS series "The Power of Myth"
interviews with Bill Moyers. However, on the "dying and rising gods" motif the
Encyclopedia of Religion (1987) concludes:
"The category of dying and rising gods, once a major topic of scholarly investigation, must now be
understood to have been largely a misnomer based on imaginative reconstructions and
exceedingly late or highly ambiguous texts....In most cases, the decipherment and interpretation of
texts in the language native to the deity's cult has led to questions as to the applicability of the
category. The majority of evidence for Near Eastern dying and rising deities occurs in Greek and
Latin texts of late antiquity, usually post-Christian in date." ("Dying and Rising Gods", volume 4,
pages 521, 522 article by Jonathan Z. Smith, from The Encyclopedia of Religion, edited by Mircea
Eliade, emphasis added)
Smith is emphatic: "Some of these divine figures simply disappear, some disappear only to
return again in the near or distant future; some disappear and reappear with monotonous
frequency. All the deities that have been identified as belonging to the class of dying and
rising deities can be subsumed under the two larger classes of disappearing deities or dying
deities. In the first case, the deities return but have not died; in the second case, the gods
die but do not return. There is no unambiguous instance in the history of religions of a
dying and rising deity." (volume 4, page 521-522, emphasis added)
Boyd/Eddy state in The Jesus Legend: "While the claim that aspects of the Christian view
of Jesus parallel, even are indebted to, ancient pagan legends and myths has a long history,
it gained prominence with the birth of the history of religions school
(Religionsgeschichtliche Schule) in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries....The
history of religions school was extremely popular in academic circles for several decades,
but owing to trenchant critiques by such scholars as Samuel Cheetham, H.A.A. Kennedy, J.
Gresham Machen, A.D. Nock, Bruce Metzger, and Gunter Wagner, it eventually fell out of
fashion." (The Jesus Legend: A Case for the Historical Reliability of the Synoptic Jesus
Tradition [Baker Academic, 2007], pages 134,136).
Although the category was largely abandoned by most reputable scholars and historians by
the mid-20th century, there are exceptions. Tryggve N. D. Mettinger of Lund University in
Sweden, wrote a recent (2001) scholarly critique challenging the modern consensus and
attempts to "resurrect" the dying and rising theme. He nonetheless admits:
"There is now what amounts to a scholarly consensus against the appropriateness of the concept
[of dying and rising gods]. Those who still think differently are looked upon as residual members of
an almost extinct species....The situation during the last half of the century was thus one when it
seemed fairly clear that there were no ideas of resurrection connected with Dumuzi / Tammuz, and
that the ideas of a resurrection in connection with Adonis are very late. The references to a
resurrection of Adonis have been dated mainly to the Christian Era....Frazer's category was broad
and all encompassing. To Frazer, Osiris, Tammuz, Adonis, and Attis were all deities of the same
basic type, manifesting the yearly decay and revival of life. He explicitly identified Tammuz and
Adonis. The category of dying and rising deities as propagated by Frazer can no longer be upheld."
(T.N.D. Mettinger, The Riddle of Resurrection: "Dying and Rising Gods" in the Ancient Near East
[2001], page 7, 40, 41)
The category is still revived among the hyper-skeptical and "freethought" community
(sometimes in the reckless non-scholarly form of Kersey Graves, sometimes in the revised
James G. Frazer The Golden Bough form) as a supposed valid argument against historical
Christianity. Evangelical author Ronald Nash has a book-length reply to these claims titled
The Gospel and The Greeks: Did the New Testament Borrow from Pagan Thought? (P &
R, 1992, 2003 2nd edition). Nash examines in detail Hellenistic philosophy, the mystery
religions, and Gnosticism and their relationship to early Christianity. He concludes:
"Was first-century Christianity a syncretistic religion? Was early Christianity a synthesis of ideas
and practices borrowed from different sources, some of them pagan? To the extent that key words
like dependence, influence, accommodation, and borrowed are understood in a strong sense, my
answer to this question will be an unequivocal no." (Ronald Nash, page 10)
In chapters 7 through 11 he examines the various Greco-Roman mystery religions and such
pagan deities as Demeter, Dionysos / Bacchus, Orpheus, Isis / Osiris, Cybele / Attis,
Mithra, Mithraism, and Zoroastrianism, etc. along with their supposed influence on the
Christian sacraments and essential Christian beliefs (the Incarnation, life, death, and
resurrection of Jesus Christ). I highly recommend this book as a thorough Christian reply
to the "parallel pagan" argument or "copycat" thesis. For a summary, see my Conclusion:
Christianity versus Pagan "Mystery" Religions.
Below are the various pagan gods on Flemming's list with information about their places of
origin, their births, their lives, circumstances surrounding their deaths (if applicable) and
their supposed "resurrections" or "ascensions" (if applicable). The mythological character
of these pagan gods and religions will be contrasted with the historical character of
Christianity and Christ in Part 2: The Evidence for Jesus.
For more critiques of the DVD and its claims about the Gospels, St. Paul, early
Christianity, and the historical Jesus, see Mike Licona's Review of "The God Who Wasn't
There" and the sources and links below.
see also Part 2: The Evidence for Jesus
TOP
The "Parallel Pagan" Gods
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Adonis
Attis (and Cybele)
Baal
Bacchus
Balder
Beddru
Devatat
Dionysos
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Hermes
Horus
Krishna (or Krsna)
Mithras
Orpheus
Osiris
Tammuz (or Dumuzi)
Thor
Zoroaster
Adonis
In classical studies, Adonis has been interpreted as a Greek symbol of the seasonality of
vegetable life, the death of plants during cold, and their revival during spring. Despite an
original Semitic provenance, there is no native mythology; what we know depends on later
Greek, Roman, and Christian interpretations. There are two major forms of the myth: the
"Panyasisian" form, and the more familiar "Ovidian" form.
The first form knows only of a quarrel between two goddesses, Aphrodite and Persephone,
for the affections of the infant Adonis. The extant myth depicts Adonis being born from an
incestuous union between Cinyras and his daughter Smyrna, who is turned into a myrrh
tree from which Adonis is born. Zeus or Calliope decrees Adonis should spend part of the
year in the upper-world with Aphrodite, and part in the lower-world with Persephone. This
tradition of "bilocation" has no suggestion of death and rebirth, and the first form lacks an
account of Adonis' death.
The second form has Adonis dying in a field of lettuce, by Ares disguised as a boar, and his
commemoration by Aphrodite in a flower that perpetuates his memory. There is no
suggestion of Adonis rising.
Combining the two forms, Adonis' alteration between the upper and lower worlds precedes
his death.
Only late texts, largely influenced by Christians, claim a subsequent day of celebration for
Adonis having been raised from the dead. The earliest of these is alleged to be the 2nd
century AD ambiguous report of Lucian (Syrian Goddess 6-7) that, on the "third day" of
the ritual, a statue of Adonis is "brought out into the light" and "addressed as if alive." The
practice of addressing a statue "as if alive" is no proof of belief in resurrection since it is a
common presupposition of any Mediterranean cultic activity that uses images. Lucian
reports after the "address" the women cut their hair as a sign of mourning.
Considerably later, Christian writers Origen (c. 3rd century AD) and Jerome (c. 4th and 5th
century AD), commenting on Ezekiel 8:14, and Cyril of Alexandria (c. 4th and 5th century
AD) and Procopius of Gaza (c. 5th and 6th century AD), commenting on Isaiah 18:1,
clearly report joyous festivities on the "third day" to celebrate Adonis (wrongly identified
as Tammuz) having been "raised from the dead." Whether this represents a later Christian
interpretation, or a late third- and fourth-century developed form of the Adonis cult as a
dying and rising mythology in imitation of the Christian story, cannot be determined.
The frequently cited "gardens of Adonis" (the kepoi) were proverbial illustrations of the
transitory nature of life and contain no hint of rebirth. There is no evidence for the
existence of any mysteries of Adonis where a member of the cult was identified with
Adonis or his fate.
(Sources: see "Adonis" and "Dying and Rising Gods" in The Encyclopedia of Religion, and
Drudgery Divine by Jonathan Z. Smith, page 101).
Virgin Born?
No, born from myrrh
tree.
A "Son of God" ?
No.
A Savior?
No.
Performed miracles?
No.
Communal Meal of Bread/Wine?
No.
Crucified?
Resurrected?
Ascended / Descended ?
Divine Judge?
TOP
No, death by boar in field
of lettuce.
No, later Christian
interpretation.
Yes, before death.
No.
Attis (and Cybele)
Cybele is a goddess, probably of Oriental origin, known
in the Greek world from approximately the seventh
century BC. She became known in Rome as Magna
Mater ("great mother of the gods") when her cult was
imported to the city at the end of the third century BC.
She is also known under variants Cybebe, Cybelis, and at
Locri in Italy, Cybala. Cybele was adopted as goddess by
the Phrygians who established her central cult in
Pessinus. From Phrygia the cult probably passed to
Sardis, capital of the kingdom of Lydia, and to Hellenic cities of Asia Minor and Europe.
In several places, the cult of Cybele was combined with that of Attis (sometimes spelled
Attys or Atys). In the picture (right), Cybele is depicted next to her lover Attis. She holds a
tympanum and a staff. Next to her is her sacred animal the lion. The fact that Attis is
shown as equal in size to Cybele suggests that in this case he was being worshipped as a
god in his own right. Usually, humans appear smaller than gods in such reliefs (c. 230 BC,
discovered in a Greek city in Italy, now in Venice Museo Archeologico).
From a distinction originally made by Hugo Hepding (1903), there is a "Lydian" version of
the Attis myth that is marked by his killing by a boar; and a "Phrygian" version that ends
with his castration and death. In the latter version, the sources in chronological order are
Ovid, Pausanias, and Arnobius. In the account by Ovid, Attis is a beautiful Phrygian youth
who consecrates himself to Cybele but then betrays her with the tree-nymph Sagaritis who
dies from blows inflicted on her tree by the goddess. Attis is driven mad and finally
emasculates himself. In one variation he is transformed into a pine-tree (Ovid in
Metamorph X vv. 103-105); in another he is killed by a pine tree (Ibis, vv. 505-506, see
Lancellotti, page 2, note 4). In the Arnobius version (Adv nat V, 5-7), Attis castrates
himself under a pine tree. In no sense is this a death by "crucifixion" on a pine-tree. Attis'
death is from loss of blood by his own castration.
In this longer Arnobius version, Attis' mother is Nana, the daughter of King Sangarius. She
became pregnant and conceived Attis from a pomegranate fruit produced from the blood of
Agdistis the fierce hunter, after an attempt by Liber to kill him. Endowed with
extraordinary beauty, Attis became the favorite of Cybele along with Agdistis, both who
were born from a huge rock called "Agdos." Attis dies from castration and the longer story
ends like this:
"The Mother of the gods also shed bitter tears from which an almond tree sprang up, and then she
took the sacred pine-tree, under which Attis had emasculated himself, into her den and joined the
funeral laments of Agdistis, smiting her breasts and walking around the trunk of the tree. Agdistis
begged Jupiter [or Zeus] to bring Attis back to life (revivisceret), but that was not permitted. Instead
the god agreed that the body of Attis should not putrefy, that his hair should always grow and that
his little finger should move for eternity. Satisfied with these favours, Agdistis consecrated the dead
man's body to Pessinous and honoured him with yearly ceremonies and priestly services."
(Lancellotti, page 4-5)
The complex mythology of Attis is irrelevant to the question of dying and rising deities. In
the Phrygian version, Attis is killed by castration; in the Lydian version, he is killed by a
boar. In neither case is there any question of his returning to life. Two late, post-Christian
theological reflections on the myth hint at rebirth: the allegory in Naassene Sermon and the
"euhemerist" account in Firmacus Maternus (third book of De errore profanarum
religionum from the fourth century AD), in which a pretended resurrection is mentioned,
although it is doubtful this ever played any part in the actual cult.
