Possible exam questions:
2 mark questions:
- What is Idealism?
- What is realism?
- What is Direct Realism?
- What is Indirect Realism?
- What are the immediate objects of perception?
- What is sense data?
- What is a primary quality?
- What is epistemology?
- What is propositional knowledge?
- What is acquaintance knowledge?
- What is ability knowledge?
- What is the tripartite account of knowledge?
- What is Infallibilism?
- What is a lemma/false lemma?
- What is the no false lemmas condition?
- What is Reliabilism?
- What is Virtue Epistemology?
5 mark questions:
- What is Empiricism?
- What is Rationalism?
- What is a priori knowledge?
- What is a posteriori knowledge?
- What is an analytic truth?
- What is a synthetic truth?
- What is a necessary truth?
- What is a contingent truth?
- What is an inductive argument?
- What is a deductive argument?
- What is Locke’s theory of the tabula
rasa?
- What is a simple idea?
- What is a complex idea?
- What is an impression?
- What is an idea?
- What is an innate idea?
- What is Innatism?
- What are relations of ideas?
- What are matters of fact?
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Explain the argument from perceptual variation.
Explain the argument of illusion.
Explain the argument from hallucination.
Explain the time lag argument.
Explain the difference between primary and secondary qualities.
Explain, why for Russell, sense data tells us of ‘relations’ between objects.
Explain, why for Locke, shape is a primary quality.
Outline the term ‘veil of perception’
Outline the tripartite definition of knowledge.
Explain Gettier’s objection to the tripartite definition of knowledge.
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Explain two criticisms of the tripartite definition of knowledge.
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Outline the theory of Infallibilism.
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Outline the no false lemmas theory.
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Outline the theory of Reliabilism.
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Outline the theory of Virtue Epistemology.
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Explain one criticism of Infallibilism.
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Explain one criticism of the No False Lemmas theory.
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Explain one criticism of Reliabilism.
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Explain one criticism of Virtue Epistemology.
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Outline and explain Concept Empiricism.
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Explain what is meant by an innate idea.
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Outline and explain one argument for innate ideas.
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Outline and explain Descartes’ Trademark Argument.
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Outline the idea of the tabula rasa.
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Explain the difference between impressions and ideas for Hume.
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Outline and explain Hume’s fork.
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Outline and explain Hume’s theory of our knowledge of matters of fact.
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Outline and explain Hume’s theory of our knowledge of relations of ideas.
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Outline and explain Plato’s argument for innate knowledge.
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Explain one of Locke’s criticisms of innate ideas.
Explain Descartes’ Three Waves of Doubt.
Outline and explain Descartes’ argument for the existence of the Self.
Explain the concepts of rational intuition and deduction.
9 mark questions
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Outline and explain the direct realist response to the argument from perceptual variation.
Outline and explain Berkeley’s Idealism.
Outline and explain the differences between realism and idealism.
Explain why, for Berkeley, there is no distinction between primary and secondary qualities.
Outline and explain how indirect realism can lead to scepticism of the existence and nature
of the external world.
Outline and explain Berkeley’s argument for the claim that our perceptions are caused by
God.
Explain why, for Russell, the external world is the ‘best hypothesis.
Outline and explain the three types of knowledge.
Outline and explain the tripartite view of knowledge.
Outline and explain the view that belief is not a necessary condition for knowledge.
Outline and explain Gettier’s objection to the tripartite theory of knowledge.
Outline and explain Infallibilism.
Outline and explain the No False Lemmas theory.
Outline and explain Reliabilism.
Outline and explain Virtue Epistemology.
Explain two criticisms of Infallibilism.
Explain two criticisms of the No False Lemmas theory.
Explain two criticisms of Reliabilism.
Explain two criticisms of Virtue Epistemology.
Explain the difference between inductive and deductive arguments.
Explain the difference analytic and synthetic truths.
Explain the difference between necessary and contingent truths.
Explain the difference between a priori and a posteriori knowledge.
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Explain how we can acquire a posteriori knowledge.
Explain how we can acquire a priori knowledge.
Outline and explain the argument that our minds are a tabula rasa.
Outline and explain Locke’s theory of the origin of concepts.
