Towards Converging Management Approaches
for Mediterranean Coastal Zones
An Integrative Methodological Framework (IMF) for coastal, river basin and
aquifer management
DRAFT
Towards Converging Management Approaches for Mediterranean coastal zones
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Towards Converging Management Approaches for Mediterranean coastal zones
Contents
Foreword ................................................................................................... 5
Reader’s Guide .......................................................................................... 8
Section 1: Concept of the Integrative Methodological Framework ............ 10
1.
Chapter 1: Background & Context of the Integrative Methodological
Framework .............................................................................................. 11
1.1.
1.2.
1.3.
1.4.
1.5.
1.6.
1.7.
Introduction .......................................................................................... 11
Synergy with other activities .................................................................. 14
Towards Convergence: Why to “integrate” the “integrated” plans?......... 15
Coastal Management and Planning ........................................................ 17
River Basin Management and Planning ................................................... 19
Coastal Aquifers Management and Planning ........................................... 21
Climate change and management plans.................................................. 22
2.
Chapter 2: Theoretical background of Integration and key aspects of
various complementary management approaches ................................... 25
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
Integration and various aspects of management ..................................... 25
The links of ICZM and IWRM with physical, spatial and marine planning . 26
The links of ICZM and IWRM with different types of management .......... 28
The Sustainable Development - Objective of Integrated Plans ................. 31
The Role of Governance ......................................................................... 32
Understanding the meaning of integration of integrated plans ................ 35
Few basic concerns: Implementability; Relevance & Adaptability ............ 37
3.
Chapter 3: Various aspects of integration of ICZM and IWRM ........ 38
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
Integration and Geographical Coverage .................................................. 38
Integration across systems ..................................................................... 39
Integration across Sectors ...................................................................... 40
Coordination for Integration .................................................................. 41
Participation for Integration ................................................................... 42
Governance for Integration .................................................................... 43
Methodologies & Tools for Integrated Planning ...................................... 44
4.
Chapter 4: The Foundation Documents for IMF ............................. 45
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
The ICZM Protocol ................................................................................. 45
The Water Framework Directive ............................................................. 46
Groundwater Directive........................................................................... 48
Some Additional Legal Documents to be considered ............................... 48
Section 2: The planning process and stages .............................................. 49
1.
Introduction ................................................................................. 50
1.1.
1.2.
Overview, its dynamic nature and practical suggestions .......................... 50
Schematic representation of the Planning Process .................................. 51
2.
Five Stages Process ....................................................................... 53
2.1
Establishment ........................................................................................ 53
2.1.1 Defining the territorial scope ................................................................................55
2.1.2. Scoping the problems, issues, drivers, pressures and risks .....................59
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Towards Converging Management Approaches for Mediterranean coastal zones
2.1.3. Establishing Coordination Mechanisms ..........................................................62
2.1.4. Defining the Governance Context .......................................................................64
2.1.5. Engaging Stakeholders and preparing Communication Strategy ......67
2.1.6. Proposing Potential Vision ....................................................................................68
2.1.7. Deciding on Strategic Environmental Assessment .....................................69
3 Analysis & Futures .......................................................................................... 71
3.2.1. Building the Evidence: Diagnostic Report ......................................................71
3.2.2. Identifying Futures: Scenarios, Pilot Actions and Funding ....................77
3.3. SETTING THE VISION .................................................................................... 80
3.3.1. Consensus Building....................................................................................................81
3.3.2. Setting the Direction ................................................................................................82
3.3.3. Measuring Success: Indicator Selection ..........................................................83
3.4. DESIGNING THE FUTURE .............................................................................. 87
3.4.1. The Plan and the Actions ........................................................................................89
3.5 REALISING THE VISION.................................................................................. 93
3.5.1. Legal & Economic Mechanisms ..........................................................................93
3.5.2 Actions..............................................................................................................................96
3.5.3. Monitoring & Review................................................................................................98
Bibliography ...........................................................................................100
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Towards Converging Management Approaches for Mediterranean coastal zones
Foreword
Throughout the history the coastal zone, more than any other zone, has been an area that
attracts humans, particularly because it includes enclosed gulfs and bays suitable for
development of settlements and marine transport, river estuaries, fertile plains, and areas
abundant with aquifers and groundwater. Coastal ecosystems, terrestrial, freshwater and
marine are among the most productive ecosystems in the world. These ecosystems are also
among the most complex and the most threatened ones. Being open and dynamic systems
they have numerous internal connections as well as with the wider natural and man-made
environment. Changes, at any point in any part of these systems, may generate chain
reactions far from their point of origin and possible in a totally different system whose
environmental conditions could be subsequently altered (UNEP, 1995).
Population in coastal zones often does not perceive these chain reactions and their potential
magnitude. Even science is still discovering all the links within and between these systems
and new discoveries are permanently testifying on their complexity and sensitivity. Coastal
population, depending on rich but fragile coastal resources, is often more focused on the
rights to develop than on the impacts on environment. Coastal population requires from the
population living upstream to preserve the rivers and to secure the good environmental
condition of the rivers. Having in mind that 80% of the pollution of the Mediterranean Sea is
coming from the land-based sources, where the big part of these is coming with the rivers,
such a request is clearly legitimate. However, coastal population requesting the right to
clean environment primarily as a prerequisite for development, often forgets the right for
development of the upstream population. Finally, coastal development and the subsequent
marine pollution, combined with intensive fishing severely affect marine ecosystems, fish
stock in particular.
In order to respond to the anthropogenic impacts on terrestrial, freshwater and marine
environment, different international legal agreements have been made and relevant
Conventions and other legal documents signed and, finally, ratified by many Mediterranean
countries, most of them focusing on the protection of a particular “resource” (whether this
is water, sea, air, a specific habitat or species, etc.). On the other hand, most of
Mediterranean countries prepare strategies and plans related to economic development in
general, regional development or development of sectoral activities (such as tourism,
fisheries, agriculture, shipping, energy, etc.). Finally, the future of our societies is attempted
to be shaped by strategies and plans related to different social issues from education to
cultural development. When it comes to integrate the various parts in a whole, the Protocol
on Integrated Coastal Zone Management in the Mediterranean (ICZM Protocol) for the
Mediterranean is one of the rare international legal instruments that provides grounds for a
true integration and coordination for sustainable development and better life of coastal
populations.
It is obvious that the coastal systems and the adjacent river basins and aquifers cannot be
properly managed if they are not approached as systems fully interlinked and interrelated.
These systems are further integrated with the climate and socio-economic environment. The
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Towards Converging Management Approaches for Mediterranean coastal zones
expected impacts that climate change produce on these systems is the final undeniable
argument in favour of such a converging management approach.
The complexity of these systems is at the origin of the existing fragmentation in legal and
institutional terms. Some supra-national legal documents, in particular in the EU, have in a
way added to this fragmentation. The two EU Interrelated directives, Water Framework
Directive (WFD) and Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD), provide for the
management of fresh water systems and the marine environment respectively, while the
coastal zone is covered, to a certain extent, by both though it is not in the focus of any
specific EU directive. However, EU is preparing a new Directive on Marine Spatial Planning
and Integrated Coastal Management which will put more focus on the coasts.
The Mediterranean coastal zones of the EU Member and Accession States, as well as of the
non EU Mediterranean countries, are addressed by the ICZM Protocol of the Barcelona
Convention. This unique regional legal text is focusing on the coastal zone – the area of
interaction between land and sea. This Protocol provides legal requirements to holistically
taking into account the coastal zone, its terrestrial and marine part where the interactions
and communication between and within the coastal ecosystems are prominent and very rich
and cannot be neglected by the management.
River basins, aquifers and groundwater, i.e. water resources in general, are not yet directly
addressed by any international or regional legally binding document, although a “Strategy
for Water in the Mediterranean” is under development, led by the Union for the
Mediterranean.