The attempts in the earlier scholarly literature to identify Attis as a "dying and rising deity"
depend not on the mythology but rather on the ritual of the five-day festival of Cybele on
March 22-27. Some scholars saw the "Day of Blood" (March 24) and the "Day of Joy"
(March 25) as an analogy of the Christian relationship between Good Friday to Easter
Sunday, and reasoned that if there was "mourning" on the first day, the object of the "joy"
on the following day must be Attis' "resurrection." But there is no evidence this is the case.
The Day of Joy is a late addition to what was once a three-day ritual in which the Day of
Blood was followed by a purificatory ritual and the return of the statue of the goddess to
the temple. The Day of Joy in the cult celebrated Cybele, not Attis.
The sole text that connects the Day of Joy with Attis is a fifth-century AD biography of
Isidore the Dialectician by the Neoplatonic philosopher Damascius who reports that Isidore
once had a dream in which he was Attis and the Day of Joy was celebrated in his honor!
The ritual of the taurobolium (bull slaying) came to be associated with this cult at least
from the second century AD and was frequently performed as an explicit homage to the
emperor. At least in the fourth century AD the taurobolium was a kind of "baptism"
performed with the blood of a sacrificed bull and described as such about 400 AD by
Prudentius in his Peristephanon (10.1006-1050).
Neither myth nor ritual offers any warrant for classifying Attis as a dying and rising deity.
There are some scholars who even question the "divine nature" of the original Phrygian
Attis until he was turned into a "god" much later when imported in Greece and Rome
(Lancellotti, page 10-11).
(Sources: see "Cybele" and "Dying and Rising Gods" in The Encyclopedia of Religion, and Attis:
Between Myth and History by Maria Lancellotti, pages 1 ff).
Virgin Born?
Yes, some accounts have
mother conceiving by a
fruit produced by blood.
A "Son of God" ?
No.
A Savior?
No.
Performed miracles?
No.
Communal Meal of Bread/Wine?
No.
Resurrected?
No, castrated under a
pine tree.
No, later Christian
interpretation.
Ascended / Descended ?
No.
Divine Judge?
No.
Crucified?
TOP
Baal
Baal was a Canaanite weather and fertility god whose cult was widespread throughout the
entire Levant area of the Middle East. By itself, baal means "lord" and can refer to other
gods, but when used without qualification it almost invariably refers to Baal-Hadad ("the
thundering one"). Baal has long been known from the Old Testament (see Numbers 25;
Judges 6; 1 Kings 18; Hosea 2; Jeremiah 9). Baal's home was said to be Mount Tsefon,
south of Antioch. His sister and consort was the goddess Anat. He is alternately the son of
El and the son of Dagan. To assume that Baal, Yamm, and Mot were the three vying sons
of El seems to fit better the context of the Baal myths. The cult of Baal took particular
forms based on geographic locales: Baal-Peor, Baal-Sidon, Baal-Gebal, and others. The
Old Testament expression "the baals" means Baal in these total manifestations.
The excavation of Canaanite cuneiform tablets from 1929 onward at Ugarit in Syria has
provided scholars with a wealth of cultic and mythological material in which Baal is
prominent. The most common epithets for Baal are "strong one," "rider on the clouds," and
"Baal Prince (of the earth) [ba'al zebul artsi]." Although there is some disagreement among
scholars as to how to sequence the relevant texts, the overriding theme of the Ugaritic
poems that fit into the cycle is Baal's quest for and attainment of kingship over the gods,
especially his rivals Yamm and Mot.
The story has Baal installing a window in his house and this allows Mot (which means
"death") to enter (cf. Jer 9:21). Baal and his entourage descend into the belly of the
underworld and the earth is now threatened with sterility because Baal can no longer bring
the rains. In a rage, Anat attacks Mot, cuts him up and sows him in the fields. The death of
Mot allows Baal to revive and bring back fertility. The encounter between Baal and Mot
explains mythologically the agricultural cycles of fertility and sterility.
The late Bronze Age texts of Ras Shamra narrate the descent into the underworld of Aliyan
Baal ("the one who prevails; the lord") and his apparent return. Unfortunately, the order of
incidents in several texts is uncertain, and there are several gaps in the narrative. In the
major narrative cycle, Baal is challenged by Mot, ruler of the underworld, to descend into
his realm. After some initial hesitation, and then copulating with a cow, Baal accepts the
challenge and goes down to the lower realm, where he is said to be "as if dead." After a
gap of forty lines, Baal is reported to have died. Anat descends and recovers his corpse,
which is properly buried, and a successor to Baal is appointed. Anat seeks out and kills
Mot. After another forty-line gap, El declares, based on a symbolic dream, that Baal still
lives. After another gap, Baal is described as being in combat with a group of deities. Much
depends on the order of incidents. The text appears to be one of descent to the underworld
and return -- Baal is "as if he is dead" and he then appears to be alive.
In another even more fragmentary cycle, Baal-Hadad goes off to capture a group of
monsters, but they pursue him. In order to escape, he hides out in a bog where he lays sick
for seven years during which the earth is parched and without growth. Hadad's brothers
eventually find and rescue him. This is a "disappearing-reappearing" narrative since there
is no suggestion of "death and resurrection."
There is no evidence that any of the events in these texts were ritually reenacted. Nor is
there any suggestion of an annual cycle of death and rebirth. The question whether Aliyan
Baal is a "dying and rising deity" must remain sub judice (Latin for "under judgment").
(Sources: see "Baal" and "Dying and Rising Gods" in The Encyclopedia of Religion).
Virgin Born?
A "Son of God" ?
No.
Yes, son of El or son of
Dagan.
A Savior?
No.
Performed miracles?
No.
Communal Meal of Bread/Wine?
No.
Crucified?
No.
Resurrected?
Ascended / Descended ?
Divine Judge?
Too many gaps in the
narrative.
Yes, descends to the
underworld.
No.
TOP
Bacchus (see Dionysos)
Bacchus is simply a Roman/Latin name for the Greek god Dionysos (or Dionysus).
Apparently Brian Flemming didn't know this since he includes both in his list. This is an
attempt to have two "parallel pagan" gods for the price of one. See Dionysos for a
complete evaluation of this deity and the comparison to Christ and Christianity.
TOP
Balder
Again, I'm not going to spend any time on the next three since they are either irrelevant, or
there is very little documentation on these pagan gods.
Balder is a Norse deity, a son of Odin, whose mythology dates to the end of the 11th or
12th century AD:
"The cult of Balder is mentioned only in the late, unhistorical Fridthjof’s Saga; from this source we
learn that he had a great sanctuary, Baldershagi, somewhere in Sogn." (from Norse Mythology,
Myths of the Gods, page 13 on Balder, by Peter Andreas Munch, translated from Norwegian by
Sigurd Bernhard Hustvedt, NY: The American-Scandinavian Foundation, 1926)
"The composition of Icelandic literature in general and the writing of sagas began about the close of
the eleventh century. Soon after the complete introduction of Christianity in that country (A.D.
1000)." (from Viking Tales of the North, translated from the Icelandic by Rasmus B. Anderson,
A.M., Professor of Scandinavian Languages in the University of Wisconsin, and Honorary Member
of the Icelandic Literary Society, and "Tegnér’s Fridthjof’s Saga" translated into English by George
Stephens, Chicago: S.C. Griggs, London: Trubner, 1877)
The irrelevance to early Christianity is obvious. We have a case here of "who lost the keys
to the DeLorean" as apologist J.P. Holding muses (a reference to Back to the Future). Why
Flemming includes this in his list I do not know. Kersey Graves mentions Odin of the
Scandinavians (page 30), and Acharya S mentions Balder and Frey of Scandinavia in her
book (page 106) so this may be the source.
(Sources: see Norse Mythology: Legends of Gods and Heroes by Peter Andreas Munch, and the
Wikipedia article on Balder).
TOP
Beddru
Flemming has already admitted his mistake on this one. "Beddru of Japan" is found once in
Kersey Graves' book (page 30), and once in Acharya S (page 106) and there is no
documentation provided who this "god" was or is. It may be a corruption or variation of the
name "Buddha" (therefore perhaps Chinese or Indian in origin) but that is just speculation.
In an interview for the "Rational Response Squad" Flemming admits he should not have
included this one:
"You know one thing that I regret is that though the word Beddru, B-E-D-D-R-U, I never mentioned
anything about that figure in the movie. It's in a background graphic...where you can really see it.
And that's a mistake, that shouldn't be in there. What I did is I cut and pasted from a list of gods
that I was researching to find out were these true or were they not, and I should not have put that
one on the list. Kersey Graves appears to have made that up. And so people who say, you know,
'Kersey Graves is full of crap' and this Beddru thing, he only knows about it, it's probably false,
they're actually right. And I'm going to change that in the second edition of the DVD." (Hear
Flemming Admit Mistake MP3)
Thank you, Brian. We'll consider the case closed on Beddru.
TOP
Devatat (or Deva Tat)
The same goes for this one. The source is Kersey Graves (page 30, "Deva Tat, and
Sammonocadam of Siam") and Acharya S (page 106, "Codom and Deva Tat of Siam"). No
documentation is provided for "Deva Tat" or "Sammonocadam" or "Codom" of Siam. J.P.
Holding's article ("I Tawt I Taw a Deva Tat") suggests this may be another variation on the
name Buddha ("A seventh [set of names] is Datta, Dat-Alreya, That-Dalna, Date, Tat or
Tot, Deva-Tut or Deva-Twasta"). If Flemming means "Buddha" why not just say Buddha.
Apparently Kersey Graves and Acharya S think Deva Tat (and Beddru) is a distinct deity
from Buddha since they include both in their lists.
TOP
Dionysos (or Dionysus)
Dionysos (also spelled Dionysus, the name means
"celebration") is the Greek god of wine and of all liquid
elements in nature, including the sap in trees and the blood in
young animals. He is often pictured holding a wine cup
(kantharos) and wreathed with ivy (picture right), an
evergreen that symbolizes the rebirth of this "twice-born" son
of Zeus (or "Jupiter"). The youngest of the Olympian gods,
he is somewhat insecure about his divine identity because he
was conceived in the womb of a mortal woman, Semele.
Again, this is not a "virgin birth" since "Zeus had many
offspring....Zeus had numerous liaisons with both goddesses and mortals. He either raped
them, or used devious means to seduce the unsuspecting maidens." ("Zeus" in
Encyclopedia Mythica). Dionysos' semi-divine status may account for his consistent
interest in mortals and wine drinkers. There are several miracles involving Dionysos with
wine, growth miracles, and others (see the miracles of Dionysos or here).
The name of the god Dionysos first appears on a clay tablet from the Greek bronze age,
over three thousand years ago and is therefore our oldest living symbol. The earliest
surviving Dionysiac myth is in Homer: Adriadne is killed by Artemis "on the testimony of
Dionysos" (Odyssey 11.325). The first mention of Dionysos as embodying an abstract
principle is by the philosopher Herakleitos [or Heraclitus], who lived from the sixth into
the fifth century BC. When Christianity was establishing itself in the ancient
Mediterranean world, the cult of Dionysos was its most geographically widespread and
deeply rooted rival (Seaford, pages 3, 4, 76-77, 110).
As the god of masks, Dionysos appears in many forms, but he most loves to disguise
himself as a god of the city, posing as a political deity and expressing absolute power. His
political career begins in the seventh century BC on the island of Lesbos. Here he appears
alongside Zeus and Hera in the common sanctuary as the god who is an "eater of raw
flesh" (Alcaeus, Fragment 129). Dionysos is a god of contrasts who is at once the patron
god of civic drama and a god worshipped in the wilds of nature.
