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1. What is phylogeny? How is it related to systematics?
Phylogeny is the evolutionary history of a species or group of species.
The discipline of systematics classifies organisms and determines evolutionary
relationships of living and extinct organisms.
Systematists use fossil, molecular, and genetic data to infer evolutionary relationships
2. What is taxonomy?
The ordered division of organisms into categories based similarities and differences
-useful component of systematics
3. Binomial nomenclature is a two –part naming system. What are the two parts?
Who was the system developed by?
Carolus Linnaeus: Genus and Species
Two main characteristics:
a. Each species has a two-part name.
b. Species are organized hierarchically into broader and broader groups of
organisms.
c. The first part of the name is the genus.
4. The second part, called the specific epithet, is unique for each species
within the genus.
5. Ex: Human—Homo sapiens which means wise man
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4. List the hierarchical classification categories of organisms in order from broadest
to the most specific.
is each categorization at any level.
1. Groups species into increasingly broad taxonomic categories
2. Taxonomic groups from broad to narrow are:
domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species
3. A taxonomic unit at any level of hierarchy is called a taxon
5. What is the relationship between a cladogram and phylogenetic trees?
A cladogram depicts patterns of shared characteristics among taxa and forms the basis
of a phylogenetic tree.
Phylogenetic Tree
1. Diagram used to show the evolutionary history of a group of
organisms
2. Can provide important information about similar characteristics in closely
related species
6. Compare homologous structures and analogous structures. How are analogous
structures related to convergent evolution?
1. Homology is similarity due to shared ancestry
 Ex: bones of a whale’s flipper and a tiger’s paw
Homology can be distinguished from analogy by comparing fossil evidence and the
degree of complexity
The more complex two similar structures are, the more likely it is that they are
homologous
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Analogy is similarity due to convergent evolution
7. Shared Derived Characters are used to construct cladograms. What are they?
They are evolutionary novelties unique to a particular clade.
8. What are the three cladogram groups? Describe them.
Monopyletic - consists of an ancestral species and all of its descendants
Paraphyletic - grouping consists of an ancestral species and some, but not all, of the
descendants
Polyphyletic - grouping consists of various species that lack a common ancestor
9. Be able to create / and read a cladogram from given characteristics. With that
cladogram, be able to determine / label the shared derived characters, the
ancestral character, derived character, and common ancestors. Also be able to
determine the most recent common ancestor and which organisms are most
closely related. Be able to distinguish the outgroup and ingroup.
10. What are molecular clocks?
Molecular clocks are methods used to measure the absolute time of evolutionary
change based on the observation that some genes and other regions of the genome
appear to evolve at constant rates.
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11. Biologists have adopted a
3 domain system. What does it consist of?
Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya
12. Study the chart on pg. 174.
13. What are the three shapes of bacteria?
three most common shapes are spheres (cocci), rods (bacilli), and spirals
Groupings
i. strepto—chains
ii. staphylo—clusters
iii. diplo—pairs
14. Which two domains include bacteria?
Archaea, Bacteria,
15. How do prokaryotes reproduce?- binary fission
16. Briefly describe the following characteristics of prokaryotic structure: fimbriae,
capsule, internal organization, flagella, cell wall, circular chromosome, plasmid,
sex pilus.
- capsule-A sticky polysaccharide or protein layer called a capsule covers many
prokaryotes. Helps the cell adhere and/ or evade the host’s immune system
- fimbriae-Some prokaryotes have fimbriae (also called attachment pili), which
allow them to stick to their substrate or other individuals in a colony. Hairlike
appendages that help cells adhere to other cells or to a substrate
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-Sex pili- are longer than fimbriae and allow prokaryotes to exchange DNA.
Appendages that facilitates conjugation
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Plasmids - Some species of bacteria also have smaller rings of DNA called
plasmids
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Internal organization – no nucleus or other membrane-bounded organelles;
usually no complex compartmentalization
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Flagella – structures used by most motile bacteria for propulsions, many species
can move toward or away from certain stimuli
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Circular chromosome - a single circular chromosome. Most of the genome
consists of a circular chromosome. Typically, the genome is non membrane
bound and located in the nucleoid region
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Cell wall – found in nearly all prokaryotes; structure differs in gram-positive and
gram-negative bacteria
17. What is the difference between gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria.
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Using the Gram stain, scientists classify many bacterial species into Grampositive and Gram-negative groups based on cell wall composition. Gramnegative bacteria have less peptidoglycan and an outer membrane that can be
toxic, and they are more likely to be antibiotic resistant
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Many antibiotics target peptidoglycan and damage bacterial cell walls
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18. About half of the prokaryotes are motile because they possess a whiplike
flagella. How is this structure of prokaryotes related to the similar structure in
eukaryotes?- because the flagellum of a bacterium is structurally different from
the eukaryotic flagellum, this is another example of analogous structures
19. What are the three mechanisms in which bacteria can transfer genetic material
between each other? Briefly describe them.