It should be pointed out that the EU directives are a result of the long history of care for
water and other resources; as such they constitute a helpful guiding instrument even for the
regions in which they are not binding. From this point of view the EU Water Framework
Directive will be considered in the present document as an example of a good practice. In its
technical recommendations reference may be made to the EU Water Framework Directive
or EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive but without any implication that the non EU
Mediterranean countries should implement these two EU legal documents.
The fact that Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) is a dynamic process for
sustainable management and use of coastal zones and their resources, implies a relatively
different focus for the countries implementing the ICZM Protocol, but with same ultimate
goal of “sustainable development”. It could be said that the above mentioned EU directives
have as a main goal the achievement of the good environmental/ecological status of the
resource in question as a prerequisite for sustainability. The focus of the ICZM Protocol is
more comprehensive in a sense that all coastal resources on both - terrestrial and marine
parts of the coastal zone, are equally important subjects for ICZM. Moreover, besides the
management of resources ICZM is about the management of uses too. It might be said that
ICZM goes one step further in bridging environmental/ecological status with the regional
development. Finally, ICZM in its core seeks for optimal management solutions for
sustainable coastal development. The ICZM Protocol is there to assist countries in
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Towards Converging Management Approaches for Mediterranean coastal zones
establishing the optimal governance models capable to respond to different socio-economic
challenges with quality solutions leading towards sustainable coastal development.
With this joint initiative Priority Actions Programme/Regional Activity Centre (PAP/RAC) of
UNEP/MAP, UNESCO- International Hydrological Programme (IHP) and Global Water
Partnership – Mediterranean (GWP-MED) hope to provide ideas and solutions for
converging methodologies for coastal, river basin and aquifer management and planning as
a whole. The “ambition” of the present document is to facilitate planners and interested
stakeholders to achieve a shared, efficient and effective use of limited human and logistical
resources, respond effectively to the more dynamic environment resulting from climate
change and also to achieve shared ownership by the sectors involved through better
coordination and integration of all stakeholders and general public in the planning process.
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Towards Converging Management Approaches for Mediterranean coastal zones
Reader’s Guide
Integrative Methodological Framework and Planning Guidelines are intended to:
 identify possibilities and solutions for converging coastal, river basin, aquifer and
groundwater management
 integrate as a cross-cutting issue climate change considerations throughout the
planning and implementation processes in coastal zones
 support an active involvement of stakeholders and of general public to ecosystem
based planning and management in coastal zones.
Integrative Methodological Framework and Planning Guidelines are divided into two
sections:
Section 1: The concept of the Integrative Methodological Framework (IMF)
Section 2: The planning guidelines.
Section 1 provides the conceptual framework for integrative management and planning of
these zones. It offers to the readers the general background for understanding of objectives,
processes and key issues within different approaches in order to build the foundations for
joint solutions.
Section 2 provides step-by–step guide to the integrated planning process. It leads the
readers through the process, pointing out the objectives, activities and outputs of each
stage, proposing methodologies, tools and examples.
Objectives of the framework
The specific objectives of the IMF are to:
1. Pursue coherent multiple policy goals at the same time, in the same or overlapping
spaces in coastal areas.
2. Ensure that policy instrument mixes are consistent and mutually supportive.
3. Produce policy outcomes appropriate to specific coastal zone problem context
4. Secure best knowledge base and support an interdisciplinary approach needed for
the successful preparation of the integrated coastal management plan .
5. Add value to individual approaches such that ‘the whole is greater than the sum of
the parts’ – synergy.
6. Satisfy different legal requirements through a shared, efficient and effective use of
limited human and logistical resources reducing planning and particularly operation,
implementation and managing costs.
7. Respond effectively to the more dynamic environment resulting from climate
change and development.
8. Achieve shared ownership by the sectors through better coordination and
integration of the planning process.
9. Achieve sustainable coastal development in the Mediterranean estuaries and
wetlands.
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Towards Converging Management Approaches for Mediterranean coastal zones
Target Audience
The key target audiences for this publication are administrations, practitioners and
partnerships tasked with the production and implementation of management plans (ICZM,
Integrated Water Resources Management - IWRM, and other) for coastal areas in the
Mediterranean. Having in mind that the estuaries are the point where ICZM and IWRM
always meet, and that estuaries are also among the areas that are the most threatened by
the sea level rise and the climate change, this publication is particularly relevant for those
trying to find sustainable solutions for these areas.
The publication is designed for inspiring and facilitating the integrative planning and
management. Adaptation to individual local circumstances may dictate amendments to this
process within the overall framework. On the other hand, the framework can be easily used,
eventually with some adaptations, for coastal areas outside the Mediterranean.
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Towards Converging Management Approaches for Mediterranean coastal zones
Section 1: Concept of the Integrative Methodological
Framework
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Towards Converging Management Approaches for Mediterranean coastal zones
1. Chapter 1: Background & Context of the Integrative
Methodological Framework
1.1. Introduction
This document was developed within the MedPartnership project, where three partners,
engaged to prepare integrated management plans for the coast, river basin and aquifer, felt
the need to combine the three approaches and to deliver a truly integrated plan. For that
purpose a new, joint activity has been secured aiming to provide an Integrative
Methodological Framework (IMF) - to assist the convergence of integrated solutions and
plans. Such plans are requested by the ICZM Protocol for the Mediterranean, and,
obviously, they should be drafted with special attention to the associated river basin
management plans (surface water, groundwater and aquifers water protection and
management) and marine management plans.
Having activities in the same project area provided a challenging opportunity to test joint
preparation and implementation of a properly integrated plan on-the-ground. Namely,
within MedPartnership project PAP/RAC was to prepare an ICZM plan for the transboundary
area of Buna/Bojana river and delta between Albania and Montenegro, GWP to prepare an
IWRM plan for the same area, while UNESCO-IHP a management scheme for the
groundwater/aquifers. The revisited task is to attempt a joint development of an Integrated
Coastal Management Plan that would fulfil all the three initial objectives.
BOX 1 MedPartenrship
The UNEP/MAP GEF Strategic Partnership for the Mediterranean Large Marine Ecosystem
(MedPartnership) aims to reverse the degradation trends affecting the Mediterranean’s unique
large marine ecosystem, including its coastal habitats and biodiversity. Within this project some
of the biggest organisations working in the field of sustainable development in the
Mediterranean including UNEP/MAP, GEF/World Bank, EU, together with all partner countries
joined forces and, through a co-ordinated and strategic approach, are striving to catalyse the
policy, legal and institutional reforms along with investments. The project was launched in 2009
and it is to be finalised by mid 2014.




The MedPartnership project is composed of four components:
Integrated approaches for the implementation of SAPs and NAPs: ICZM, IWRM and
Management of Coastal Aquifers;
Pollution from land-based activities: implementation of SAPMED and related NAPs;
Conservation of Biological Diversity: implementation of SAP-BIO and related NAPs; and
Project Co-ordination, Communication and Replication Strategies, Monitoring and
Evaluation.
This project, entitled simply ICZM, is a part of the Component 1. Besides PAP/RAC, integrated
approaches are the topic for two more partners; GWP-Med, dealing with the Integrated Water
Resources Management and the UNESCO-IHP, dealing with the Management of Coastal Aquifers.
More information at: http://www.themedpartnership.org/
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Towards Converging Management Approaches for Mediterranean coastal zones
In addition, PAP/RAC is to develop an ICZM Plan for the Reghaia coastal zone in Algeria
where UNESCO-IHP is also contributing with the elements for the management scheme for
the aquifers. The present IMF, besides to facilitate the development and implementation of
the projects will also benefit from pilots since they will provide feedback into the
methodology.