The wild side of Dionysos is often most visible, both in myth and in ritual, and may be
explained by his apparent origins in Phrygia (Near East) or Thebes (Greece), and his
connections with Thrace. He is a god of animal incarnations and transformations, and his
rites (orgia) included the tearing apart of animals (sparagmos) and eating them raw
(omophagia). Dionysos' subversive character is expressed in his rejection of the sacrificial
system of eating food cooked according to the proper order (roasted then boiled) in favor
of omophagia, the desire to eat raw flesh. The most extreme form of omophagia is
allelophagia, in which men devour one another, becoming like wild beasts and ferocious
animals. Such behavior allows them to escape from the human condition and get "outside
themselves" by imitating those animals least subject to domestication.
Dionysos can be found in two parts of Delphi: in the heights of mount Parnassus, where the
members of the Thyiads, the "Agitated Ones," gather every other year in the Corycian
cavern to honor him in the secret liturgy of the trieteris ("triennial festival"); and in the
sanctuary of the Pythia, in a tomb-cradle beside the golden statue of Apollo, where he
waits in mortal slumber until his servants come to wake him and where the "Pure Ones,"
the priests of Apollo, privately offer sacrifice to him.
Dionysos and Apollo are particularly joined in Orphic thought and its theogonic discourse,
which was wholly at variance with Hesiod's theology. In the succession of divine ages
described in Orphic theogony, Dionysos is at once the last ruler and the first. In the last age
he appears in the guise of a child who is lured by the Titans with toys -- a spinning top, a
devilish rhombus, and a mirror -- and then slaughtered and devoured after being first boiled
and then roasted. In being torn apart, scattered abroad, and broken into seven pieces,
Dionysos experiences for himself the effects of the utmost differentiation, in accord with
the process that began after the first age under the aegis of Phanes-Metis, another name for
Dionysos. Apollo buries the remains of Dionysos' murdered body at the foot of mount
Parnassus, shares the sovereignty of the oracle with the primordial power Night, and finally
becomes the Sun, the greatest of the gods even to Orpheus himself, rising to the summit of
Mount Pangaeus in Dionysos' Thracian kingdom.
The title Zagreus ("torn") refers to Dionysos' birth in which the Titans tore him limb from
limb when he was a baby. Apollo took the remains of his body and buried them next to the
tripod in his temple at Delphi. Athena saved his heart and took it to Zeus so Dionysos
could be re-born.
Richard Seaford in Dionysos (2006) summarizes the myth:
"On the prompting of Hera, the primeval deities known as Titans lure away the infant Dionysos by
means of a mirror and other objects, and tear him into pieces which they cook and taste. They are
punished by being blasted with the thunderbolt of Zeus. Dionysos is then restored to life from his
heart, which had been preserved by Athena. The smoke rising from the bodies of the blasted Titans
form a soot, from which is created humankind. This summarises one version of the story, which is
told in versions with differences in detail....The myth of his dismemberment at the hands of the
Titans, followed by his restoration to life, is (at least in part) a projection of the experience of the
mystic initiand...The result is that not just his death but also his restoration to life brings him closer
to us than are most other deities, and the same can be said even of the form of this death and
restoration, namely dismemberment (fragmentation) and return to wholeness..." (Seaford, page
111-112, 85)
In another version of the myth, Semele asks Zeus to grant an unspecified favor, and got
him to swear by the river Styx that he would grant it. Unable to break his oath, Zeus came
to her armed in his thunder and lightning, and Semele was destroyed. However, Zeus
rescued the unborn child from the mother's ashes and sewed the fetus in his thigh until he
was ready to be born. Thus Dionysos is sometimes called the "twice-born."
There are three ways in which Dionysos' death may be interpreted as derived from
mystery-cult:
1. the dismemberment of his enemy Pentheus expresses not just the futility of
resistance to the god but also the idea of the death of the initiand; the idea of
Dionysos as a savage killer (or "man-shatterer" anthroporraistes) on the
island of Tenedos probably derives from this function in mystery-cult;
2. a secret of mystery-cult was that dismemberment was to be followed by a
restoration to life, and this transition was projected onto the immortal
Dionysos;
3. this power of Dionysos over death and his positive role in the ritual makes
him a "savior" of his initiates in the next world (Seaford, page 76 ff).
The crude dismemberment myth can also be interpreted as riddling allegory:
a. the myth signifies the harvesting of grapes in order to make wine, with the
new life of Dionysos signifying that the vine then produces new fruit
(Diodorus 3.62.6-7); this interpretation may have been present in the actual
practice of drinking wine in the mystery-cult; or
b. a more philosophical and cosmological interpretation attributed to Plutarch
(Moralia 389a) to "theologians" that the dismemberment and reunification
of Dionysos is a reference to the alternation of multiplicity and unity in the
cosmos, a Stoic idea; or
c. various interpretations of the myth as an allegory referring to the human
soul (psuche) since (e.g. Herakleitos Fragment 36) the passage of the
immortal soul goes through a cycle of bodily death and birth which was a
doctrine of mystery-cult.
The transition from anxiety to joy is envisaged (e.g. Plato Laws 672b; Apollodorus
Bibliotheca 3.5.1) as the transition from mental fragmentation to mental wholeness
(Seaford, page 112 ff).
"...within the traditional mystic myth the dismemberment of Dionysos expresses first the imagined
bodily experience of the initiand, then his psychological experience, and then the state of soul
fragmented in the material world, as well as a transgression (by the Titans) comparable to [the
Christian concept] of 'original sin'...." (Seaford, page 118)
Dionysos is frequently associated with underworld deities and transforms the underworld.
On some of the dedicated terracotta plaques (pinakes) from Lokri in southern Italy,
Dionysos appears before the enthroned Persephone, queen of the underworld, or before her
and Hades enthroned together. In a description of the underworld reported by Plutarch
(Moralia 565-6), there is a very pleasant place like "Bacchic caves" with "bacchic revelry
and laughter and all kinds of festivity and delight. It was here, said the guide, that
Dionysos ascended and later brought up Semele." The Roman poet Horace (Odes 2.19.2932) imagines the fierce guardian of the underworld, the three-headed dog Cerberus, gently
fawning on the departing Dionysos. He was brought into relation (sometimes as lakchos)
with the chthonian goddesses of the Eluesinian mysteries, Demeter and Kore. The funerary
gold leaf found at Pelinna in Thessaly (late fourth century BC) instructs the dead to "say to
Persephone that Bakchios himself freed you." Dionysos is not the ruler of the underworld
but ensures the well-being of the initiate in the underworld. Dionysos' round trip to the
underworld is found in most detail in the plot of Aristophanes' Frogs.
In more than 150 cities of Asia Minor and the islands, Dionysos appears in the guide of
Bakcheios, the god of the bacchanals -- those who, like him, have become bakchoi. "Many
are those who carry thyrsi; few are the Bacchants" (Plato Phaedo 69c). To the initiate is
reserved the experience of frenzy and possession, seeing the god face-to-face and sharing
his madness and delirium.
In Ephesus, in the late sixth century BC, the philosopher Heraclitus denounced those who
prowl in the night, the "magi, Bacchants, and mystics." From the discoveries at Olbia on
the shores of the Black Sea, Dionysos first appears as the initiator in the sixth century, long
before a Scythian king had enrolled in the band of Bacchus (Greek Bakchos) in this same
city, where he was fond of going for aesthetic pleasure a la grecque ("in the style of the
Greeks") even to the extent of becoming a follower of Dionysos. This initiation was
already known to King Scylas (Herodotus 4.79). What Herodotus implies in his account of
Scylas going through with the initiation (telete) is stated clearly in Euripides The Bacchae
in the voice of Dionysos. The initation seems to denote an experience in which the
Bacchant comes face to face with his god; he becomes as much a Bacchus as is Dionysos.
The lord of the Bacchanalia refuses to reveal this experience to Pentheus; these are
unspeakable things (arreta) that non-Bacchants may not know (Herodotus 1.472). At
Cumae in the fifth century BC, a similar formula prohibited entry to a Greek cemetery
"save to those who have been initiated to Dionysos."
In connection with Dionysos the Initiate who, under the name of Mustes has a temple
between Tegea and Argos (Pausanias 8.54.5), we find esoteric practices and rules of
secrecy. Near Mantinea, in a great ancient chamber known as the megaron, the honey
companions (meliastai) worship Dionysos, a neighbor of Black Aphrodite (Pausanias
8.6.4). At Brysai, on the slopes of Mount Taigetos in Laconia, only women are permitted
to view the statue of Dionysos, ensconced in an open-air sanctuary, and the sacrifices they
perform are carried out in the greatest secrecy (Pausanias 3.20.3). Males are also excluded
on Lesbos, at Aigai, and on the island shores of the Atlantic described by Posidonius. The
privilege of experiencing a private, face-to-face encounter with Dionysos or of being truly
"possessed" by him is restricted to women. The Dionysian "union" is an individual
allegiance that rejects kingship or feudal ties and, in the fluid form of the private thiasos,
creates associations and communities independent of authority and outside control of the
state.
Dionysos is always the lord of dementia and of the ability to get outside oneself. Dionysos
is truly himself only in unyielding madness, when the mania creates, through murder, a
taint, a miasma, a sickness or pestilence. One must be cleansed of this stain and it is urgent
to escape the plague, for in it appears the contagious power of those who fall into madness,
which affects an entire town or even a whole country. In the mania of Dionysos is a taint
that the god himself experiences in the course of his life (Apollodorus, Library 3.5.1).
The worship of Dionysos with its formalized mythology, establishes itself within the
sphere of purification called for by the insanity that the "stranger" carries. Dionysos the
Purificator (Lysios) is the opposite side of the bacchanal, the god who leads men and
women astray in his frenzy. This "dual god" is shown by his pairs of neighboring temples,
at Thebes, Corinth, and Sicyon. The unclean madness that forms the basis of his cult is
always part of him, however disciplined and civilized Dionysos may seem in the pantheons
of cities unmindful of his fundamental wildness.
As for the similarities between the Dionysos cult and New Testament Christian faith,
Seaford notes in chapter 9 "Christianity" :
"Suffice it to say that although we know of no mystery-cult that reproduces exactly the same
configuration as the [apostle Paul's] doctrine, we do find in mystery-cult the ideas of the death and
rebirth of the initiand (e.g. Apuleius Metamorphoses 11.21), of the sufferings of the deity (e.g.
Athenagoras Supplication 32.1), of the identification of the initiand with deity, and of the initiands'
(transition to) salvation depending on their finding -- or the return to life of -- a deity (e.g. Lactantius
Divine Institutions 18.7; Firmucus Maternus On the Error of Profane Religions 2.9; 22.13)....Dionysos, like Jesus, was the son of the divine ruler of the world and a mortal mother,
appeared in human form among mortals, was killed and restored to life. Early Christian writers,
aware of the similarity between Christianity and mystery-cult, claim that the latter is a diabolical
imitation of the former.... (Seaford, page 123-124, 126)
Seaford also talks about the ancient and ubiquitous process of syncretism in the
Mediterranean area (where the Dionysos myth is also equated or associated with Osiris,
Cybele, Serapis, Dysares, Attis, Sabazios, Mithras, Hekate, Liber, Fufluns, page 128) but
states:
"Christianity, on the other hand, on the whole protected itself from such syncretism, albeit in part by
incorporating into itself elements of other religions. Any similarities or mutual influence -- in the
symbolic structure of ritual or belief -- between mystery-cult and Christianity should not blind us to
the profound difference in their ethics and organization. Unlike the (generally nameless) initiates of
Dionysos (or Mithras, etc), early 'Christians' were organized in regulated self-reproducing
communities. The specific identity of the church was thereby preserved, and this was a factor in the
eventually complete victory of Christianity over pagan mystery-cult....Christianity, an offshoot of
Judaism in a Hellenised world, triumphed by simultaneously adapting to that world and
nevertheless preserving its own organizational specificity. In doing so, it had to combat the rival
appeal of Dionysos (as well as of other cults) without being entirely immune to his influence."
(Seaford, page 129, 130)
(Sources: see "Dionysos" in The Encyclopedia of Religion, and Dionysos [2006] by Richard
Seaford, also "Semele" and "Zeus" in Encyclopedia Mythica).
Virgin Born?
A "Son of God" ?