A prokaryotic cell can take up and incorporate foreign DNA from the surrounding
environment in a process called transformation
Transduction is the movement of genes between bacteria by bacteriophages (viruses
that infect bacteria)
Conjugation is the process where genetic material is transferred between bacterial cells
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Sex pili allow cells to connect and pull together for DNA transfer
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A piece of DNA called the F factor is required for the production of sex pili
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The F factor can exist as a separate plasmid or as DNA within the bacterial
chromosome
20. What is the major source of genetic variation in prokaryotes?mutation
21. What are the four groups of prokaryotes? Briefly describe them
Phototrophs obtain energy from light
Chemotrophs obtain energy from chemicals
Autotrophs require CO2 as a carbon source
Heterotrophs require an organic nutrient to make organic compounds
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These factors can be combined to give the four major modes of nutrition:
photoautotrophy, chemoautotrophy, photoheterotrophy, and
chemoheterotrophy
22. Compare and contrast obligate aerobes, obligate anaerobes, and facultative
anaerobes.
Prokaryotic metabolism varies with respect to O2:
a. Obligate aerobes require O2 for cellular respiration
b. Obligate anaerobes are poisoned by O2 and use fermentation or
anaerobic respiration
c. Facultative anaerobes can survive with or without O2
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23. Some prokaryotes can use atmospheric nitrogen as a direct source of nitrogen.
What process do these prokaryotes perform?- Prokaryotes can metabolize
nitrogen in a variety of ways
In nitrogen fixation, some prokaryotes convert atmospheric nitrogen (N2) to
ammonia (NH3)
24. What were the first prokaryotes classified in domain Archaea known as? What
are the two types of this type of prokaryote?
Some archaea live in extreme environments and are called extremophiles
Extreme halophiles live in highly saline environments
Extreme thermophiles thrive in very hot environments
25. What are decomposers?
Prokaryotes play a major role in the recycling of chemical elements between the living
and nonliving components of ecosystems
Chemoheterotrophic prokaryotes function as decomposers, breaking down corpses,
dead vegetation, and waste products
Nitrogen-fixing prokaryotes add usable nitrogen to the environment
26. What is symbiosis? What are the three forms of symbiosis? Briefly describe
them.
Symbiosis is an ecological relationship in which two species live in close contact: a
larger host and smaller symbiont.
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In mutualism, both symbiotic organisms benefit
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In commensalism, one organism benefits while neither harming nor helping the
other in any significant way
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In parasitism, an organism called a parasite harms but does not kill its host
27. What does it mean is a prokaryote is pathogenic?
Parasites that cause disease are called pathogens
28. What is bioremediation?
Prokaryotes are the principal agents in bioremediation, the use of organisms to remove
pollutants from the environment
29. What is Protist? Why is Protista no longer considered a kingdom?
Protist – is anow a term used to refer to eukaryotes that are neither plants, animals, nor
fungi. Biologists no longer consider Protista a kingdom because it is paraphyletic.
30. What group do scientists hypothesize that plants arose from? What five lines of
evidence support this hypothesis?
Green algae called charophytes are the closest relatives of land plants
1 – They produce cellulose for cell walls in the same, unique fashion
2- The peroxisomes of these two groups, but no others, have enzymes that reduce the
effects of photorespiration
3 - The structure of their flagellated sperm is similar
4- they both produce cell plates in the same way during cell division
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5 - Genetic evidence including analysis of nuclear and chloroplast genes indicates the
two groups are closely related
31. What adaptations did plants make in order to live on land?
Additional derived traits such as a cuticle and secondary compounds evolved in many
plant species
Symbiotic associations between fungi and the first land plants may have helped plants
without true roots to obtain nutrients
32. What is alternation of generations? What is produced in each generation?
Plants alternate between two multicellular stages, a reproductive cycle called
alternation of generations
The gametophyte is haploid and produces haploid gametes by mitosis
Fusion of the gametes gives rise to the diploid sporophyte, which produces haploid
spores by meiosis.
