Gender Development
Key concepts (things that you should know for the test and the AP)
What is meant by Gender, Gender identity, and Biological Sex. (Define each and know how they differ
from each other)
Know how biological sex is determined
Role of genes
Role of testosterone
How does gender identity develop
What role do sex hormones play on differences in biological sex and gender identity
What factors contribute to gender development (social, cultural, genetic, biological, etc.)
Social learning theory
gender differences and similarities
(Knowing the actual gender differences themselves is less important than understanding the factors that
shape these differences and being able to think critically about them)
It will be helpful to refer to Figure 4.8 on page 167 for a reminder of how different aspects of nature and
nurture all influence individual development.
What is gender?
What is the difference between our gender and our biological sex?
Our biological sex is whether we are genetically male or female. Sex chromosomes determine our
biological sex (male= XY, female = XX)
Gender refers to anatomical sex and the cultural and social aspects of being male or female. Gender is
the characteristics, both biological and behavioral, by which we define someone as male or female.
(Man, Woman)
An individual's personal sense of maleness or femaleness is his or her gender identity.
Outward expression of gender identity, according to cultural and social expectations, is a gender role.
Either gender may live out a gender role (a man or a woman, for instance, can be a homemaker) but not
a sex role, which is anatomically limited to one gender (only a woman can gestate and give birth).
Biological gender determinants of gender
 Biological gender differences can be influenced genetically by our different sex chromosomes and
physiologically, from our differing concentrations of sex hormones
 Most of our chromosomes are unisex, that is, the same for men and women. The sex chromosomes
are the one exception.
 Biological sex is determined by your sex chromosomes. There are two varieties X and Y
o If you have two X chromosomes (XX) you are a female
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If you have one X and one Y (XY) you are a male
Each gamete (sex cell, which is an ovum or an egg for women and sperm for men) carries
half of the chromosomes necessary to make a person, one chromosome from each of the 23
pairs of chromosomes. Since women only have X sex chromosomes, the sex chromosome
you get from your mom is always going to be an X chromosome.
o Since men (XY) have an X and a Y, each sperm cell is either going to have an X chromosome
or its going to have a Y chromosome. The sperm cell that wins the fertilization race is the
one that determines the biological sex of the baby-to-be.
o For all of you, you got one X from your mom and one X chromosome from your dad. Had
you been born a boy, you still would have gotten one X from your mom but you would have
gotten one Y chromosome from your dad.
o Sperm characteristics of “male” and “female” sperm, and differences
It is the chromosomes (XX or XY) you have that determine which biological sex you are. It is a gene
on one of these chromosomes that activates this biological sex, setting in motion the anatomical
differences that distinguish or gender differences.
The Y chromosome contains a single gene that throws a master switch that sets the development of
biological sex differences in motion. This happens at the 7th week of gestation. So until 7 weeks
after conception, male and female fetuses are anatomically indistinguishable.
What does this “master switch” do?
At the 7th week, it tells the testes to develop which right away start producing testosterone.
Remember, women have it too but men have more of it. This greater output of testosterone is what
tells the penis to develop. The absence of this greater output of testosterone is what tells a vagina
to stay a vagina (it was already on its way to becoming a vagina). [THIS IS THE FIRST WAY THAT
HORMONES INFLUENCES GENDER]
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Testosterone is the principle male hormone (the most important one).
What would happen if you were to expose a female (XY) baby to high levels of testosterone
in utero before the 7th week?  They are born with masculine-appearing genitalia (which
can be altered surgically), until puberty they act more “tomboyish” and prefer traditionally
male toys and play. The hormones do not reverse their gender identity though. They view
themselves as girls
Animal studies also demonstrate that female embryos given male hormones will later act
more masculine and aggressive.
In the past infants who were genetically male with normal testes and hormones but who are
born with small or absent penises and were surgically reassigned as females . In a study of
14 of these, 6 later declared themselves male and 3 were uncertain about their gender
identity.
At around the 4th or 5th prenatal month, sex hormones bathing the fetal brain influence its wiring.
Greater testosterone levels in males and ovarian hormone levels in females influence different
patterns of wiring in male and female brain as fetuses. So areas of the brain that have more sex
hormone receptors are also going to show the most male-female differences.
o Parts of the frontal lobe are thicker in women (what type of behavioral difference might this
be responsible for? Maybe Language? Impulse control?)
o Parts of the parietal lobe are thicker in men (spatial perception)
o Gender differences in the hippocampus, amygdale, and volume of gray matter versus white
matter.
“Nurture” and Gender (socialization)
 Remember, Gender is not just our genes and our anatomy it is also behaviors that define
someone as male or female.
 Are these behaviors determined by biological or genetic differences or are they the result
socialization?
 Gender identity appears to form very early in life and at some point in life, it is most likely
irreversible. Biological, psychological, and social variables clearly influence the process.
 Genes, prenatal and postnatal hormones, differences in the brain, reproductive organs,
socialization all interact to mold a toddler's gender identity.
 The differences brought about by physiological processes interact with social-learning
influences to establish clear gender identity.