A Savior?
Performed miracles?
Communal Meal of Bread/Wine?
Crucified?
Resurrected?
Ascended / Descended ?
Divine Judge?
No, born of a mortal
woman but this was not
a virgin birth since Zeus
literally "slept with
Semele secretly."
Yes, son of Zeus.
Yes.
Yes, miracles of wine,
growth, and others.
Yes, wine was frequently
involved with the cult.
No, ripped apart by the
Titans.
Restored to life from his
heart. Is this a
"resurrection" ?
Yes, descends to the
underworld.
No.
TOP
Hermes
Hermes is the son of Zeus and the nymph Maia, born in a cave on Mount Cyllene in
Arcadia. This not a "virgin birth" as Zeus is said to "impregnate" and "make love" with
"furtive passion." From a young age, Hermes was a skilled thief, lookout, nocturnal
prowler, and bringer of dreams (Homeric Hymn to Hermes 13-15). By noon on the day of
his birth, he was playing the lyre which he invented, and by evening he stole Apollo's herd
of sacred cows. Hermes' thieving reveals the god's precocity and explains the change in the
character of Apollo from shepherd to a god of prophecy and music. Thanks to Hermes'
thefts and tricks, various gods and heroes came out of battle victorious. Later he obtained
the caduceus, a magnificant and opulent wand that wards off misfortune and carries out
divine intentions. Apollo granted Hermes a kind of prophetic power known to the Fates.
Hermes' world is one of peace and frivolous delight. He likes neither deadly conflict nor
the honors it procures. As a shepherd, he loves high mountains and spacious pastures.
From his breath arise fertility and fecundity of flocks. A night god, Hermes guides souls
and protects travelers; it is he who silently pours "sleep" into the eyes of mortals. The lord
of roads, Hermes leads souls to the land of the dead. He alone can accomplish this task
because, like Hades, he is both trickery and darkness. Herald by day and night, Hermes
knows no frontiers. Like the lyre he created, his steps bring men gaiety, love, and gentle
sleep.
(Sources: see "Hermes" in The Encyclopedia of Religion and "Hermes" and "Maia" in Encyclopedia
Mythica).
Virgin Born?
A "Son of God" ?
A Savior?
Performed miracles?
No.
Yes, son of Zeus.
No.
Yes, created the lyre as
an infant, other tricks
and powers are noted.
Communal Meal of Bread/Wine?
No.
Crucified?
No.
Resurrected?
No.
Ascended / Descended ?
Divine Judge?
TOP
Horus
Yes, guides souls to the
underworld.
No.
In ancient Egypt several gods are known by this name, but the most
important was the son of Osiris and Isis, identified as king of Egypt.
Horus fought with Seth, and despite losing an eye, was successful in
avenging the death of his father Osiris, becoming his legitimate
successor. Osiris became king of the underworld, and Horus king of
the living. By the fifth dynasty (2498 - 2345 BC), the Horus-king also
became "son of Re" the sun god by personifying mythologically the
entire older genealogy of Horus as the goddess Hathor, or "house of
Horus" who was also the spouse of Re and mother of Horus.
Horus was usually represented as a falcon, and one view is as a sky
god whose outstretched wings filled the heavens; his sound eye was the sun, and injured
eye the moon. Another portrayal in the Late Period was as a human child suckling at the
breast of his mother, Isis. Some see a "pagan parallel" here with Catholic portrayals of the
Virgin Mary and Jesus, but mothers with children is common to all cultures, religious or
not. A Catholic Answers tract notes:
"....Fundamentalists [such as Jack Chick comic books, and Alexander Hislop's The Two Babylons]
have made much of the fact that Catholic art includes Madonna and Child images and that nonChristian art, all over the world, also frequently includes mother and child images. There is nothing
sinister in this. The fact is that, in every culture, there are mothers who hold their children!
Sometimes this gets represented in art, including religious art, and it especially is used when a
work of art is being done to show the motherhood of an individual. Mother-with child-images do not
need to be explained by a theory of diffusion from a common, pagan religious source....One need
look no further than the fact that mothers holding children is a universal feature of human
experience and a convenient way for artists to represent motherhood." (see "Is Catholicism
Pagan?")
The two principal cult leaders for the worship of Horus were at Bekhdet in the north where
very little survives, and at Idfu in the south, which has a large well-preserved temple dating
from the Ptolemaic period (c. 300 - 30 BC). The earlier myths involving Horus, as well as
the ritual performed there, are recorded at Idfu.
See "ALL ABOUT HORUS" for a more detailed article on Horus (in response to the
"Zeitgeist" movie).
(Sources: see "Horus" in The Encyclopedia of Religion).
Virgin Born?
A "Son of God" ?
A Savior?
Performed miracles?
Communal Meal of Bread/Wine?
No.
Yes, son of Osiris, later
son of Re.
No.
Yes, as a child, healing
magic.
No.
Crucified?
No.
Resurrected?
No.
Ascended / Descended ?
No.
Divine Judge?
No.
TOP
Krishna (or Krsna)
Krsna (Krishna) whose name means "black" or "dark"
stands alongside Rama in the Hindu pantheon as one of two
preeminent avataras of the great god Visnu. In a quote
from the Bhagavata Purana, "Krsna is God himself"
("Krsnas tu bhagavan svayam" 1.3.27), not merely a
portion or manifestation of the divine fullness. In the
devotion of contemporary Hindus, he more than any other
figure symbolizes divine love (prema), divine beauty
(rupa), and a quality of purposeless, playful, yet fascinating
action that bears a peculiarly divine stamp. In recent
centuries Krsna has been adored principally as a
mischievous child in the cowherd settlement (Vrndavana)
where he launches his earthly career as a matchless lover of
women and girls who dwell there. In earlier times, heroic
and didactic aspects of Krsna's personality have played a more forceful role in his
veneration.
The most important icon of Krsna as the divine lover becomes prevalent in Orissa and
Karnataka in the 12th and 13th centuries AD and later spreads throughout the subcontinent.
A second popular image shows Krsna taming the evil snake Kaliya (picture right) whose
presence had poisoned the Yamuna River upon whose waters all of Braj, humans and cattle
alike, depend. Child or adolescent, Krsna is always a thief of the heart.
Many scholars feel that Krsna and Visnu were originally two independent deities. It is
unclear when the two cults merged, but this certainly happened by the time of Visnu
Puranas (c. fifth and ninth centuries AD) which declares Krsna in both his pastoral and
royal roles to be an avatara of Visnu, although there are indications it is older. In the
considerably later Bhagavata Purana one has a comparable vision of Krsna's supremacy,
but this time the supremacy of Krsna Gopala is more at issue. Here the playful cowherd
dances with all the milkmaids (gopis) of Braj at once. This amorous dance is an image of
divinity and humanity identified in one another, an absorption made possible by intense
devotion (bhakti).
Krsna is worshipped in homes and temples throughout India and has become the
devotional focus of the Hare Krishnas movement (ISKCON) beyond Indian shores.
Worship consists of a series of eight daily darsans (ritual "viewings") in which the god
allows himself to be seen and worshipped in image form by his devotees. His clothing,
jewelry, and flower decorations may be altered many times during the course of a day, and
different forms of devotional song are sung as the god's daily cowherding routine is
symbolically observed. In the Braj country surrounding Mathura, which attracts pilgrims
from all over India in festival seasons, the ceremonial observances are amplified by dramas
in which Krsna makes himself available in an especially vivid manner to his devotees
through child actors. In Sanskrit aesthetic theory, drama is thought to comprehend all the
arts, and Krishna is frequently depicted in Indian art, dance, and music more than any other
god.
As to birth, Krsna was of the royal family of Mathura, and was the eighth son born to the
princess Devaki, and her husband Vasudeva. The previous seven sons were normal
conceptions and births, it was only the eighth that was miraculous.
"With our senses we can perceive some things, but not everything; for example, we can use our
eyes to see, but not to taste. Consequently, You are beyond perception by the senses. Although in
touch with the modes of material nature, You are unaffected by them. You are the prime factor in
everything, the all-pervading, undivided Supersoul. For You, therefore, there is no external or
internal. You never entered the womb of Devaki; rather, You existed there already." (Srimad
Bhagavatam 10.3.15-17)
Here we see the material vs. spiritual antithesis of Hinduism: Krsna "never entered the
womb of Devaki...." but the God was already there in her mind and heart.
And in a commentary on SB 10.2.16-18: "The word avivesa signifies that the Lord appeared
within the mind of Vasudeva. There was no need for a discharge of semen....the fully opulent
Supreme Personality of Godhead, who is all-auspicious for the entire universe, was transferred
from the mind of Vasudeva to the mind of Devaki. Devaki, having thus been initiated by Vasudeva,
became beautiful by carrying Lord Krsna, the original consciousness for everyone, the cause of all
causes, within the core of her heart, just as the east becomes beautiful by carrying the rising
moon....As indicated here by the word manastah, the Supreme Personality of Godhead was
transferred from the core of Vasudeva's mind or heart to the core of the heart of Devaki. We should
note carefully that the Lord was transferred to Devaki not by the ordinary way for a human being,
but by diksa, initiation....The Lord did not need to live within the womb of Devaki, for His presence
within the core of her heart was sufficient to carry Him. One is here forbidden to think that Krsna
was begotten by Vasudeva within the womb of Devaki and that she carried the child within her
womb." (see "Was Krishna born of a sexless birth?" -- also "The Story of Krishna" online at
www.SrimadBhagavatam.org )
This "miraculous birth" is very different from the Christian concept of the virginal
conception and Incarnation of Christ. According to the Bible, Jesus was Mary's first, Mary
indeed carried Jesus in her womb for nine months, and Mary was a virgin before and when
she gave birth. Catholics, Orthodox, and the original Protestants believe that Jesus also was
Mary's one and only son. But I will count this as a "virgin birth" for Krsna.
The long Indian epic-poem the Mahabharata (Book 16: Mausala Parva) has an account of
Krsna's "resurrection and ascension" to heaven witnessed by the hunter Jara who mistook
him for a deer. The relevant passage reads thus:
"Having restrained all his senses, speech, and mind, Krishna laid himself down in high Yoga. A
fierce hunter of the name of Jara then came there, desirous of deer. The hunter, mistaking
Keshava [Keshava and Keshav are alternate names for Lord Krishna from within Hindu tradition],
who was stretched on the earth in high Yoga, for a deer, pierced him at the heel with a shaft and
quickly came to that spot for capturing his prey. Coming up, Jara beheld a man dressed in yellow
robes, rapt in Yoga and endued with many arms. Regarding himself an offender, and filled with
fear, he touched the feet of Keshava. The high-souled one comforted him and then ascended
upwards, filling the entire welkin with splendour. When he reached Heaven, Vasava and the twin
Ashvinis and Rudra and the Adityas and the Vasus and the Viswedevas, and Munis and Siddhas
and many foremost ones among the Gandharvas, with the Apsaras, advanced to receive him.
Then, O king, the illustrious Narayana of fierce energy, the Creator and Destroyer of all, that
preceptor of Yoga, filling Heaven with his splendour, reached his own inconceivable region. Krishna
then met the deities and (celestial) Rishis and Charanas, O king, and the foremost ones among the
Gandharvas and many beautiful Apsaras and Siddhas and Saddhyas. All of them, bending in
humility, worshipped him. The deities all saluted him, O monarch, and many foremost of Munis and
Rishis worshipped him who was the Lord of all. The Gandharvas waited on him, hymning his
praises, and Indra also joyfully praised him."
The earliest testimony for the complete text of the Mahabharata dates to the first century
AD by the Greek sophist Dion Chrysostom, with portions dating to the 6th century BC or
earlier. There are also miracles, magical stories, or holy antics associated with Krsna as a
child and infant in this same epic poem.
(Sources: see "Krsna" in The Encyclopedia of Religion, and the Wikipedia articles on Krishna and
Mahabharata).
Virgin Born?
A "Son of God" ?
A Savior?