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The diploid embryo is retained within the tissue of the female gametophyte
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Nutrients are transferred from parent to embryo through placental transfer cells
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Land plants are called embryophytes because of the dependency of the embryo
on the parent
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The sporophyte produces spores in organs called sporangia
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Diploid cells called sporocytes undergo meiosis to generate haploid spores
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Spore walls contain sporopollenin, which makes them resistant to harsh
environments
33. What is the Archegonia? Antheridia?
Gametes are produced within organs called gametangia
Female gametangia, called archegonia, produce eggs and are the site of fertilization
Male gametangia, called antheridia, are the site of sperm production and release
34. Bryophytes are considered
nonvascular. What three phyla are they divided
into? Mosses, liverworts, and hornworts
What is the dominant stage of the life cycle? Gametophytes
What is the smallest, simplest?sporophytes
35. What makes a vascular plant considered as vascular? What advantage does this
give vascular plants? vascular tissues. Allowed vascular plants to grow taller than
bryophytes, gaining access to sunlight
36. Vascular plants can be groups in two ways. What is this? What is a common
example of each? Seeded (flowers and fruiting plants) and seedless (fern)
37. What is the dominant stage of life in vascular plants?sporophyte
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38. What are the five crucial adaptations that led to the success of seed plants?
Briefly describe them.
Advantages of Reduced Gametophytes
 The gametophytes of seed plants develop within the walls of spores
that are retained within tissues of the parent sporophyte
Heterospory
 Megasporangia produce megaspores that give rise to female (eggcontaining) gametophyte
 Microsporangia produce microspores that give rise to male
(sperm-containing) gametophyte
Ovules and Production of Eggs
 An ovule consists of the megasporangium, megaspore, and one or
more protective integuments
 Gymnosperm megaspores have one integument
 Angiosperm megaspores usually have two integuments
 Megaspore develops into the female gametophyte and produces
one or more eggs
Pollen and Production of Sperm
 Microspores develop into pollen grains, which contain the male gametophytes.
 Pollination is the transfer of pollen to the part of a seed plant containing the
ovules.
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 Pollen eliminates the need for a film of water and can be dispersed great
distances by air or animals
 If a pollen grain germinates, it gives rise to a pollen tube that discharges two
sperm into the female gametophyte within the ovule
Evolutionary Advantage of Seeds
1. A seed develops from the whole ovule
2. A seed is a sporophyte embryo, along with its food supply, packaged in a
protective coat
3. Seeds provide some evolutionary advantages over spores:
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They may remain dormant for days to years, until conditions are
favorable for germination
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They may be transported long distances by wind or animals
39. Compare and contrast gymnosperms and angiosperms.
Gymnosperm –
A. Characteristics
1. First seed plant to evolve
2. Produce “naked” seeds (seeds produced exposed on scales of cones)
Angiosperms –
A. Angiosperms are seed plants with reproductive structures called flowers and fruits
B. They are classified in a single phylum, Anthophyta
C. Flowers
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Are angiosperm structures specialized for sexual reproduction
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Many species are pollinated by insects or animals, while some species are windpollinated
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Are specialized shoots with up to four types of modified leaves:
-Sepals which enclose the flower
-Petals which are brightly colored and attract pollinators
-Stamens which produce pollen on their terminal anthers
-Carpels which produce ovules
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A carpel consists of an ovary at the base and a style leading up to a stigma,
where pollen is received
D. Fruits
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They typically consists of a mature ovary but can also include other flower parts
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They protect seeds and aid in their dispersal
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Mature fruits can be either fleshy or dry
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Various fruit adaptations help disperse seeds
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Seeds can be carried by wind, water, or animals to new locations
40. Compare and contrast monocots and eudicots.
.Angiosperm Diversity
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The two main groups of angiosperms are monocots (one cotyledon) and eudicots
(“true” dicots)
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41. Study the life cycle of an angiosperm on pg. 184.
42. What are the six characteristics that distinguish fungi?
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Multicellular heterotrophs that obtain nutrients by absorption. Fungi secrete
hydrolytic enzymes, digest food outside their bodies, and absorb the small
molecules
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The cell walls of fungi are made of chitin
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Bodies composed of filaments called hyphae that are entwined to form a mass,
the mycelium
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Most fungi are multicellular with hyphae divided into cells by crosswalls called
septa. Coenocytic fungi lack septa and consist of continuous cytoplasmic mass
containing hundreds of nuclei
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Fungi reproduced by spores
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Modes of nutrition include decomposers, parasites, and mutualists
43. What are lichens?
a composite organism consisting of a fungus (the mycobiont) and a photosynthetic
partner (the photobiont or phycobiont) growing together in a symbiotic
relationship.