Outline and explain Descartes’ trademark argument for the existence of God.
Outline and explain why some philosophers argue that we have innate ideas.
Outline and explain why Locke opposes innate ideas.
Outline and explain the difference between rationalism and empiricism about knowledge.
Outline and explain the key differences between relations of ideas and matters of fact.
Outline and explain Descartes’ argument that we cannot know, through sense experience,
that physical objects exist.
Outline and explain Descartes’ argument for the cogito.
Outline and explain Descartes’ argument for the claim that we are not deceived by God.
Outline and explain Descartes’ argument for the existence of physical objects.
Outline and explain Plato’s argument for innate knowledge.
Outline and explain Locke’s reasons for rejecting innate knowledge.
Outline and explain Leibniz’s defence of innate knowledge.
Remember to:
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Avoid redundancy in 2, 5 and 9 mark answers by considering exactly what the question is
asking for and choosing only the most relevant information to answer the specific question.
Provide logical links in your 5 and 9 mark questions. DO NOT just write down everything you
know on a particular theory/argument in any order but show that you understand the
philosopher’s thinking behind the theory/ how the premises of the argument lead to the
conclusion.
Use the correct philosophical vocabulary.
Proof read your work to make sure you haven’t made any silly mistakes or confused any
philosophical terms.
15 mark questions
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Can direct realism survive the objections made against it?
Assess the view that there is no external world.
Assess the claim that the immediate objects of perception are sense-data that represent the
external world.
‘The strengths of idealism outweigh the weaknesses.’ Critically discuss this claim.
Can we have direct knowledge of physical objects?
Assess the claim that sense data are unnecessary in explaining our perceptions of the world.
‘Sense-data theories cause more problems than they solve.’ Assess whether this claim is
justified.
Is the Tripartite account of knowledge successful in offering a definition of knowledge?
Is knowledge justified true belief?
Is knowledge analysable?
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Are all ideas and concepts derived from experience?
Are there innate ideas?
Assess whether all our knowledge comes from experience.
Can reason alone provide substantive (synthetic) knowledge?
‘A priori knowledge is only of analytic propositions.’ Do you agree?
Writing a 15 mark essay
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The advice given by Lacewing on the structure of a 15 mark essay is:
1. Introduction: how you understand the question, what you’ll argue for (and perhaps some
indication of how you will discuss the question).
2. An explanation of the claim to be evaluated, perhaps including some of the relevant
background theory, and either including or followed by...
3. The arguments in favour of the claim (give the arguments, and if you think they work, argue
that the reasoning is valid and the premises are true).
4. Objections to these arguments and replies to the objections.
5. Arguments against the claim.
6. Objections to these arguments
7. Conclusion: a clear statement showing how the claim is supported/defeated by the arguments
discussed. This will require you to make some points, either as you go along or in the
conclusion, about which arguments or objections are strongest and why.
(Alternatively, you may consider objections to each argument (in 3) in turn as you consider the argument).
Lacewing, Philosophy for AS, p.21
Example structure (indicative content taken from the AQA specimen paper mark
scheme):
Are there innate ideas? (15 marks)
1) Introduction:
Innate ideas are concepts or propositions which are present in the mind from
birth and are thus not acquired a posteriori. [EITHER, for innate ideas:] In this
essay I will be arguing that there are indeed innate ideas, for example of
God or universals such as beauty and justice, because these concepts could
not be acquired through experience alone. I will be focussing on the
arguments of Descartes, Plato and Leibniz to demonstrate the existence of
innate ideas and the weakness of the empiricist view that all ideas (concepts
and knowledge) are gained a posteriori. [OR, against innate ideas:] In this essay
I will be arguing that innate ideas do not exist because all of our ideas can be
shown to be acquired a posteriori. I will be demonstrating the strengths of
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the empiricist arguments of Locke and Hume in showing how all ideas are
acquired through experience and discussing the weaknesses of Descartes’,
Plato’s and Leibniz’s arguments for innate ideas. I will conclude by arguing
that the existence of innate ideas is an unnecessary assumption to make as
all ideas can be explained with reference to experience.
2) The existence of innate ideas has been predominantly argued for by the
rationalist philosophers Descartes, Plato and Leibniz. I will begin now by
outlining Descartes’ argument for the innate idea of God...