Performed miracles?
No.
Yes, magic as a child in
the Mahabharata.
Communal Meal of Bread/Wine?
No.
Crucified?
No.
Resurrected?
Ascended / Descended ?
Divine Judge?
TOP
Yes, but the 8th son of
Devaki.
No, an avatar or
incarnation of "God
himself"
Yes, in the epic
Mahabharata.
Yes, ascended to heaven
in same.
No.
Mithras (or Mithra)
Mithra (the word means "contract, covenant") is one of the
major deities of ancient Iran (Persia) along with Ahura
Mazda and Anahita, but one that later crossed the borders of
the Iranian world to become the supreme god of a mystery
religion popular throughout the Roman empire. In the
Avesta and Zoroastrian literature Mithra turns up
frequently. He is known from many sources: inscriptions of
the Achaemenids beginning with Artaxerxes II (404 - 359
BC); on coins of the Kushan empire he is named as Mioro and depicted as a solar deity; in
Parthian and Sogdian Manichaeism he is the tertius legatus or "messenger"; in Persian
Manichaeism he appears as the spiritus vivens ("spirit of life"). The testimony of Plutarch
in Life of Pompey is important in understanding the religion's development in Rome.
Plutarch's source is more ancient (perhaps Posidonius) so the Roman cult can perhaps be
traced to 100 BC. Statius in the Thebais (about 80 AD) describes an image of Mithra
Tauroctonus (the "bull-slayer" picture right) and attests to the arrival of the cult in Rome
itself. This was the beginning of the wide diffusion of Mithraism that occurred under the
Flavian emperors in the last quarter of the first century AD.
The Mithraic mysteries spread between the end of first century and the fourth century AD,
gradually dying out toward the end of that period. They spread throughout a great part of
the Roman empire: Rome and Ostia, Latium, southern Etruria, the Campania, and
Cisalpine Gaul in Italy; other sites include the main ports of Sicily; Austria and Germany
along the Rhine; the Danubian provinces; the valley of the Rhone and Aquitania in France;
Belgium; England in the London region; to a lesser extent in the Iberian Peninsula and
Macedonia; and in limited Mediterranean areas along the Asian and African coasts. For the
most part the evidence is archaeological, iconographic, and epigraphic. The greatest
scholar of Mithraism, Franz Cumont, attempted to reconstruct the religion's mythology,
theology, cosmology, eschatology and rites based on the numerous sculptural reliefs that
have been preserved.
Mithra is essentially a deity of light; he draws the sun with
rapid horses; he is the first to reach the summit of Mount
Hara at the center of the earth; he shines with his own light
in the morning and makes the many forms of the world
visible; he is a divinity both of light and salvation. In the
Iranian world he has a clear significance as a warrior god,
and has the traits of a divinity who ensures rain and
prosperity and protects cattle by providing it ample
pasturage. The nature of the Iranian god as one of
salvation can be inferred from myriad indications: in the
Parthian epoch there existed a great syncretic myth of the
Cosmocrator Redemptor, of which Mithra, born of a rock
or out of a cave, was the protagonist. His rock-birth, later celebrated on December 25, was
accompanied by special signs and luminous epiphanies taken as a symbol of royal
initiation.
"The literary sources here are few but unmistakable: Mithras was known as the rock-born god. The
inscriptions confirm this nomenclature: one even reads D(eo) O(omipotenti) S(oli) Invi(cto), Deo
Genitori, r(upe) n(ato), 'To the almighty God Sun invincible, generative god, born from the
rock'....Mithras also appears in the archaeological record as the rock-born god. Many images
represent the god growing out of a rock with both arms raised aloft....After the bull-slaying, the rockbirth is the most frequently represented event of the myth, either as a detail on reliefs or, quite
commonly, as a free-standing image." (Clauss, The Roman Cult of Mithras, page 62-63)
The Mithraeum was a kind of temple which served as a meeting place for followers of the
religion. It was a replica of a cave (spelaeum), partly underground, in which Mithra caught
the mystic bull and killed it. Built in a long rectangle, it had lateral brick benches where
participants could sit and gaze at the image of Mithra Tauroctonus ("bull-slayer") placed in
the special niche at the end of the cave. Water played a purificatory role in Mithraism, and
a natural or artificial spring had to be near every Mithraeum.
Mithraism was in fact a private cult, esoteric and initiatory in nature, and intended for only
the few. Though it professed universalism, the cult excluded women. It emerged in a
predominantly military environment so was practiced and spread primarily by the Roman
army. It was not only a soldier's religion since it appealed to other social and professional
groups, public officials, and those involved in commercial enterprises.
In the Roman cult, initiates progressed through seven levels: Corax ("raven"), Nymphus
("bride"), Miles ("soldier"), Leo ("lion"), Perses ("Persian"), Heliodromus ("courier of the
sun"), and Pater ("father"). Each grade was protected by a particular celestial body:
Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, the moon, the sun, and Saturn, respectively.
From the total body of evidence we can infer that Mithra's central act of killing the bull -in Zoroastrianism the work of Ahriman -- has a regenerative function: death produces new
life, rich and more fecund. Mithra, the god of light who has saved creation from the threat
of darkness, clasps the right hand of the Sun, and kneels before the Tauroctonus (bull).
Mithraists consecrated the alliance between Mithra and the Sun through a banquet, which
prefigured the ritual. Mithra reaches the heavens in the Sun's chariot. It is certainly this
image of Mithra that most moved and exalted the initiate, for it renewed hope in the
ascension of the soul beyond the planetary spheres all the way to aeternitas (in Roman
mythology, a personification of eternity).
Manfred Clauss in The Roman Cult of Mithras, chapter 14 "Mithras and Christ" discusses
the relationship between the two religions:
"...the entire discussion is largely unhistorical. To raise the issue of a competition between the two
religions is to assume that Christians and Mithraists had the same aims. Such a view exaggerates
the missionary zeal -- itself a Christian idea -- of the other mystery cults. None of them aimed to
become the sole legitimate religion of the Roman empire, because they offered an entirely
individual and personal salvation. The alternative 'Mithras or Christ?' is wrongly framed, because it
postulates a competitive situation which, in the eyes of Mithraists, simply did not exist....We should
not simply transpose Christian views and terms in this area onto other mystery cults. Most
of the parallels between Mithraism and Christianity are part of the common currency of all mystery
cults or can be traced back to common origins in the Graeco-oriental culture of the Hellenistic
world. The similarities do not at all suggest mutual influence....there are more substantial
parallels at the ritual level, particularly the ritual meal...." (Clauss, The Roman Cult of Mithras, page
168-169, emphasis added)
On the communion or ritual meal, which both St. Justin Martyr (1 Apology 66, c. 150 AD)
and Tertullian (c. 200 AD) recognized as similar to the Catholic Eucharist, Clauss
concludes:
"The Mithraists evidently believed that they were reborn through the consumption of bread and
wine. The food was of course not simply actual or literal food, but also food in the metaphorical
sense, which nourished souls after death: the meal was the guarantee of their ascension into the
undying light. In the case of these analogies, there can be no question of imitation in either
direction. The offering of bread and wine is known in virtually all ancient cultures, and the
meal as a means of binding the faithful together and uniting them to the deity was a feature
common to many religions. It represented one of the oldest means of manifesting unification with
the spiritual, and the appropriation of spiritual qualities....In the ritual meal, Mithras' victory over the
bull was celebrated and reproduced. There can be no doubt that the Christian apologists were quite
right about its importance for the cult of Mithras as a whole....The ritual meal was probably
simply a component of regular common meals. Such meals have always been an essential
part of religious assembly; eating and drinking together creates community and renders visible
the fact that those who take part are members of one and the same group." (Clauss, The Roman
Cult of Mithras, pages 109, 112-113, emphasis added)
The "bread and wine" (some sources suggest it was "bread and water" or water mixed with
wine) of the Mithraic meal was not considered the "body and blood" of God (Christ) as it is
in Catholic and Orthodox theology, the early Church Fathers, and the New Testament (1
Cor 10:16-17; 11:27-29; John 6:51ff; Matt 26:26ff). For the development of the Eucharist
doctrine in early Christian and Catholic theology, see This is My Body: Eucharist in the
Early Fathers.
(Sources: see "Mithra" and "Mithraism" in The Encyclopedia of Religion, and The Roman Cult of
Mithras: The God and his Mysteries by Manfred Clauss).
Virgin Born?
No, born from a rock.
A "Son of God" ?
No.
A Savior?
Performed miracles?
Communal Meal of Bread/Wine?
Crucified?
Yes, a divinity of light
and salvation.
No.
Yes, but was not
considered the "flesh and
blood" of God (Mithra).
No.
Resurrected?
Ascended / Descended ?
Divine Judge?
No.
Yes, ascends to heaven in
the Sun's chariot.
No.
TOP
Orpheus
Orpheus was a Thracian enchanter around which a religious
movement formed in the sixth century BC that modern historians call
Orphism. There are traditions concerning the birth, life, and descent
of Orpheus into the underworld; his singing among the Thracians;
and his tragic death where he is torn to pieces by a band of women.
The amulet of a "crucified Orpheus" (dated to the 3rd or 4th century
AD, picture right) is now considered a forgery (see below, Orpheus
and Greek Religion by Guthrie [2nd edition 1952, reprint 1993], page
265, note on page 278).
Orpheus, the citharist and enchanter, first appears around 570 BC on a small black-figured
vase. He is shown walking with a determined stride and nearly surrounded by two Sirens,
great angry birds with the heads of women. Before he becomes the founding hero of a new
religion, Orpheus is a "voice" like no other. Just as birds leave the sky and fish forsake the
sea at the sound of Orpheus' song, so too do Thracian warriors who come out of the forests.
In full Thracian or Oriential dress, the vases of southern Italy depict Orpheus as he
descends into the underworld, searches for his nymph wife Eurydice, or makes a daring
journey to the heart of the realm of Hades.
Plato summarized the Orphic way of life and its strict rules in the Laws: do not touch beef,
abstain from all meat, and offer the gods only cakes or fruit soaked in honey, for it is
impious and unclean to eat flesh and to stain with blood the altars of the gods. The Orphics
are renunciants and strive for saintliness. They devote themselves to techniques of
purification in order to separate and cut themselves off from the world and from all who
are subject to death and defilement. They seek to renounce completely the blood on altars,
the eating of any flesh, and in doing so reject the Greek state's religious system and its
differentiated gods.
The Orphic "gods" are bizarre. To begin, the Firstborn, the primal Generator and
Generatrix, is called variously Phanes, Metis, Protogonos, or Erikpaios. Descriptions of
this deity offer repeated affronts to the form of the human body: it has two pairs of eyes,
golden wings, the voice of a lion and a bull, and organs of both sexes. There is Zeus who
rules over the fifth generation of gods, and on the advice of Night, sends the Firstborn
straight to the pit of his belly. Thus he becomes a womb, the shell of an egg whose
dimensions are those of the All. In other tales this god marries his mother and impregnates
his daughter-wife, who is also his mother -- a double incest. The Orphic cosmogony and
theogony contains many baroque deities and polymorphic monsters. In the beginning was
the totality, the oneness of the All, the completeness of Phanes within the perfect sphere of
primordial Night. The succession of rulers passes from Phanes, via Night, to Ouranos and
Gaia, Kronos and Rhea, and finally to Zeus. Zeus, born of Rhea (Demeter), marries a
second Demeter, and later becomes husband of yet a third Demeter (Kore) who will give
birth to the infant Dionysos. That Dionysos, who was actually present in the Firstborn, will
institute the sixth and final generation of the gods.