The increasing complexity and interdependency existing within the coastal zones, combined
with limited human and financial resources of regulating bodies and administrations, require
fully integrated approaches to go beyond what is expected by “ordinary” integration of
individual plans. A well prepared, truly integrated approach could be of support to
community, businesses and government in planning and implementation of coastal
management aiming at sustainable development and more productive fulfilment of national,
regional and international legal obligations.
Crucial for the proper design and implementation of all the aforementioned plans and
common to all methodologies proposed are the ecosystem approach and the participatory
approach. All these specific plans still have the same ultimate goal, and because of that they
necessarily overlap in some parts. Climate change, a cross-cutting issue of high importance
to the coastal and aquatic systems needs, also, to be properly addressed and integrated. The
multiplicity, complexity and interconnectiveness of all these issues make it apparent why the
coastal zone can be successfully planned and managed only in a genuinely holistic,
integrated way, as a “whole”. This requires knowledge and skills by planners and all those
involved.
Ecosystem approach is... “a strategy for the integrated management of land, water and
living resources that promotes conservation and sustainable use in an equitable way”
Convention of Biological Diversity
Participatory approach is a quality of an approach to enable and facilitate involvement
of the public in the process of identifying problems and to secure taking into
consideration their opinions when deciding on priorities and proposing solutions.
Such a challenging exercise required an updated methodological background. For that
reason, partners decided to build this Integrative Methodological Framework (IMF),
combining the major elements of ICZM with those of IWRM (as means to lead to the
convergence of methodologies). An Integrated Coastal Management Plan as presented in
this publication should be considered as a Framework having ICZM and IWRM as its
components and which could provide an adaptive, operational, “doable” (“down to earth”)
plan where other components may also be integrated. It is important to view this exercise
that includes a series of key steps (– the sequence and duration of which is governed by local
conditions and priorities) as a “continuum” recognizing the fact that genuinely very similar
or even identical conditions are frequently described, clustered or subdivided –artificially
and conventionally – in ways that inhibit integration. Therefore, one of the important
starting points of this process is the proper understanding of the meaning of integration and
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Towards Converging Management Approaches for Mediterranean coastal zones
a fair assessment and best utilisation of all relevant information and in particular related to
any pre-existing plans and management approaches.
Therefore, the inputs included in the IMF have been considered from two view points:
(a) the actual value of the information, based on its importance, quality and relevance
(b) the contribution (potential value added) to the deepening and consolidation of the
integrated approach.
In integrating methodologies, it is of lesser importance what is actually the “background” or
the origin and what are the new “to be integrated” (added) elements, since both ICZM and
IWRM have as guiding principle the elaboration and implementation of sustainable
development solutions and are, by definition, genuinely “open” to welcome compatible
contributions concerning related subsystems or processes from all relevant disciplines,
sectors and stakeholders. In this respect, one may go even beyond ICZM and IWRM to the
extent that this is useful and feasible.
The aforementioned observation is of particular relevance for the Mediterranean, where
many countries - the EU-Mediterranean ones through legally binding procedures and several
other (non EU countries) on a voluntary basis – have already prepared or, are in the process
of elaborating and implementing Integrated River Basin Management (IRBM) Plans through
the provisions of the WFD. Similarly, all Mediterranean Countries, Parties to the Barcelona
Convention, have to elaborate and implement ICZM Plans according to the ICZM Protocol to
the Convention. In addition, all parties concerned have subscribed to the principles of
Sustainable Development and have agreed to prepare appropriate plans for its achievement
as well as to implement the ecosystem approach introduced by the Convention on Biological
Diversity.
Joint work, cooperation and/or consultation secure, first of all, a more dependable plan of
activities and measures necessary for a sustainable development of coastal zones,
rationalisation of the overall process of plan preparation, and good harmonisation with
wider natural and socio-economic environment and plans. The level of cooperation and its
performance will depend on the level of feasibility of the given plan (ICZM, IWRM). Various
situations are possible: ICZM is in preparation and IWRM has been prepared; ICZM is in
preparation and IWRM not; and both ICZM and IWRM are being simultaneously developed.
The present document and the methodology elaborated in it can be applied in any of the
previously mentioned situations. The goals and the procedure are the same, while the
activities will differ in order to achieve the required level of integration, creating thus the
data and information base necessary for the implementation of the IWRM plan which is
harmonised with the ICZM plan as much as possible. Having in mind that IWRM plans, as
well as ICZM plans necessarily need to be revised in certain intervals, it would be an optimal
decision to plan the revisions simultaneously. The proposed interval is every 6 years.
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Towards Converging Management Approaches for Mediterranean coastal zones
Marine Strategy Framework
Directive
ICZM Protocol
Water Framework Directve
DOMINANT THEMES
Open sea and marine
environment
Spatial, environmental, social,
economic, infrastructure issues
Water bodies (rivers, lakes,
groundwater, transitional
water, coastal water) and
water-related environment
INTEGRATION
Marine Strategy
National ICZM Strategy
Water Strategy
ICZM Plan
River Basin Plan
Integrated coastal management plan
6 yearly update of the management plans
Figure 1: Coastal zone relevant international legislations and resulting obligations
1.2. Synergy with other activities
This document, IMF as presented in the introduction, has been designed to respond to the
needs of the ICZM Protocol, Horizon 2020, WFD as well as the future Water Strategy for the
Mediterranean.
IMF is tested in two plans in the framework of MedPartnership project: in Transboundary
Integrated Management Plan in Buna/Bojana region and in ICZM Plan in Reghaia, Algeria. In
addition, the process presented in Section 2 is used within the EU FP7 project PEGASO.
Finally, EU SWIM project is also participating in the testing of this document through their
activities related to the IWRM plan for Buna/Bojana river. Valuable feedback from all these
activities is to be included in the proposed integrative methodological framework.
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Towards Converging Management Approaches for Mediterranean coastal zones
ICZM Protocol
Horizon 2020
EU WFD
www.papthecoastcentre.org
www.h2020.net
www.ec.europa.eu/en
vironment/water/wat
er-framework/
IMF
PEGASO EU FP7
TB Integrated Management
Plan Buna/Bojana
www.pegasoproject.eu
SWIM
Co-financing TB IMP
www.swim-sm.eu
ICZM Plan Reghaia
Figure 2: Synergies created
1.3. Towards Convergence: Why to “integrate” the “integrated” plans?
The tendency to develop “Integrated” Management has its roots in the so called “holistic”
approaches of the 1970’s (see chapter 2.3) and it has reached its peak with the introduction
and promotion of the “Integrated” within the Water Resources Management and the
Coastal Zone Management in the 1990’s. The necessity to introduce an integrated approach
was a consequence of the increased conflicts over limited resources that are progressively
scarcer compared to the demand. Integration, at first place, was proposed as a solution to
fragmentation caused by sectoral approaches at various governance levels, followed by the
lack of coherence in policies, strategies and approaches related to the environment and
development. Such incoherence often results in contradicting measures or reduced
efficiency of proposed solutions while increasing the cost of their implementation.
In the 5th World Water Forum (WWF) of Istanbul in 2009 it was concluded that the
enhancement of synergies between IWRM and ICZM was among the key political priorities
for the Mediterranean, together with sustainable financing (of the water sector) and
adoption of adaptation measures to address climate change.
In the second session of the Conference it was suggested that Tourism and Agriculture were
the most important sectors, frequently in competition to each other in the region, where the
management of water and coastal zones needed to be integrated. Similarly, the expansion
of desalination and the use of treated wastewaters in agriculture and elsewhere are key
features to be considered by both ICZM and IWRM and obviously the solutions to be
adopted need to be, after all, compatible if not identical.