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Gender socialization, or the process whereby a child learns the norms and roles that society has
created for his or her gender, plays a significant role in the establishment of her or his Gender
Identity or sense of femaleness or maleness.
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Beginning at birth, most parents treat their children according to whether they are a “boy” or a
“girl”. Parents even handle their baby girls less aggressively than their baby boys. We decorate
their rooms differently, dress them differently, talk to them, and about them, differently.
Children quickly develop a clear understanding that they are either female or male, as well as a
strong desire to adopt gender-appropriate mannerisms and behaviors. This understanding
normally occurs within 2 years of age. In short, biology sets the stage, by giving the baby a penis
or vagina, but children's interactions with social environments actually determine the nature of
gender identity.
Also important are the aspects of our social environment that give children “clues” as to what is
appropriate behavior for their gender (Gender roles ). These include media portrayals, how
peers and other adults besides parents treat them, toys, language and especially important, the
gender roles they observe others performing.
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Social Learning Theory
This theory assumes that children learn gender-linked behaviors by observing and imitating and being
rewarded or punished. These rewards and punishments can seem very subtle but they are effective.
As children cognitively develop and learn about their world, they develop schemas, concepts that help
them organize information and make sense of their world. These include gender schemas. When they
identify which gender they fit into, they will prefer their “own kind”, seek out behavior, peers, and
activities for their gender, compare their behavior to the behavior of their gender and adjust their
behavior to fit their gender schema.
 What information do you think a child would include in their “Girl” gender schema? What about
their “Boy” schema?
Gender role diversity across cultures Different societies and cultures have differences in gender role
distinctions and characteristics. This tells us that much of gender role differences are cultural (and
therefore shaped by social influences, not biological ones). This is unlike gender differences that have
more biological basis, because those show stability across cultures and even species.
 Nomadic societies have minimum division of labor by sex and boys and girls receive much of the
same upbringing.
 Children in agricultural societies tend to socialize into more distinct gender roles because men
and women in those societies have more distinct labor responsibilities.
 Industrialized nations vary more in gender role distinctions
Gender differences and similarities
 Men and women are most similar in domains where they have faced similar challenges (from an
evolutionary/fitness and survival perspective
 They are more likely to differ in domains related to the different roles they held and especially in
domains pertinent to mating. And these gender-specific mating behaviors are stable across culture
and species, which indicates that they are biologically based.
It is important to remember that many gender differences are actually pretty modest. It is also
important to remember that these are differences between AVERAGES, and isn’t necessarily going to be
true for every individual.
Also important to remember is that we are humans. Along with our higher capacity for intelligence
comes greater adaptability. We are more able to defy genes and biology to choose how we behave.
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Women mature more quickly - Enter puberty two years sooner than males on average
Women live longer, on average 5 years longer than men
Women tend to carry more body fat and less muscle than men (on average)
Women have a better sense of smell and can smell fainter odors
Women tend to express emotions more freely, display more empathy, and offer help more
often (do you think these are true?)
Women have higher risk for certain diseases and psychological disorders while men have higher
risk than women for other diseases or psychological disorders. Some of these are due to genetic
differences, some due to life style differences, some due to cultural differences
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(more sociopaths are male; autism, colorblindness, and ADHD are all more common in
males, women more likely to develop eating disorders, men are 4 times more likely to
commit suicide or suffer alcohol dependence,
Your text book uses gender differences in aggression, social power, and social connectedness to address
this question.
Remember, while there might be some biological underpinnings to differences between men and
women in these behaviors, most of it is socially constructed. Throughout our lives, men and women are
reinforced for different behaviors, society provides them with different options and expectations.
Aggression ( defined as physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone)
In surveys, men admit to more aggression than do women and this is confirmed experimentally as well
 Bettencourt & Kernahan, 1997 – Men more willing to administer what they believe are painful
electric shocks to people.
This gender gap is for physical aggression rather than verbal aggression.
 Male-to-female arrest ratio for murder is 10 to 1 in the United States
 What does this mean?
 What else might be the reason for this besides just aggression?
Maybe men are more able to be aggressive because aggression is a behavior that goes along with the
role that men are given in many societies. Aggressive activities, such as hunting and fighting, are
primarily “men’s activities”.
The book doesn’t actually mention any biological basis for differences in aggression. If a biological basis
does exist for this difference, what do you think it might be? (testosterone, amygdala, judgment and
impulse control/prefrontal cortex
Social Power
If you put in men and women into a group where they will have to work together, men will tend to
dominate leadership roles .
Men more likely to express opinions, women more likely to express support.
Men are more autocratic, women more democratic.
Gender and social connectedness
Women more relationship-oriented, Men more individualistic; women more cooperative, men more
competitive; women more empathetic, supportive, communicative, interdependent, people-oriented,
nurturing and so on.
Do you think these are accurate? Do you think these are socially constructed? Do you think these are
harmful or limiting?
You Tube video - Interviews with kids about gender
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pWc1e3Nbc2g&feature=related
Gender Advertisements video
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=53dLCWYq2fM&feature=related