Differentiation of the gods takes place first through sexual activity, then through marriage,
which works toward the separation of the divine powers. In recasting the gods of others,
Orphism gives a special meaning to the complicity of two rival powers: Dionysos and
Apollo, the two gods who sum up the whole of Greek polytheism. But Dionysos and
Apollo also meet and confront each other in the tragic biography of Orpheus, in particular
the indirect manner in which Orpheus is slain. Every day at dawn, Orpheus scales Mount
Pangaeus, the highest mountain in Thrace since he wishes to be the first to salute the Sun,
the "greatest of the gods" and to whom he gives the name Apollo. Dionysos is filled with
resentment at this daily ritual so he sends barbarian women (the Bassarai) to surround
Orpheus, seize, dismember, and tear him to pieces. The instruments of Orpheus' death are
women, the fiercest and wildest representations of the feminine gender since they appear
with skewers, axes, stones, and hooks on Attic vases between 480 and 430 BC. These are
women whom the voice of Orpheus is powerless to
seduce, tame, or restrain.
W.K.C. Guthrie of Cambridge discusses the
"amulet" or "seal" of a supposed "crucified
Orpheus" as follows:
"To this part of the inquiry belongs a mention of the
curious and much-discussed seal or amulet in Berlin.
The design on this seal [figure right] which is dated in
the third or fourth centuries A.D., shows a crucified man.
Above the cross are a crescent moon and seven stars,
and across and below it is the legend [Orpheus
Bacchus]. This has usually been supposed to be the
work of some Gnostic sect exhibiting a syncretism of
Orphic and Christian ideas. Just as Christ is to be seen
in Christian monuments with the attributes of Orpheus,
so here, by a tribute from the other side, Orpheus is represented in the attitude of Christ." (W.K.C.
Guthrie, Orpheus and Greek Religion, page 265)
First, the date of the amulet is to the third or fourth centuries AD of the Christian era.
Again, this is post-Christianity's founding, not pre-Christian. Second, the amulet may be
the work of a gnostic sect combining both Orphic and pseudo-Christian ideas, as a tribute
to Jesus' crucifixion. Third, an endnote in the 1952 second edition of Guthrie reads:
"In his review of this book in Gnomon, 1935, 476, Kern [German collector of the amulet] recants
and expresses himself convinced by the expert opinion of J. Reil and R. Zahn [journal named in
Greek] that the [Orpheus Bacchus] gem is a forgery." (Guthrie, page 278)
For more see the discussion in Guthrie, pages 261-271 on the relations of Orphism to
Christianity. There is no doubt the early Christians and all in classical Greece were
impressed by the personality and legends of Orpheus, as is attested in the early Christian
art of the Roman Catacombs (Guthrie, page 264). There are several examples of cryptoChristian symbolism in the first three centuries AD especially in sepulchral art and
inscriptions in Asia Minor (page 265). But "if there is borrowing by Christianity here, it is
from the general religious atmosphere of the age, not from the Orphics" and "of course all
resemblance ceases when we come to details" (pages 267, 268).
(Sources: see "Orpheus" in The Encyclopedia of Religion, and Orpheus and Greek Religion by
Guthrie, pages 261 ff).
Virgin Born?
No.
A "Son of God" ?
No.
A Savior?
No.
Performed miracles?
No.
Communal Meal of Bread/Wine?
No.
Crucified?
No, later gnostic tribute
or forgery.
Resurrected?
No.
Ascended / Descended ?
Divine Judge?
Yes, descends to the
underworld.
No.
TOP
Osiris
Osiris is the ancient Egyptian god of the dead and
"resurrection" who presided over the judgment of the soul. He
is the oldest son of Geb ("earth" personified) and Nout ("mother
of the gods" and goddess of the sky), the husband of Isis, whose
myth was one of the best known and whose cult was one of the
most widespread in pharaonic Egypt. The mythology of Osiris
is not preserved completely from an early date, but the
essentials are related by Plutarch in On Isis and Osiris (De Iside
et Osiride).
Osiris became ruler of the land, but was tricked and slain by his jealous brother, Seth.
According to the Greek version of the story, Typhon (Seth) had a beautiful coffin made to
Osiris' exact measurements, and with 72 conspirators at a banquet, promised it to the one
who would fit it. Each guest tried it for size, and Osiris was the one to fit exactly.
Immediately Seth and the conspirators nailed the lid shut, sealed the coffin in lead, and
threw it into the Nile. The coffin was eventually borne across the sea to Byblos, where Isis,
who had been continually searching for her husband, finally located it.
She returns the body to Egypt where Seth discovers it, cuts the corpse into pieces, and
scatters them throughout the country. Isis transforms herself into a kite, and with her sister
Nephthys, searches for and finds all the pieces (except the male member, which she
replicates), reconstitutes the body, and before embalming to give Osiris eternal life, she
revivifies it, couples with it, and thus conceives Horus. According to the principal version
of the story cited by Plutarch, Isis had already given birth to her son, but according to the
Egyptian Hymn to Osiris, she conceived him by the revivified corpse of her husband. Later
Horus avenges his father Osiris' death and succeeds him without completely destroying
Seth.
The popularity of the cult of Osiris is explained by the recurring cycle of kingship, with
each dead king becoming Osiris and being succeeded by his son, Horus. The cult was also
important because of its emphasis on the "resurrection" of the god and a blessed afterlife.
His true realm was not of this world, since he sat in perpetual rule over the dead. The
Coffin Texts and the Book of Going Forth by Day provides the knowledge necessary for
any individual to share in the afterlife of Osiris. This judgment is based on the protestations
of innocence by the individual and a weighing of the person's heart against the feather of
truth (maat). The "resurrection" of the god is also associated with fertility; pictures and
figures of the god sprouting grain have been found among funerary furnishings. A further
aspect of fertility is his identification with the flooding of the Nile River.
Jonathan Z. Smith in the article "Dying and Rising Gods" for the Encyclopedia of Religion
(1987) relates the myth like this: Osiris is murdered, his body is dismembered and
scattered. The pieces of his body are recovered and rejoined, and the god is rejuvenated.
However, he doesn't return to his former mode of existence but rather journeys to the
underworld where he becomes the powerful "lord of the dead." "In no sense can Osiris be
said to have 'risen' in the sense required by the dying and rising pattern; most certainly it
was never conceived as an annual event." The repeated formula "Rise up, you have not
died," whether applied to Osiris or a citizen of Egypt, signaled a new, permanent life in the
realm of the dead. Osiris was considered the mythical prototype for the distinctive
Egyptian process of mummification. The descriptions of the recovery and rejoining of the
pieces of his body are all elaborate parallels to funerary rituals: the vigil over the corpse,
the hymns of lamentation, the embalmment, washing and purification of the corpse,
dressing of the body, pouring out of libations, etc. The individual Egyptian dead became
identified with and addressed as "Osiris" (earliest in the Pyramid Texts 167a - 168a).
Iconographically, Osiris is always depicted in mummified form; he is a powerful god of the
potent dead. "In no sense can the dramatic myth of his death and reanimation be
harmonized to the pattern of dying and rising gods." (Smith, volume 4, page 524-525)
In an analysis of a debate on this topic, Richard Carrier says: "....I am not sure I understand
[the] longwinded focus on the Osiris myth in the first place. This is easily the least
persuasive parallel with Christianity among extant religions of the day. There are far more
convincing cases for a pagan belief in a physical resurrection." (see "Osiris and Pagan
Resurrection Myths: Assessing the Till-McFall Exchange")
Skeptic and classical historian Richard Carrier (featured in Flemming's DVD) says Osiris
minimally fits the "dying and rising god" pattern while religious scholar Jonathan Z. Smith
rejects that idea, and other scholars insist on calling Osiris not only a god of the dead, but a
"god of resurrection." Bojana Mojsov in Osiris: Death and Afterlife of a God (Oxford
Blackwell, 2005) explicitly calls him "God of the resurrection who presided over the
judgment of the soul." (page xvi-xvii).
(Sources: see "Osiris" and "Dying and Rising Gods" in The Encyclopedia of Religion, and Osiris:
Death and Afterlife of a God by Mojsov).
Virgin Born?
A "Son of God" ?
No.
Yes, if Geb is considered
a deity (Osiris is the
oldest son of Geb).
A Savior?
No.
Performed miracles?
No.
Communal Meal of Bread/Wine?
No.
Crucified?
No.
Resurrected?
Ascended / Descended ?
Divine Judge?
TOP
Tammuz (or Dumuzi)
Yes and No, depends how
you interpret
revivification. Scholars
disagree.
Yes, descends to the
underworld.
Yes, presided over
judgment of the soul.
Tammuz is the Akkadian name for Dumuzi, an ancient Sumerian god whose cult is attested
from 3500 BC to as late as the Middle Ages. A month was named after him, and its
Akkadian form was borrowed with other month names into the Jewish calendar. Dumuzi is
a type of "dying god" of fertility and vegetation, and into him merged a great number of
originally independent fertility deities. The syncretistic nature of Dumuzi shows in litanies
that formed part of the laments for him: they list as names Ninazu, Damu, Ningishzida,
Alla, Lugalshudi, Ishtaran, Lusiranna, and Amaushumgalana. Even included are names of
all the kings of the third dynasty of Ur and of Isin, who embody him in the rite of the
Sacred Marriage.
Dumuzi is generally visualized as a young man or boy. Under some aspects he is of
marriageable age; in others a mere child. He is dearly loved by the women who surround
him -- his mother, sister, and later young bride -- and there is reason to assume his cult was
predominantly a women's cult. The laments for him are by his mother, sister, and widowed
bride, never by a father (cf. Ezekiel 8:14). The love for Dumuzi is for what he is rather than
anything he might have done or achieved. He is being married, pursued, killed; he does not
influence others by action, only by what he is: beloved or prey.
Several images of Dumuzi under which the god could appear include the following:





Dumuzi as Amaushumgalana -- "the one great source of the date clusters," refers to
the single, huge bud the date palm sprouts annually. The cult of this aspect was
centered in Uruk. It was a happy cult, knowing only the Sacred Marriage rite, not
death and lament.
Dumuzi the shepherd -- "producer of healthy young ones" and characterizes the
power to produce healthy, well-formed offspring, specifically healthy lambs. This
cult and mythology comprised his wedding feast but also his death and lament. His
death was caused by mountain bandits attacking his camp.
Dumuzi of the beer -- in the relevant myths, Geshtinanna seeks her brother who is
being readied for a festival or is in the brewery with wise masters. In one text his
ghost asks that beer be brewed with certain red tubers into which Dumuzi's blood
had turned (note: blood to beer, not wine to blood) when it spilled on the ground as
he was killed. Ostensibly the beer will revive him.
Damu the child -- an earlier form of the word dumu means "child." Damu was
envisaged as a young child who had escaped from his nurse and was sought by his
mother. He was eventually found coming down the river. He represents the power
making sap rise in plants and trees in spring with the coming of the flood of the
river. His nurse was a tree; his mother, a cedar goddess. Its cult was also centered in
Uruk.
Damu the conscript -- this form existed in Girsu (Tello) on the lower Euphrates, a
settlement of prisoners of war conscripted into the army as soldiers or labor troops.
This Damu is a young boy, unmarried, the sole support of his mother and sister. His
death occurs when a detachment of recruiters take him away, he attempts to escape,
only to be caught for good or killed. The motif, with its dramatic chase, made its
way into many myths dealing with Dumuzi the shepherd, where it does not belong.
The Sumerian shepherd was an aristocrat with servants helping out with the work in
the fold. The chase of a conscript by military police belongs on a much lower social
level, in the world of serfs of the crown, not free citizens.
The assessment of the Akkadian Tammuz or the Sumerian Dumuzi as a "dying and rising
god" has varied in the scholarly literature more than any other deity. Sumeriologist Samuel
Noah Kramer revised his judgment three times (before 1950 he thought Dumuzi freed from
death; between 1950 - 1965 he was considered solely a dying god; since 1966 he was
willing to speak of "death and resurrection"). The ritual evidence is unambiguously
negative. During the summer month of Tammuz, there was a period of wailing and
lamentation for the dead deity. In third-century AD Christian authors we see the figure of
Tammuz interacting with Adonis of Asia Minor. In all the varied reports, it is a relentlessly
funereal cult. The young Tammuz is dead, and mourned. His life was the shoot of a tender
plant; it grows quickly and then withers away. There is no evidence for any cultic
celebration of a rebirth of Tammuz apart from late Christian texts where he is identified
with Adonis.