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Towards Converging Management Approaches for Mediterranean coastal zones
Furthermore, in the majority of the Mediterranean countries, a significant percentage of
population, industrial installations including those for tourism industry, important
infrastructures (highways, airports, ports etc.) as well as agriculture is located within the
coastal zone. In this zone the water demand is very high and rapidly increasing, leading to
heavily exploited and damaged aquifers, sea intrusion and damages of associated water and
terrestrial ecosystems. The pollution loads carried by rivers or generated by the waste water
discharges from urban and industrial sources are still some of the most important
contributors to the pollution of the Mediterranean Sea. Therefore, efficient measures
cannot be designed, agreed and implemented unless coordinated management of water and
land resources and their uses is done in synergy within the physical and institutional space of
the coastal zone, taking into account the marine waters. In this, useful methods and
experiences developed and/or tested by a series of organizations, programmes and projects
are to be considered and, when appropriate, utilized. Finally, the means for promoting ICZM
and IWRM are in most cases common even when some differences occur in the
methodologies followed.
WFD – river, groundwater, transitional and coastal waters
(up to 1 NM on the seaward side)
ICZM - coastal administrative units + 12 NM
NM)
MFSD - marine waters
Figure 3: Systems and international legislation
IF SOMEBODY HAS A BETTER PROFILE SCHEME REPRESENTING RIVER/ESTUARY/SEA...
PLEASE PROVIDE....
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Towards Converging Management Approaches for Mediterranean coastal zones
1.4. Coastal Management and Planning
Coastal Management has started to develop in the second part of the 20th century and
mainly since the 1970’s, as a subsystem of both physical planning and environmental
planning and management. During the first few decades there was a lot of discussion about
the proper terminology and the concept behind the various suggestions viz: Integrated
Coastal Zone Management (ICZM); Integrated Coastal Management (ICM); Integrated
Coastal Area Management (ICAM); Integrated Coastal and Marine Management (ICMM), etc.
each one of them has pros and cons.
The Mediterranean ICZM Protocol defines ICZM as “... a dynamic process for the sustainable
management and use of coastal zones, taking into account at the same time the fragility of
coastal ecosystems and landscapes, the diversity of activities and uses, their interactions,
the maritime orientation of certain activities and uses and their impact on both the marine
and land parts”.
The ICZM Protocol requires countries to "...further strengthen or formulate a national
strategy for integrated coastal zone management and coastal implementation plans and
programmes.... in conformity with the integrated management objectives and principles...
Coastal plans and programmes, which may be self-standing or integrated in other plans and
programmes, shall specify the orientations of the national strategy and implement it at an
appropriate territorial level, determining, inter alia and where appropriate, the carrying
capacities and conditions for the allocation and use of the respective marine and land parts
of coastal zones." Although in this paragraph water (freshwater, surface and/or ground) is
not explicitly mentioned, it was implicitly considered as part of the land component (natural
environment), since the water is the existence resource for humans and environment.
ICZM plan refers primarily to the activities and measures aimed at establishing and making
operational an optimal governance framework to lead the society towards sustainable
coastal development. This will be its main objective and task, for instance, in cases where a
physical plan or a development plan has already been produced and needs to be
complemented by a management and governance mechanism, which will ensure that ICZM
principles are respected and integration is achieved in all its forms. In other cases, the
objective of the ICZM plan may be more complex meaning that it will have a double aim of
shaping the development and management objectives, and designing the processes needed
to deliver them.
Perhaps, the function of the ICZM plan can be the most easily explained by putting it into
relation with the spatial plan, since the two are closely related. If the spatial plan is to define
a desirable picture of the given space in a given time horizon, an ICZM plan could be defined
as a plan of actions and measures enabling the above picture to come true. It might be said
that an ICZM plan adds dynamism to the rather static vision of a spatial plan.
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Towards Converging Management Approaches for Mediterranean coastal zones
The spatial planers develop the desirable picture of the space based on the assessed values
of the space, preserving naturally valuable zones and proposing less valuable ones for
development, proposing the necessary infrastructure. However, taking into account the
dynamism of the modern society and a range of uncertainties of global issues like climate
change or financial crises, coupled with the real strength of the private capital, an ICZM plan
is to provide a support to the spatial plan both by adding elements that will help reaching
sustainability and by serving, in a way, as a check-up in this process. Such check-up is to be
implemented by verifying whether the objectives and principles of the ICZM have been
respected (articles 5 and 6 of the ICZM Protocol).
BOX I – Article 5 of the ICZM Protocol: Objectives of ICZM
Article 5
The objectives of integrated coastal zone management are to:
(a) facilitate, through the rational planning of activities, the sustainable development of coastal zones
by ensuring that the environment and landscapes are taken into account in harmony with
economic, social and cultural development;
(b) preserve coastal zones for the benefit of current and future generations;
(c) ensure the sustainable use of natural resources, particularly with regard to water use;
(d) ensure preservation of the integrity of coastal ecosystems, landscapes and geomorphology;
(e) prevent and/or reduce the effects of natural hazards and in particular of climate change, which
can be induced by natural or human activities;
(f) achieve coherence between public and private initiatives and between all decisions by the public
authorities, at the national, regional and local levels, which affect the use of the coastal zone.
As said previously, the ICZM plan is strongly focused on the process needed to reach the
desirable picture proposed by the spatial plan. An ICZM plan should, therefore, provide
recommendations for the institutional, legal and management framework for the
implementation of the spatial plan. In addition, it should address the remaining components
of the governance framework needed for achievement of the sustainability, such as: use of
technology and science, information, education and, above all, culture. Finally, an ICZM plan
provides recommendations for all instruments and measures to be applied, like
environmental assessment, land policy, economic, financial and fiscal instruments, including
monitoring and evaluation. This plan must be the developed through the holistic approach;
therefore it should not be led by the interests, objectives or assumptions of one sector, or of
a part of some sector (for example, environmental protection). An ICZM plan is not a
substitute for a spatial plan, but is a complement to it.
The key issue for the success of such an ICZM plan lies in its ownership. That is why one of
the key ICZM principles is the application of the participatory approach, which gives us the
answer who is the one to enable the above picture to come true. Surely, it is not the
government alone. In reaching sustainability everyone has its role; therefore, the ICZM plan
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deals in a large extent with governance mechanisms that may enable changes to be made on
the course towards sustainability.
Today, the ICZM plans have been produced all over the world in the vast majority of the
cases as self standing planning documents, being the highlights of the ICZM process. Their
content is to be adapted to local conditions in the area which they are proposed to assist in
managing. It is common to all of them that they should address a wide range of coastal
issues and cover social, economic and environmental aspects on equal footing.
1.5. River Basin Management and Planning
The river basin management and planning include also Integrated Management of Water
Resources (IWRM) and more recently it emphasise more Integrated Ground Water
Management (IGWM). The Integrated River Basin Management is the main aim promoted by
the European Water Framework Directive (WFD) (Council of the European Communities,
2000), which came into force in December 2000. It is a holistic approach addressing, in
addition to quality of rivers, lakes, transitional waters, coastal waters and groundwaters,
pressures within the catchment that may cause deterioration or provide risk to water and its
ecology (Griffiths, 2002).
The Integrated River Basin Management (IRBM) can be defined as a "process of
coordinating conservation, management and development of water, land and related
resources across sectors within a given river basin, in order to maximise the economic and
social benefits derived from water resources in an equitable manner while preserving and,
where necessary, restoring freshwater ecosystems." (Global Water Partnership, 2000).
Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM), according to the widely accepted Global
Water Partnership (GWP) definition, is a process which promotes the coordinated
development and management of water, land and related resources in order to maximise
economic and social welfare in an equitable manner without compromising the
sustainability of vital ecosystems and the environment. To obtain such management, sound
scientific information and knowledge management is required while key to its successful
implementation is the active participation of all stakeholders in creating and maintaining
economically and socially just and viable institutions and mechanisms to manage water
resources. Although IWRM initially focussed on water (re)allocation and rational use, as
mentioned above, traditionally, IWRM has also focused on rationalisation of consumption in
each sector combining supply and demand. In this respect, water economy in agriculture
(the most water demanding sector in the Mediterranean region) could allow for transfer of
resources and development of other competitive sectors such as tourism. IWRM has
developed to include a number of objectives, such as water supply, preventing and reducing
pollution, promoting sustainable usage of aquatic resources, contribution to overall
environmental protection, improving aquatic ecosystems and mitigating the effects of floods
and droughts. In this respect both ground waters and urban waters management are
understood as integral components of IWRM though both of them have developed in
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various parts of the world elaborated methodologies and practices for what is frequently
referred to as IGWM and IUWM (Integrated Urban Water Management).
In the EU, the WFD offers an ambitious and concrete Framework for such an integrated
water management approach. The process consists of the several major steps including:
- assessment of the situation, trends and needs and legal obligations (including other
EU related Directives)
- formulation of desired situation (good status of all waters including transitional and
coastal waters) -vision of water resources management
- formulation of interventions and measures to arrive at desired situation
- establishment of monitoring system in order to monitor results of interventions to
the achievement of water resources management goals.
The proper assessment of the situation and needs requires a good understanding of the
physical conditions, the important stakeholders and their relationships, and current
problems and envisaged solutions. It includes a review of the impact of human activities on
water; economic analysis of water use; a register of areas that require special protection and
survey of all bodies of water used for abstracting water for human consumption.
The management plans aim to prevent deterioration, enhance and restore bodies of all
waters, achieve good chemical and ecological status, reduce pollution discharges and
emission of hazardous substances and preserve protected areas. The main tasks of these
plans are the following:
 Reviewing the situation of waters within the river basin district from a water
management, ecological and economical perspective;
 Monitoring the status of waters;
 Elaborating and operationalising the objectives to be achieved in the river basin
district with regard to the status of the water;
 Establishing the measures or programmes of measures needed to achieve these
objectives.
The established framework also has to contribute to mitigation the effects of floods and
droughts. The river basin management plan has to balance available water resources and
demand, thus avoiding long term water scarcity, and provide clear links to the management
of flood risk in catchments, which is specially addressed through requirements in the EU
Floods Directive.
The climate change has to be properly addresses in the river basin management plans,
including provisions for flood and drought. As a minimum, this will require EU Member
States to clearly demonstrate how climate change projections have been considered in the
assessment of pressures and impacts, monitoring programmes and appraisal of measures.
River basin plans can be complemented by more detailed management programmes and
plans for a sub-basin (e.g. coastal water resources), a particular type of water (e.g. coastal
aquifer), a specific water body (e.g. a estuary, wetland, etc.) or for a particular water use
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Towards Converging Management Approaches for Mediterranean coastal zones
(e.g. for irrigation/agriculture). These topics are becoming even more important with the
future and already present impacts of the climate change. This is of a crucial importance for
coastal aquifers and estuaries, and more about it will be discussed in the next chapter.
Wetlands include a wide variety of habitats such as marshes, peatlands, floodplains,
rivers and lakes, and coastal areas such as saltmarshes, mangroves, and seagrass beds,
but also coral reefs and other marine areas no deeper than six metres at low tide, as
well as human-made wetlands such as waste-water treatment ponds and reservoirs.
Ramsar Convention
Few examples are given herewith in BOX focussing on agriculture in order to demonstrate
the relationship and needed synergy of IWRM and ICZM in dealing with this sector.
BOX I – Examples of agricultural considerations within IWRM and ICZM
GWP – could you provide another example?
1.6. Coastal Aquifers Management and Planning
Though aquifers are part of the hydrological systems and therefore integral part of IWRM,
for historic or practical reasons and partly because of their complexity and limited data on
them are frequently neglected despite their capital importance. This is why in this paper we
have a special reference to their management. The goals of groundwater management,
sometimes referred to as Integrated Ground Water Management (IGWM), are to protect,
enhance and restore the status of all bodies of groundwater, prevent their pollution and
deterioration, ensure a balance between groundwater abstraction and replenishment and
reduce sea intrusion processes. In coastal areas aquifers are important water bodies which
act as transition waters between land -surface waters and the sea. It is a water body under
the cumulative impact of upstream waters, as well as land and sea pressure drivers. It is a
water resource in the immediate vicinity of, frequently densely populated coastal zones,
extensively abstracted for domestic uses, agriculture and industry. Traditionally these
resources have been under a constant and heavy pressure by human activities resulting in
pollution and deterioration also by sea intrusion.
The focus of the IGWM is to optimize the interaction between the natural environment
(land, hydrology and marine) and the socio-economic components and factors, including
infrastructure, in order to reduce the impacts on groundwater resources. IGWM aims also to
reduce natural and socio-economic risks resulting from existing and/or emerging local as
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well as global (climatic) changes. It is a challenging task since the boundary of groundwater
is wide and difficult to define, and open to the land impact, upstream freshwater resources
and downstream sea. Also we should not forget that processes within groundwater are
complex, diverse and difficult for full explanation.
The global climate change and the expected sea-level rise will directly affect coastal aquifers
which are highly sensitive to the sea level variations. Fresh water, usually floating on the
saline groundwater, may be endangered by high demand and abstraction, by polluting
activities on the land, or by salinisation due to subsidence or to sea level rise.
Figure 2: Coastal aquifers UNESCO-IHP to provide better scheme...
1. Future higher sea water level, 2. Higher ground water level as a result of sea level rise, 3. New
freshwaters-saltwater interface, 4 Groundwater inflows into surface freshwaters
1.7. Climate change and management plans
The coastal zones adjacent to the river are the zones where climate change impacts deriving
from the river basin are combined with those deriving from the sea making it extremely
sensitive to those phenomena. In addition, being one of the richest zones in natural
resources, the coastal zones are the most densely populated area with the highest number
of socio-economic activities. Therefore, the potential impacts of the climate change will
create here the most profound effect. For that reason the topic of “climate change” is of a
great importance for the integrated coastal management plans.
Already occurring and expected future changes in climate will impact on coastal areas and
aquatic systems with floods, droughts, accelerated erosion and desertification, salinisation
of the coastal aquifers, wetlands, estuaries and soil, decrease of the soil moisture, higher
frequency of forest fires and a series of other phenomena related to changes in biodiversity,
health, agricultural production, tourism etc. Increase of the sea temperature will accelerate
the biochemical processes in the water and therefore cause the decrease of the oxygen
concentrations that may additionally decrease the quality of sea water.
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Sea level rise, combined with the storm surges and other extreme weather events will cause
flooding of the coastal lands with negative impact on the environment, infrastructure and
buildings in the coastal belt. Sea level rise will also impact on the coastal aquifers,
particularly on the freshwater and seawater interface, and further decrease of the coastal
aquifers capacity. It will also affect the upstream waters hydrological situation and increase
the risk of flooding and the negative effects of high ground waters. Therefore, coastal
aquifers have to be given due attention, studied and analysed in greater detail than in the
past, and their exploitation should be carefully planned and managed as a specific water
body within the coastal water resources system.
Many of the abovementioned issues have been identified as of high priority at a given
period in the past two to three decades leading to a series of proposals and decisions in the
frameworks of various Conventions, fora and International Organisations for the
introduction of specific types of management. The most important, widely known and
frequently used management plans that are directly relevant to the integrated planning of
coastal areas are the following:
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) recently
established the National Adaptation Plan (NAP) process as a way to facilitate adaptation
planning in least developed countries and other developing countries (UNFCCC, 2012). The
agreed objectives of the national adaptation plan process are: to reduce vulnerability to the
impacts of climate change, by building adaptive capacity and resilience; and to facilitate the
integration of climate change adaptation, in a coherent manner, into relevant new and
existing policies, programmes and activities, in particular development planning processes
and strategies, within all relevant sectors and at different levels, as appropriate (UNFCCC,
2011).