Lichens are symbiotic associations of photosynthetic microorganisms (algae) embedded
in a network of fungal hyphae. They are very hardy organisms that are pioneers on rock
and soil surfaces.
 PS component—green algae or cyanobacteria
 Fungi component—ascomycete mostly, sometimes basidiomycete
 Algae provides food for fungus
 Fungus provides algae with water, minerals, and protection
44. Describe the three types of symmetry mentioned in your review book. Give an
example of each type.
Asymmetry - no symmetry (sponges)
Radial Symmetry – (jelly fish ) any cut through the central axis of the organism would
produce mirror images
Bilateral symmetry – (lobsters, humans) have a right and a left side and a single cut
would divide the animal into two mirror halves. There is also a dorsal (back), ventral
(belly side), anterior (head) and posterior (tail) ends
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45. Describe the three types of organism divisions related to cavity type. Provide an
example of each.
Body Cavity (Coelom)
 Defined as a fluid- or air-filled space separating the digestive tract from the
outer body wall
a. Acoelomate
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No body cavity between digestive tract and outer body wall
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Area filled with cells
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Phylum Platyhelminthes
b. Pseudocoelomate
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Body cavity lined with mesoderm and endoderm
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Tube within a tube
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Phyla: Nematoda
Rotifera
c. Coelomate (true body cavity)
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Body cavity lined with mesoderm
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Mesenteries connect outer and inner mesoderm and suspend
internal organs
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Phyla: Echinodermata
Mollusca
Annelida
Arthropoda
Chordata
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46. Compare and contrast protostomes and deuterostomes.
i. 2 evolutionary lines in coelomates
ii. Differ in cleavage, fate of blastopore, and coelom formation
iii. Protostomes—mollusks, annelids, arthropods
iv. Deuterostomes—echinoderms, chordates
a. Cleavage
Protostomes
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Spiral Cleavage—cleavage diagonal to the embryo’s vertical axis
Deuterostomes
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Radial Cleavage—cleavage either parallel or perpendicular to
embryo’s vertical axis
b. Determination
 Protostomes
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Determinate Cleavage—developmental fate of each cell
determined very early
-A cell from 4-cell stage will not develop fully
 Deuterostomes
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Indeterminate Cleavage—early cells retain ability to develop into
complete embryo if isolated from other cells
-Makes possible identical twins and embryonic
c. Coelom Formation
Protostomes
stem cells
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Schizocoelous—the splitting of solid masses of mesoderm forms the coelom
Deuterostomes
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Enterocoelous—the mesoderm buds from the wall of the
archenteron to form the coelom
d. Fate of Blastopore
 Blastopore—first opening of archenteron (gut) which forms from
blastula during gastrulation
Protostomes
--Blastopore becomes the mouth
Deuterostomes
--Blastopore becomes the anus
47. What are the functions of the body cavity?
1. Fluid cushions the suspended organs, helping to prevent
internal injury
2. In soft-bodied coelomates, functions as a hydrostatic skeleton against
which muscles can work
3. Enables internal organs to grow and move independently of the other
body wall
48. What is a vertebrate (pg. 191)?
The animals called vertebrates get their name from vertebrae, the series of bones that
make up the backbone. Vertebrates derive their name from the vertebrae, a series of
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bones that make up the backbone. In the majority of vertebrates, vertebrae vertebrae
enclose the spinal cord and have assumed the roles of the notochord.
49. What are the four derived characteristics of all chordates? Briefly describe them.
1. Pharyngeal Gill Slits
 Becomes Eustachian tube in human
 Suspension-feeding structures in many invertebrate chordates
 Gas exchange in vertebrates (except vertebrates with limbs, the
tetrapods)
 Develop into parts of the ear, head, and neck in tetrapods (critters with 4
legs)
2. Dorsal Hollow Nerve Cord
 Develops into brain and spinal cord (central nervous system)
3. Notochord
 Flexible, longitudinal rod located between digestive tube and
the nerve cord
 Present in all chordate embryos
 Often retained in adults as disks between vertebrae in
humans
4. Muscular Postanal Tail
 Extends beyond the anus
 Contains skeletal elements and muscles
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50. What are the oldest lineage of vertebrates? Lampreys
51. When it comes to vertebrates, you should be comfortable with human lineage.
Kingdom – Animalia
Phylum – Chordata
Class – Mammalia
Order – Primates
Family – Hominidae
Genus – Homo
Species –sapiens
52. What is the amniotic egg?
amniotic egg, which contains membranes that protect the embryo