Despite the lack of cultic evidence, some scholars supposed that the period of mourning for
Tammuz must have been followed by a festival of rejoicing. This speculative conclusion
seemed to gain support with the publication of the Akkadian Descent of Ishtar (see Inanna
or Ishtar of the Sumerians / Akkadians). The text narrates the descent of the goddess into
the underworld and her return. The concluding nine lines of the text contain a series of
enigmatic references to Tammuz, Ishtar's youthful lover, in the land of the dead. Although
the text nowhere mentions it, scholars supposed that the purpose of Ishtar's descent was to
"bring Tammuz up." If so, this would place Tammuz securely within the dying and rising
pattern.
Even on the basis of the Akkadian text alone, this interpretation is unlikely. There is no
connection stated between Ishtar's descent and Tammuz. More detrimental to the dying and
rising hypothesis are the actions performed on Tammuz which belong to elements of a
funeral ritual. Ishtar is treating Tammuz as a corpse. Finally, the line rendered "on the day
when Tammuz comes up" could refer to Tammuz simply greeting Ishtar in the underworld
(i.e. coming up to her) or is a reference to the month of Tammuz. In the Akkadian version,
Tammuz is dead and remains so. This understanding is witnessed in other Akkadian texts
such as the Epic of Gilgamesh (6.46 - 50) where the hero insults and scorns Ishtar,
reminding her that all her previous lovers, including Tammuz who heads the list, have died
as a result of their relationship to her.
With the publication of the Sumerian prototype of the Akkadian text, Inanna's Descent to
the Netherworld (Inanna is the Sumerian form of Ishtar) and the closely related Death of
Dumuzi, these early texts made clear that the goddess did not descend to the realm of the
dead to rescue her consort. Rather it was her descent that was responsible for his death.
(Sources: see "Dumuzi" and "Dying and Rising Gods" in The Encyclopedia of Religion).
Virgin Born?
No.
A "Son of God" ?
No.
A Savior?
No.
Performed miracles?
No.
Communal Meal of Bread/Wine?
No.
Crucified?
No.
Resurrected?
Ascended / Descended ?
Divine Judge?
This is a debated point
among scholars.
Yes, descends to the
underworld.
No.
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Thor
Thor is the most popular god of the ancient Scandinavian peoples. The spread of his cult is
abundantly documented in onomastic evidence (place and proper names). His name is
found all over present-day Scandinavia in place-names designating either cult sites or
places dedicated to him such as woods, fields, hills, brooks, and lakes. Equally abundant
are personal names with Thor- as the first component. About one-fourth of the immigrants
to Iceland had such names, according to Landnamabok. The Vikings venerated him as their
most powerful god and honored him in their new settlements. Local sources report the
worship of Thor by the Norse Invaders of Ireland; Thor's hammer, Mjolinir, appeared on
the coinage of the Scandinavian rulers of York in the tenth century AD; there was
apparently a temple dedicated to Thor by Varangian Northmen in Kiev in 1046; the Danes
settling in Normandy are said to have invoked "Tur."
Artifacts such as Thor's hammer amulets bear witness to the strength and survival of his
worship even some time after the conversion to Christianity (eleventh century AD). When
Adam of Bremen visited the temple of Uppsala in the eleventh century, he noticed that
although a triad of gods -- Odin, Thor, Freyr -- was worshipped there, Thor occupied the
central position "because he was the most powerful of them all."
"The [Norse] mythology was orally transmitted in the form of poetry and our knowledge about it is
mainly based on the Eddas and other medieval texts written down during and after
Christianisation." ("Norse Mythology" from Wikipedia.org)
So we are talking the second millennium AD, again Back to the Future syndrome. What
does this mythology have to do with early Christianity?
(Sources: see "Thor" in The Encyclopedia of Religion, and the Wikipedia articles on Thor and
Norse Mythology).
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Zoroaster
Zoroastrianism is one of the most ancient living religions, and takes its name from its
founder Zoroaster (or Zarathushtra) who probably lived around the beginning of the first
millennium BC. It is the most important and best-known religion of ancient (pre-Islamic)
Iran. Another name for Zoroastrianism is Mazdaism, derived from the name of the
religion's supreme god, Mazda (meaning "wise") or Ahura Mazda ("wise lord").
The roots of the religion can be located in an eastern and south central Iranian, tribal, and
basically pastoral society and developed further under the first Persian empire. Attempts
have been made to distinguish between various phases: the religion contained in the
Gathas or texts attributed to Zarathushtra himself are called "Zarathushtrianism"; the
contents of the younger Avesta (partial texts from the 4th or 6th century AD) is called
"Zarathushtricism"; and the religion of the later Sasanid period (3rd to 7th century AD) is
called Zoroastrianism. These definitions can be extended to include the religion of the
Zoroastrian communities in Iran and India today.
The primary innovation of Zoroastrianism which sets it apart from the religions of other
Indo-European peoples in the Near East and Central Asia is its emphasis on monotheism
(one God). Its outstanding feature resides in its radical dualism. Both aspects are
fundamental to Zarathushtra's philosophical and religious doctrine, and because of his high
esteem for speculation, the Greeks saw him more as a wise man than as founder of a
religion. Monotheism and dualism are closely linked in the Gathas, and its purpose is to
explain the origins of evil. The basis of dualism is essentially ethical: the nature of the two
opposing Zoroastrianism spirits, Spenta Mainyu ("beneficent spirit") and Angra Mainyu
("hostile spirit"), who are twin children of Ahura Mazda, results from the choice they made
between "truth" (asha) and the "lie" (druj), between good thoughts, words, deeds and evil
thoughts, words, deeds. The choices made by the two spirits (Yasna 30.5) act as a
prototype of the choices that man faces (Yasna 30.2, 49.3). The concept of Ahura Mazda as
the creator of heaven and earth, day and night, light and darkness (Yasna 44.3-5), as well as
the ethical context in which Zarathushtra conceived his answer to the problem of evil,
demonstrates that the prophet was an original thinker and powerful religious figure who
introduced radical changes to the spiritual and cultural world in which he was reared.
Halfway between a prophetic and monotheistic type of religion, Zoroastrianism
incorporates elements and beliefs that also belonged to the great monotheistic religions that
arose to the west of the Iranian world, and has persisted through thousands of years of
Iranian history. It is a complex religious tradition, based on an ethical approach, and tends
toward abstraction. Zarathushtra's creator god Ahura Mazda reveals that the prophet was a
great religious reformer, a wise man in search of knowledge and enlightenment, rather than
a follower of any traditional doctrine.
(Sources: see "Zoroastrianism" in The Encyclopedia of Religion).
Virgin Born?
No.
A "Son of God" ?
No, not a god at all, but
prophet and founder of
the religion. The god is
called Mazda.
A Savior?
No.
Performed miracles?
No.
Communal Meal of Bread/Wine?
No.
Crucified?
No.
Resurrected?
No.
Ascended / Descended ?
No.
Divine Judge?
No.
TOP
Conclusion: Christianity versus Pagan "Mystery" Religions
The "mysteries" signify the secret cults of Greco-Roman antiquity permeated by
Orientalism (see "Mystery Religions, Greco-Oriental" volume 10 in the New Catholic
Encyclopedia [2003, 2nd edition] ). They form two groups: (1) Autochthonous Greek cults
-- in Roman times only those of Eleusis and Dionysos [or Dionysus], with Orphism as a
branch of the latter; and (2) Oriental cults, with only the Phrygian (Attis) and Egyptian
(Osiris) cults developing into the complete form of a mystery religion, whereas the Syrian
Adonis cult did not reach this stage. The question is whether the mysteries, in respect to
origin, can be thought of as a whole. The answer must be affirmative, except for Orphism
and Mithraism, which were artificial creations. The mysteries of Mithras have their own
ideology and history. (NCE, volume 10, page 85-86)
The basic traits of the pagan mystery religions are summarized by Nash, in The Gospel and
the Greeks, page 112-115 :

central to the mysteries was the annual vegetation cycle where life is renewed each
spring and died each fall; the cults found symbolic and spiritual significance in the




natural process of growth, death, decay, and rebirth;
many mystery religions involved secret ceremonies, sometimes in connection with
an initiation rite, with esoteric knowledge revealed to the participant;
a basic element was a myth in which the deity dies or "disappears" (and then
"returns" or "revives" or "reappears" or is "restored") and otherwise triumphs over
enemies;
unlike the early Christians, the mysteries had little use for correct doctrine, dogma,
or belief; they were primarily concerned with the emotional state of their followers
and appealed to the imagination;
the immediate goal was a mystical or religious experience in order to achieve union
with their god, or otherwise some kind of "salvation" of the soul or immortality or
deification.
The Greco-Roman pagan religions found bodily resurrection difficult to accept. Man was
regarded as a body with a soul, but it was the soul that was often believed to survive death.
The dissolution of the body was regarded as inevitable (see "Resurrection, Greco-Oriental"
volume 12 in the NCE). This view of man is quite different from the Old Testament where
man is regarded as an "animated" body (a unity of body and soul, not a duality cf. Genesis
2:7; Ecclesiastes 3:20-21; 12:7; and Matthew 10:28; 1 Thess 5:23; etc). Accordingly,
Greco-Roman ideas on "resurrection" were quite different from the Christian concept (1
Cor 15; John 5:27-30; Phil 3:20-21; Revelation 20; etc).
"The chief Greek god who was believed to die and live again was Dionysus [or Dionysos], and he
was recognized to be of non-Greek origin. When he was introduced into the Orphic Mysteries...the
result was belief in transmigration [of souls], not resurrection in the proper sense. In the later
mystery religions, resurrection was often referred to, but only in a metaphorical sense....Gods who
were believed to have died and been re-born were more common in the Near East...." (NCE,
volume 12, page 145)
The NCE article points out striking differences between the Christian and the Oriental
beliefs: several "dying gods" were associated with the annual death and rebirth of
vegetation; most of these gods were associated with a "goddess" who mourned her
favorite's death and assisted his "resurrection" (Tammuz with Ishtar, Osiris with Isis,
Adonis with Aphrodite, Attis with Cybele, etc); finally, with its strong moral emphasis the
fully developed Christian doctrine is quite unlike the so-called "pagan parallel" religions.
The difference between the pagan "dying gods" and the meaning of Jesus' death are clear.
Nash, The Gospel and the Greeks, page 160-161 states:



none of the so-called "savior-gods" died for someone else; Jesus Christ the Son of
God died in place of His creatures (1 Cor 15:3-4; Romans 5:6-8; 1 John 2:1-2; 1
Peter 2:24; 1 Tim 2:4-6) which is unique to Christianity;
only Jesus died on the cross for sin, the pagan gods are never claimed to die for
sins; they were not crucified (there are in fact NO "crucified saviors" other than
Jesus) but died violently by other means (self-emasculation; hunting accident;
ripped apart by wild boars or the Titans or crazed women or jealous brothers; etc);
Jesus died once for all (Heb 7:27; 9:25-28; 10:10-14); many of the pagan gods were



vegetation deities whose repeated death and "rebirth" depicted the annual cycle of
nature; it is a mythical drama with no historical ties;
the early Christian church believed its proclamation of Jesus' one-time death upon
the cross and bodily resurrection is grounded upon what actually happened in
history ("we are witnesses of these things" cf. Acts 1:1-4; 1:8; 2:32; 3:15; 5:32;
10:39-41; Luke 1:1-4; 24:48; 1 John 1:1-3; 2 Peter 1:16).
unlike the pagan gods, Jesus dies voluntarily (John 10:10-18; Phil 2:5-11);
Jesus' death was not a defeat but a triumph (1 Cor 15:54-58; Col 2:14-15; 2 Tim
1:10).