UNFCCC led a series of Adaptation to Climate Change Plans and Programmes during the last
decade. These plans vary significantly in their content and emphasis on the measures to be
considered including different “menus” of technological and socio-economic ones. In many
cases the needed data or difficulties in downloading climate change models lead to a
particular emphasis to be placed on “no regret measures”.
„No-regret'' measures are such measures that produce benefits even in the absence
of climate change.
The European Commission White Paper: Adapting to climate change; Towards a European
framework for action (COM/2009/147) calls for a more strategic approach to climate change
adaptation across different sectors and levels of governance. It calls for guidance to
integrate climate change adaptation into implementation of the EU water policy, including
WFD and river basin plan.
Although conceptually parts of the Adaptation to Climate Change Management Plans
Integrated Flood Management (IFM) and Integrated Drought Management (IDM) Plans
have been proposed (see eg. WMO) and promoted in various parts of the world due to
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frequently very large scale and severity impacts of floods and droughts on populations and
the economy, particularly on households, agriculture and infrastructures. Two or even three
dimensional (2D or 3D) modelling of floods could help substantially the prioritisation of
interventions and decision making. This part of flood planning is obviously very closely linked
also to the Integrated Urban Water Management (IUWM) (see chapter 2.3) because an
increasing number of floods are not primarily linked to climate change but to the expansion
of urban areas resulting to the reduction of plant cover and the sealing of the soils
(buildings, pavements, concrete, asphalt etc), therefore inhibiting effectively the water
percolation in the soil and the dramatic increase of runoff.
Another type of management plans linked to climate change adaptation, to be considered
and integrated in coastal management, are the so called Water Efficiency Plans that may
include extremely useful information and proposals concerning water uses and possibilities
for reallocation and improvements in practices in critical sectors of the economy directly
linked with the availability and use of water resources in the coastal zone in question.
National (or subnational ) Management Plans to Combat Desertification suggested by the
relevant ICCD Convention. These are particularly useful when referring to soil or coastal
erosion in a specific area and when they are combined with analysis of hydrological regimes
and agricultural or forestry practices and/or risks. The Management Plans to Combat
Desertification are frequently linked with valuable contingency plans for wildfires and
observations/data on droughts and floods even for periods which are not usually linked with
climate change induced by anthropogenic activities which allow the assessment of
background conditions.
Finally, there are number of management plans aiming towards mitigation of climate
change. Smart cities, sustainable transportation, green and blue economy, including energy
efficiency and renewable energies, low-carbon technologies, sustainable management of
land use, land-use change and forestry, all are to be mainstreamed through the integrated
coastal management plans into spatial plans, development plans, into long-term and shortterm policies and into daily decision-making, depending on what actually exists in the
country.
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2. Chapter 2: Theoretical background of Integration and
key aspects of various complementary management
approaches
Previous chapters explained why we need an integration of planning and management
approaches in coastal zones and presented briefly the objectives of ICZM, IWRM and the
IGWM the key components of the present IMF. The most important aspect within this
document is integration. In order to secure appropriate understanding of this term, as well
as to provide useful guide for its achievement, we will present in this chapter the theoretical
background of integration, some of the key aspects, related principles and concepts. At the
same time, the general context is constantly changing (socio-economic, natural,
technological, tools …), and with it the needed integration methodology. However, the basic
theoretical principles are always valid and do not change regardless of all the changes
brought about by the globalised technological society of the 21st century. These issues make
the contents of this chapter.
2.1 Integration and various aspects of management
Many of the aforementioned terms and practices have been developed in the third and,
mostly the fourth quarters of the 20th century, and the first years of the 21st century almost
in parallel by people of different disciplinary background and frequently different
philosophical departure. This, rather recent, history of many of them does not make it easier
to combine or merge some of them because those who have introduced or used them
originally are still around and tend to “stick” to them, to defend their “orthodoxy” in terms
and “inclusiveness”, “superiority” or “completeness” in the terms they prefer, supporting
their views with a series of practical applications. Most frequently, although they admit the
commonality of the approaches followed, they prefer to emphasize whatever
differentiations and nuances might exist. It is obvious that for the benefit of the society,
nature and the economy, a systematic effort is needed to foster synergies and integration.
In the present context, management is meant to refer to management of a resource (e.g.
water) or a space (coastal zone) and the activities influencing their status, development,
exploitation and preservation/protection in order to achieve long-term objectives. It
includes the sum, or better, the “cluster” of all kinds of measures, approach and tools,
employed in order to handle them in the most appropriate way.
Most often management is defined through five functions: to plan, to organise, to staff, to
direct and to control. Planning is the first function of management. This is the planning we
refer to within the ICZM, IWRM and IGWM. In order to propose useful and efficient
management plan for the resource in question, or for the sustainable development of an
area, profound knowledge of the area, its problems and causes of these problems, as well as
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opportunities for sustainability should be taken into account. With the complexity of the
societies today, as well as with the environmental challenges of today, any planning using an
integrated approach becomes such a large task that a lots of attention is given to this step.
In English we are using the terms “integrated” and “holistic” in many cases without realizing
their “eclectic”, conceptual relationship stemming from their original terminology in Greek.
The term “integrated” comes from the Latin origin word integral which translates the Greek
word “holocleroma” and “holoclerosis” in mathematics “Integration”. The root of both
terms in Greek is “holon"/ whole, which is obviously also the root of the word “holistic”. In
both cases we are referring to methodologies (the integrated and the holistic approaches)
where we are concerned about the “holon”, the “whole”, the “totality”, the “entirety”.
The “integrated management” allows for more complete understanding and accurate
representation of the whole, respecting, however, the differentiations within it. It is still a
“coordinated” approach but not a “homogenous” one. On the other hand, the “holistic”
approach considers the “holon” (the whole), as an entity recognizing that it includes and
represents more functions and characteristics than its parts/components. Obviously, the
two approaches are complementary and are both much more demanding than the rather
superficial so called “general” or “generalized overview” or even the “eagle eye approach”
which offers a quick overview of the situation. We will further elaborate on both notions
(“integrated” and “holistic”) in the following chapters.
Besides ICZM, IWRM and the IGWM, we will mention few more approaches aiming for
“integrated management and planning”:
- Physical/Spatial Planning (urban planning, e.g. city planning and management)
- Holistic Approach/Holistic Management
- Environmental Resource Management (ERM)
- Integrated Urban Water Management (IUWM)
- Ecosystem Approach (ECAP)
- Sustainable Development Plans, Planning and Management
2.2 The links of ICZM and IWRM with physical, spatial and marine planning
Physical Planning is strongly related to land-use planning, urban design, transport planning,
landscape planning, building plans, etc. It addresses activities which immediately affect and
programme the physical structure and environment of cities and neighbourhoods (as
opposed to economic planning or social planning activities) (CEMAT, 2006).
Spatial Planning refers to the methods used by the public sector to influence the
distribution of people and activities in spaces at various scales as well as the location of the
various infrastructures, recreation and nature areas (CEMAT, 2006). Spatial planning
operates from the large-scale national or regional down to the local. At its best, spatial
planning is holistic – it sets out the vision and the policies for places on matters ranging from
the location of major new infrastructures, transport, energy of sewage treatment facilities to
employment development, development of new retail, schools, housing or social facilities
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needed by local communities. It is also supposed to protect the most important habitats and
heritage assets, whilst balancing society’s future needs with the pressures created by
climate change and other external natural and social factors.