Arguments for innate ideas could include:
 We have the innate idea of God – Descartes’ Trademark argument.
 Plato’s arguments about recollection – the example of Socrates and the slave
boy in the Meno.
 Leibniz’ arguments for innate ideas – that necessary truths cannot be acquired
through experience alone. For Leibniz, innate ideas exist but are revealed
through experience.
 Universals (e.g. beauty and justice), substance, numbers and relational terms
cannot be easily accounted for by experience (Plato and Descartes).
 Hume’s ‘missing shade of blue’ counter-example (that we can form an idea
without a corresponding sensory impression) and the weakness of his response
to it.
3) Either, for innate ideas: Despite the strengths of these arguments for innate
ideas, some have attempted to criticise them by arguing that...
Or, against innate ideas: However, these arguments for innate are
fundamentally flawed. Firstly...
Objections to these arguments include:
 Criticisms of Descartes’ Trademark argument.
 Criticisms of Plato’s argument from recollection: it relies on the metaphysical
assumption that there exists a realm of forms that our souls experience before
birth; problems with the slave boy example (that Socrates implicitly teaches the
boy).
4) Either, for innate ideas: Further criticisms of the view that there are innate
ideas have included the empiricist arguments of John Locke and David
Hume...
Or, against innate ideas: I will now further demonstrate that innate ideas do
not exist because all of our ideas can be explained with reference to
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experience through focussing on the arguments of John Locke and David
Hume.
Arguments against innate ideas include:
 Locke’s arguments about the tabula rasa; that all ideas can be shown to be acquired
through experience (impressions; both sensory and reflective).
 Hume’s distinction between impressions and ideas and various examples/arguments
including the concept of ‘gold mountain’ being acquired through combing the simple
ideas of ‘gold’ and ‘mountain’ (copied from sensory impressions of gold and
mountains) to form the complex idea ‘gold mountain’.
 Hume’s argument that the concept of God is acquired through abstracting
properties we experience in the world.
 Hume’s argument of the blind man (that all ideas are acquired a posteriori because
without the corresponding impression, an idea cannot be formed. For example, a
blind person cannot form the concept of blue because they are not able to have the
sensory impression of blue).
 Locke’s criticisms of innate ideas.
 Innate ideas rely on the supernatural.
5) Either, for innate ideas: However, these empiricist arguments fail to show that
all ideas can be acquired through experience and thus that innate ideas don’t
exist because...
Or, against innate ideas: Despite the strengths of the empiricist arguments
against innate ideas, some have criticised them because...
Criticisms of arguments against innate ideas include:
 Universal claims (e.g. the internal angles of a triangle add up to 180 degrees) are
difficult to justify (and not based on experience).
 Leibniz’ responses to Locke’s criticisms of innate ideas.
 That there need to be innate structures in the mind in order to make sense of
the information given through the senses (Condillac’s statue, Immanuel Kant,
Noam Chomsky).
6) Conclusion:
In conclusion, having considered the arguments for and against the existence
of innate ideas, I would still argue that [either] there are innate ideas
because... [or] there are not innate ideas because...
Remember to:
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Fully explain philosophers’ arguments in your 15 mark essays – 7 marks are awarded
in these questions for your ability to demonstrate understanding of the core
concepts and methods of philosophy.
To demonstrate a personal view at the beginning of the essay and sustain a
consistent line of argument throughout the essay.
Rigorously evaluate philosophical arguments rather than simply list arguments – 8
marks are awarded for your ability to analyse and evaluate philosophical argument
to form reasoned judgements. (Because of this, it is better to choose less arguments
and evaluate them in more depth rather than discuss more arguments in less
depth).
Provide logical links between your paragraphs to make your argument flow well;
guide the reader as to where the essay is going.
Leave time to proof read your essay/proof read as you write.
Timing in the exam:
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2 mark questions: 1-2 minutes.
5 mark questions: 5-10 minutes.
9 mark questions: 2 x 15-20 minutes.
15 mark questions: 35- 50 minutes.
MAKE SURE YOU LEAVE AT LEAST 30 MINUTES FOR THE 15 MARK QUESTION.
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