In the Catholic liturgical calendar, September 14 is the "Feast of the Triumph of the Cross"
and was observed in Rome before the end of the seventh century AD. This day is also
called the Exaltation of the Cross, the Elevation of the Cross, Holy Cross Day, Holy Rood
Day, or Roodmas. The liturgy of the Cross is a triumphant liturgy. The Catechism of the
Catholic Church sums up the Christian meaning of the death of Christ:
1008. Death is a consequence of sin. The Church's Magisterium, as authentic interpreter of
the affirmations of Scripture and Tradition, teaches that death entered the world on account
of man's sin. Even though man's nature is mortal God had destined him not to die. Death
was therefore contrary to the plans of God the Creator and entered the world as a
consequence of sin. "Bodily death, from which man would have been immune had he not
sinned" is thus "the last enemy" of man left to be conquered. (cf. Genesis 2:17; 3:3; 3:19;
Wisdom 1:13; 2:23-24; Rom 5:12; 6:23; 1 Cor 15:26; Vatican II GS 18 § 2)
1009. Death is transformed by Christ. Jesus, the Son of God, also himself suffered the
death that is part of the human condition. Yet, despite his anguish as he faced death, he
accepted it in an act of complete and free submission to his Father's will. The obedience of
Jesus has transformed the curse of death into a blessing. (cf. Mark 14:33-34; Heb 5:7-8;
Rom 5:19-21)
1010. Because of Christ, Christian death has a positive meaning: "For to me to live is
Christ, and to die is gain." "The saying is sure: if we have died with him, we will also live
with him." What is essentially new about Christian death is this: through Baptism, the
Christian has already "died with Christ" sacramentally, in order to live a new life; and if we
die in Christ's grace, physical death completes this "dying with Christ" and so completes
our incorporation into him in his redeeming act (cf. Phil 1:21-23; 2 Tim 2:11) :
"It is better for me to die in (eis) Christ Jesus than to reign over the ends of the earth. Him it is I
seek -- who died for us. Him it is I desire -- who rose for us. I am on the point of giving birth....Let
me receive pure light; when I shall have arrived there, then shall I be a man." (St. Ignatius of
Antioch, to the Romans 6:1-2, on his way to martyrdom, c. 110 AD)
Pointing out the differences above is sufficient to show the uniqueness of Christianity and
distinguish its theology from the non-Christian pagan religions.
Now let's summarize Nash's concluding section on Christian faith and the Mystery
Religions which makes the following points why early Christianity is not dependent on the
various pagan cults:








The arguments of the "syncretist case" illustrates the logical fallacy of first cause:
mere coincidence or similarity does not prove dependence or causal connection;
Many alleged similarities between Christianity and the mystery religions are either
exaggerated or simply false; there are no other crucified and resurrected saviors
besides Jesus Christ;
The chronology is wrong: almost all of our sources of information for supposed
Christian "parallels" with pagan religions are very late (i.e. post-Christian); these
include Adonis (2nd to 5th century AD); Attis (5th century AD); Mithras (late 1st
century AD and beyond); the "crucified" Orpheus amulet (3rd or 4th century AD,
but probably a fake); the "resurrection and ascension" of Krishna (the complete text
known from the 1st century AD); this is too late for the New Testament writers
themselves to have been influenced by such accounts;
the full development of the mystery religions occurred in the 2nd century and later
(with the exception of the Greek Dionysos) and we must distinguish between the
different forms of the cults; the later forms are not necessarily present in the earlier
forms;
The apostles would not have borrowed from the pagan religions since their training
and background was in Judaism (Phil 3:5); they rejected the alien speculations of
syncretism and gnosticism (Col 2:7-8; 1 Tim 4:1-5; 1 John 4:1-6);
any genuine parallels that exist reflect an ascendant Christian influence on the
dying pagan systems; furthermore, since Jesus, His apostles, and many of their first
disciples were all Jews, Christianity's doctrinal roots, rituals, and liturgy lay in
Judaism not paganism;
Christianity is a monotheistic religion (one God) and an exclusive faith (John 14:6;
Acts 4:12) with a definite body of doctrine (the Holy Trinity, the Incarnation of
Christ, the sacraments, one revelation from God through Christ to His apostles
passed on through Scripture and Tradition, an apostolic succession and hierarchy of
bishops to safeguard that doctrine, etc);
The religion of the apostles and their successors was grounded in events that
actually happened in history at a particular place and time (the life, death, burial,
and resurrection of Jesus of Nazareth); the mysticism and mythology of the mystery
cults was essentially non-historical.
Jonathan Z. Smith in his book Drudgery Divine: On the Comparison of Early
Christianities and the Religions of Late Antiquity (1990) concludes:
"...it is now held that the majority of the gods so denoted appear to have died but not returned;
there is death but no rebirth or resurrection. What evidence was relied on by previous scholarship
for the putative resurrection can be shown, it is claimed, to be based on a misinterpretation of the
documents, or on late texts from the Christian era (frequently by Christians) which reveal an
interpretatio Christiana of another religion's myths and rituals, or a borrowing of the Christian motif,
at a late stage, by the religions themselves...." (J. Z. Smith, Drudgery Divine, page 101)
Smith then briefly covers Mithras, Marduk, Tammuz, Kore, Osiris, Adonis, Attis, Cybele
(page 101-102). He goes on:
"While these negative conclusions have not been without challenge by scholars of Late Antiquity
[see especially the more recent The Riddle of Resurrection by T.N.D. Mettinger (2001) ]....[they]
represent a genuine reversal in scholarly thought. That which was posited as most 'primitive' -- a
myth and ritual pattern of 'dying and rising' deities ultimately based on human sacrifice or ritual
murder in relation to the fertility of vegetation -- has turned out to be an exceedingly late third or
fourth century [AD] development in the myths and rituals of these deities....[scholars] ignoring their
own reiterated insistence, when the myth and ritual complex appeared archaic, that analogies do
not yield genealogies, they now eagerly assert what they hitherto denied, that the similarities
demonstrate that the Mediterranean cults borrowed from the Christian." (J. Z. Smith,
Drudgery Divine, page 103-104, emphasis added)
Bruce Metzger, the great New Testament scholar and textual critic, is cited by Ronald Nash
on this "reversal" :
"It must not be uncritically assumed that the Mysteries always influenced Christianity, for it is not
only possible but probable that in certain cases, the influence moved in the opposite
direction....Unlike the deities of the Mysteries, who were nebulous figures of an imaginary past, the
Divine Being whom the Christian worshiped as Lord was known as a real Person on earth only a
short time before the earliest documents of the New Testament were written." (Metzger in Nash,
The Gospel and the Greeks, page 187, 186, emphasis added)
This leads us to Part 2 on the historical evidence for Jesus and the reliability of the New
Testament.
TOP
Sources and Links
articles from The Encyclopedia of Religion edited by Mircea Eliade (1987 [see also 2005, 2nd
edition])
Adonis, Baal, Cybele, Dionysos, Dumuzi (Tammuz), Hermes, Horus, Krsna, Mithra, Mithraism,
Orpheus, Osiris, Thor, Zoroastrianism
"Dying and Rising Gods" from volume 4 of The Encyclopedia of Religion edited by Mircea Eliade
(1987)
covers Adonis, (Aliyan) Baal, Attis, Marduk, Osiris, Tammuz / Dumuzi, Inanna / Ishtar
articles from The New Catholic Encyclopedia (2003, 2nd edition)
Cybele, "Dionysus, Cult of", Mithras and Mithraism, "Mystery Religions, Greco-Oriental",
"Resurrection, Greco-Oriental"
Dionysos
Dionysos by Richard Seaford (Routledge, 2006)
Bacchus: A Biography by Andrew Dalby (J. Paul Getty Museum, 2004)
Dionysos at Large by Marcel Detienne (Harvard Univ Press, 1989)
Dionysos Slain by Marcel Detienne (John Hopkins Univ Press, 1979)
The God of Ecstasy: Sex-Roles and the Madness of Dionysos by Arthur Evans (St. Martin's Press,
1988)
Dionysus: Myth and Cult by Walter F. Otto (Spring Publications, 1986)
Interpretation and Dionysos: Method in the Study of a God edited by Park McGinty (Mouton
Publishers, 1978)
Dionysos: Archetypal Image of Indestrucible Life by C. Kerenyi (Princeton Univ Press, 1976)
The Dionysiac Mysteries of the Hellenistic and Roman Age by Martin P. Nilsson (Arno Press, 1975)
Mithras
The Religion of the Mithras Cult in the Roman Empire by Roger Beck (Oxford Univ Press, 2006)
The Roman Cult of Mithras: the god and his mysteries by Manfred Clauss (Routledge, 2000)
The Origins of the Mithraic Mysteries by David Clansey (Oxford Univ Press, 1989)
The "Mithras Liturgy" by Marvin W. Meyer (Scholars Press for SBL, 1976)
Osiris
Osiris: Death and Afterlife of a God by Bojana Mojsov (Oxford Blackwell, 2005)
A Dictionary of Egyptian Gods and Goddesses by George Hart (Routledge, 1986, 2005)
Reflections of Osiris: Lives from Ancient Egypt by John Philip Ray (Oxford Univ Press, 2002)
Handbook of Egyptian Mythology by Geraldine Pinch (ABC-CLIO, 2002)
Who's Who in Egyptian Mythology by Anthony S. Mercatante (Clarkson Potter, 1978)
Attis: Between Myth and History by Maria Grazia Lancellotti (Brill, 2002)
In Search of God the Mother: The Cult of Anatolian Cybele by Lynn E. Roller (Univ of CA Press,
1999)
Cybele and Attis: The Myth and the Cult by Maarten J. Vermaseren (Thames and Hudson, 1977)
Hermes: Guide of Souls by Karl Kerenyi (Spring Publications, 1986, 1996)
Orpheus and Greek Religion by W.K.C. Guthrie (Metheun, 1952, 1993)
Living Zoroastrianism by Kreyenbroek and Munshi (Curzon, 2001)
Zoroastrianism: Its Antiquity and Constant Vigor by Mary Boyce (Mazda Pub, 1992)
History of Zoroastrianism by Maneckji N. Dhalla (Oxford Univ Press, 1938)
The Gospel and the Greeks: Did the New Testament Borrow from Pagan Thought? by Ronald
Nash (P & R, 1992, 2003)
The Riddle of Resurrection: "Dying and Rising Gods" in the Ancient Near East by T. N. D. Mettinger
(Almqvist & Wiksell, 2001)
Drudgery Divine: On the Comparison of Early Christianities and the Religions of Late Antiquity by
Jonathan Z. Smith (Univ of Chicago Press, 1990)
Mythology by Edith Hamilton (Mentor / New American Library, 1969, orig 1940)
The Golden Bough by James George Frazer (Touchstone, 1996, orig 1922 abridged)
The Hero with a Thousand Faces by Joseph Campbell (Princeton Univ Press, 1972, orig 1949)
Confronting the Copycat Thesis by J. P. Holding of Tektonics.org, several articles on parallel
"pagan saviors"
Copycat Savior Myths by Glenn Miller of Christian Think-Tank, long article analyzing the "copycat"
claim
Was the New Testament Influenced by Pagan Religions? by Ronald Nash
Jesus and the Pagan Gods by Carl Olson
Christianity and Paganism by Bede's Library
Investigating the Similarities between Jesus and pagan figures
Life-Death-Rebirth Deity by Wikipedia contributors
Analysis of "The God Who Wasn't There" by GDon
Review and Critique of "The God Who Wasn't There" by Mike Licona
Kersey Graves and "The World's Sixteen Crucified Saviors" by Richard Carrier
Adonis | Attis | Baal | Bacchus | Balder | Beddru | Devatat | Dionysos | Hermes | Horus | Krishna |
Mithras | Orpheus | Osiris | Tammuz | Thor | Zoroaster
see also Part 2: The Evidence for Jesus
TOP
by PhilVaz -- completed Christmas 2007
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