Spatial Planning has the potential to provide a single system, bringing transparency,
accountability and coordination to decisions over the use of space. Therefore, ICZM and
spatial planning, if the latter is implemented properly, are complimentary: spatial planning
could provide the regulated spatial framework for coastal areas within which ICZM could
specify integrated management options and interventions. In this respect spatial planning,
ICZM-IWRM and other “targeted” managements can work in synergy to realise - through
projects, programmes and actions - the shared vision for the coastal zone and river estuary
sustainable development. In such an approach the “targeted” integrated managements
should not be required to mediate between the basic uses of space, or the protection of
important cultural and environmental assets from development - rather ICZM, IWRM etc.
add value to spatial plans through adding dynamic dimension of adaptive management,
focusing and implementing actions, assisting in the resolution of conflicts, raising awareness
on specific issues of priority and securing permanent corrections through feedback and
participation. A usual problem with Spatial/Physical Planning is that it often remains
disconnected from management and the competent authorities mandated with it could in
this manner be overcame with ICZM and IWRM support.
Marine Spatial Planning (MSP) is commonly understood as a public process for analysing
and planning the spatial and temporal distribution of human activities in sea areas to
achieve economic, environmental and social objectives. The ultimate aim of MSP is to draw
up plans to identify the utilisation of maritime space for different sea uses (EC, 2013).
In geographical terms, MSP deals with the sea including territorial sea and open seas and
takes into account the activities along the coastal areas. In the Mediterranean, the external
limit of the territorial waters is the seaward limit of the coastal zone while the competent
coastal unit is its landward administrative limit according to the ICZM Protocol of the
Barcelona Convention (Art. 3). The Mediterranean legal framework calls for a harmonised
planning and management of the land and sea components of the coastal zone, which
means that coordination of MSP, ICZM and IWRM interventions is needed for the “common”
territory represented by the territorial waters, including coastal and transitional waters.
The case for a unified system for the whole coastal zone is a simple one: the coastal zone
including land, freshwater and sea is a single ecosystem - onshore developments have
critical offshore effects (pollution, sedimentation etc.) and vice versa - offshore
developments have critical onshore effects (erosion, pressure for infrastructure, visual
amenity) ground water intrusion, altering river flows, construction of large desalination
plans, management of lagoons and aquacultures, etc, obviously, demonstrate the
inseparable nature of the two parts. The importance of these effects depends on the
characteristics of the coastal zone and the associated freshwater resources (river basin) and
seawater. It must not be forgotten that these mutual impacts constantly change, following
the changes in the climate and development in river basin and coastal zone. ICZM and IWRM
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with adequate understanding and care of the related marine issues have important roles to
play in mediating between the two systems through, for example, representation of the key
stakeholders, including academia and research, from the land, water and sea sectors in the
integration process.
2.3 The links of ICZM and IWRM with different types of management
Environmental Resources Management (ERM) is defined as “a purposeful activity with the
goal to maintain and improve the state of an environmental resource simultaneously for
several of them affected by human activities”. It is important to understand that it is not the
management of the environment as such, but rather the management of the interaction and
impact of human societies on the environmental basis of our livelihoods and economy as a
whole.
ERM aims to ensure that ecosystem services are protected and maintained for equitable use
by future human generations, and also, maintain ecosystem integrity as an end in itself by
taking into consideration ethical, economic, and scientific (ecological) variables.
Environmental resource management tries to identify the factors that have a stake in the
conflicts that may rise between meeting the needs of societies and protecting the resources
and in this way, to a large extent, covers many, if not all, the sustainable development
parameters. Obviously, IRBM is the ERM which refers to water.
Integrated Urban Water Management (IUWM) deals with water supply management,
storm-water or surface water management and waste water management. IUWM comprises
of the design, distribution, connection, economics, organization and governance of
centralised or decentralised water systems for the networks of settlements within the
coastal zone in question. This indicates the particular importance of IUWM for both IWRM
and ICZM, since IUWM sustainability is precondition for urban zone sustainability. It is also
important to recognize that IUWM is one of the most advanced management practices.
Holistic Management is part of the wider overall holistic approach. It describes a systems
thinking approach to managing resources that builds biodiversity, improves production,
generates financial strength, enhances sustainability and improves quality of life for those
who use it. (Wikipedia)
System theory grew out of biology and soon branched into most of the humanities. It
focuses attention on the whole, as well as on the complex interrelationships among its
constituent parts. It is not an alternative, but a compliment, to the specialised way of
studying the parts.
The concept of “system” means a complex of interacting components together with
the relationships among them that permit the identification of a boundary-maintaining
entity or process.
Holistic Management is supposed to offer a decision making framework that allows
managers in a variety of cultures, countries, enterprises etc to be ensured that their
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decisions are socially, economically and environmentally sound, both at short and medium
to long terms. Although, as described above the objective of this management coincides
with those of sustainable development management it places greater emphasis on the
decision making process itself and includes the notion of the so called “holistic goal” to
guide decision making. The “holistic goal” is becoming, therefore, the basis of the “vision”.
This ties peoples desired way of life, based on what they value most deeply (materially,
emotionally and spiritually) to the ecosystems and resources that support their vision. In this
respect the determination of the vision becomes a key component of the management.
Gaias hypothesis is perhaps the “fullest” “holistic” approach of our overall earth
system because it treats the earth as a single living organism (system) in which
biological, chemical and physical factors all play important and interrelated roles. This
inseparable whole is regulated and kept adapted for life by living organisms
themselves. According to this theory Gaia is a “complex entity involving the Earth’s
biosphere, atmosphere, oceans and soils; the totality constituting a feed back or
cybernetic system which seeks an optimal physical and chemical environment for the
life of this planet”.
Ecosystem approach, adopted by the Conference of the Parties of the Convention on
Biological Diversity (CBD) is defined as a strategy for the integrated management of land,
water and living resources that promotes conservation and sustainable use in an equitable
way. It does not refer to any particular resource but it can refer to any functioning unit at
any scale. This understanding is particularly important for river, aquifers, coasts and seas,
where the nature of water keeps systems and functions connected. An important emphasis
of the ecosystems approach is on the non-linearity and complexity of the ecosystem
processes for many of which we have still incomplete understanding and knowledge and
their outcomes are often characterized by time-lags and surprises. As a response any
management that is taking into account the ecosystem approach should be “adaptive” and
should apply the “precautionary principle”.
The ecosystem approach does not preclude other management and conservation
approaches. It recognizes that “there is no single way to implement ecosystem approach but
“it may be used as the framework to integrate the different approaches for delivering the
objectives of the connection in practice. Essential for our approach is the article Cb of the
Convention which provides that “each Contracting Party shall integrate, as far as possible
and as appropriate the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity into relevant
sectoral or cross sectoral plans, programmes and policies”. The main valued added of the
Ecosystems Approach in the context of the Barcelona Convention is a renewed emphasis on
implementation and integration that will strengthen ability to understand and address
cumulative risks and effects as well as to better focus the action on priority targets.
Also, an interesting lesson for IMF is the finding of the IUCN Commission on Ecosystem
Management (CEM) which claims that within ecosystem approach determining the main
stakeholders, defining the ecosystem area, and developing the relationship between them is
the most difficult. CEM recommends to work simultaneously on defining the ecosystem area
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and determining the stakeholders who will support the selection and management of that
area.
The “Man and the Biosphere” (MAB/UNESCO) approach for the Management of “Biosphere
Reserves” (BRs) promote ecosystem management by protecting genetic resources, species,
land and water, and through the sustainable use of them. Taking into account that each
sector of society views ecosystems in terms of their own economic and societal needs, BRs
seek to foster economic development compatible with conservation.
An interesting method from the MAB Programme is actually a zoning system of
differentiated intensity of management which is now widely used not only in BRs but in
many other types of designated areas where the needs of the local population have to be
considered. The zoning scheme of core areas of intensive management; buffer zone; and the
flexible transition area is applied to accommodate different geographical conditions, sociocultural settings, available legal protection measures and local constraints.
A similar tool is used in ICZM as well, namely “preservation by concentration” is a widely
accepted approach for preserving open coastal areas on the coast. One of the key problems
on the coast is so called ribbon development, or linear extension of the urban development.
Ribbon development represents unsustainable and expensive type of development.
Therefore article 8.3 (b) of the ICZM Protocol is inviting countries to limit such development.
The best way to preserve open coastal areas is to concentrate growth around existing urban
areas, and to use regulatory, fiscal and economic instruments to discourage ribbon
development along the coast.
Sustainable Development Management refers to management according to the principles
and guidelines of Sustainable Development, thus integrating economic, social and
environmental considerations and targets. Sustainable Development planning and
consequent management of coastal areas need to address major challenges inherent of the
complex systems-involved at the land-freshwater-sea interface where integration of biogeo-chemical with socio-economic factors is both essential and difficult. The solutions
proposed for the coastal zone need to fulfil the present needs and aspirations of its society
without inhibiting future generations to obtain similar benefits from its natural and cultural
resources, considering both the carrying capacity of the local systems involved and the
ecological footprint to other regions or the future. Future development has to take into
consideration the expected future climate conditions and environment.
Ecological footprint is a standardized measure of demand for natural capital that
may be contrasted with the planet's ecological capacity to regenerate.
Ewing et all. 2001. Global Footprint Network
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2.4 The Sustainable Development - Objective of Integrated Plans
Integrated management and sustainable development are mutually reinforcing notions. The
concept of sustainable development is based on integration by simultaneously fulfilling and
respecting economic, societal and environmental needs, in order to result in viable natural
environment, adequate economy and satisfied community. The objectives of SD are
integration of (i) sustainable natural and built environment, (ii) sustainable economic
environment, and (iii) equitable social environment in order to achieve desired well-being.
In order to secure needed integration the governance is detected to be the essential
platform for its delivery. Therefore, to the original scheme of the Greek temple with 3 pillars
of sustainable development proposed in Rio 1992. the foundation is added. As proposed by
Scullos (1997), the foundation is governance.
Society
Economy
Environment
Ecology
Sustainable Development
Governance
Figure 4. The new structure for Sustainable Development
It is not to be expected that integration happens at some specific moment; integration can
only be the outcome of the process in which entire multi-disciplinary team makes part. In
this joint work of the multi-disciplinary team the transdisciplinary approach is to be
achieved. By working together the stakeholders of different natural and social backgrounds
are learning to think out of their discipline boxes and achieving transdisciplinarity, that
ultimately should reach the holistic understanding of the issue in question. Through the
Section 2 Planning Guidelines we will provide more details and recommendations on how
integration should be secured throughout the process.
If we develop further this idea, the “integrated” visualization for Sustainable Development
does not any longer refer to pillars but to “facets” of a tetrahedron (Figure 5) (which, by the
way, is the most “stable” structure we know).
Governance is about ‘the interactions among institutions, processes and traditions
that determine how power is exercised, how decisions are taken on issues of public
and often private concern, and how citizens or other stakeholders have their say’.
Or, more succinctly: ‘Governance determines who has power, who makes decisions,
how other players make their voice heard and how account is rendered”.
http://iog.ca/blog/defining-governance/
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Towards Converging Management Approaches for Mediterranean coastal zones
Environment
Economy
Society
Governance
Figure 5. The tetrahedron of Sustainable Development
This visualization allows us to understand that SD can be obtained only through integration
of major elements of each one of the three components with the assistance of governance
and makes clear that for each case (coastal zone, locality, region, country etc.) the
proportional mix may differ but all three ingredients should be parts of the solution in an
integrated way.
2.5 The Role of Governance
As it was already said in the previous chapter, the role of governance is fundamental
because only through it a sustainable development is possible. To better understand and
demonstrate it, we have to analyze governance in its most basic elements (Figure 6).
According to Brusis and Siegmund (2011) these are the following three:
1. Institutions in their widest sense, International, Regional, National, Local and all
legal and regulatory instruments (laws, etc) as well as the enforcement mechanisms,
(administrations, monitoring, policing, justice etc.)
2. The scientific and technological tools, methods, infrastructures and constant inputs
of innovation which allow for the technical expansion of the carrying capacity of our
systems and the facilitation of the natural mechanisms to cope with anthropogenic
pressures (eg sewage treatment plants, composting and recycling plants, etc).
3. The widest information/education, consultation and participation processes that
deal with cultural-behavioral changes of individuals, groups and the society at large.
Figure 6. Analysis of Governance in its most important elements
32
Towards Converging Management Approaches for Mediterranean coastal zones
By combining figures 5 and 6, we arrive to figure 7 which depicts the three fundamental
components of Sustainable Development and the major governance tools to obtain
sustainability.
The governance is understood as the interface between the sustainable development
goals and objectives and the ways to obtain them. The first step towards a good
governance is the proper mix of economic, societal and environmental objectives
(eventually also accompanied by appropriate sustainable development indicators), that
corresponds to the needs and aspirations for sustainable development of the specific
case (place, time, conditions). In order to achieve these objectives an integrated
management plan is to be prepared and implemented, combining in the most suitable
and “wise” way the regulatory legal/administrative tools with the technological ones
and the information/ participatory/cultural processes. For a success of such a plan it
should be preparedIn
andall
implemented
respecting
principles of good governance,
integrated
management
schemeswhich
the
are presented in the table 1.
aim is sustainable development
Economy
Society
Environment
Governance
Regulations
Institutions
Science
Technology
Infrastructure
Awareness
Education
Culture
Tools for achieving SD
Figure 7: Sustainable development and how to achieve it
It is, therefore, evident that for each one of the Integrated Management Schemes already
mentioned in previous chapters we need a slightly different “mix” of
Environment/Economy/Society components obtained through appropriate combination of
the Institutions, Society & Technology/Innovation and Awareness/Education/Cultural tools.
The needed criteria & indicators are, in most cases, common and in many of the
management practices are encapsulated into, the so called, Good Environmental Status
(GES), which links the Ecosystem Approach (ECAP) to IWRM, ICZM, MSP, WFD, MSFD,
Integrated Maritime Policy (IMP), etc.
In conclusion, basic philosophy behind the “wise”, integrated management of any kind is the
appropriate, socially just/equitable and economically viable use of environmental/resources,
33
final
Towards Converging Management Approaches for Mediterranean coastal zones
the maintenance of biodiversity and proper functioning of ecosystems through the best use
of manmade, cultural, knowledge capital.
Table 1: Five Principles of Good Governance (modified by PEGASO project from Abrams et
al., 2003)
Five Principles of
good governance
The United Nations Principles on which the
five principles are based
Related ICZM area governance responsibilities
Legitimacy and
Voice
Participation: All men and women
should have a voice in decision-making,
either directly or through legitimate
intermediate institutions that represent
their intention. Such broad participation
is built on freedom of association and
speech, as well as capacities to
participate constructively.
Consensus orientation: Good
governance mediates differing interests
to reach a broad consensus on what is in
the best interest of the group and,
where possible, on policies and
procedures.
Accountability: Decision-makers are
accountable to the public, as well as to
institutional stakeholders. This
accountability differs depending on the
organizations and whether the decision
is internal or external.
Transparency: Transparency is built on
the free flow of information. Processes,
institutions and information are directly
accessible to those concerned with
them. Enough information is provided to
understand and monitor institutions and
their decision-making processes.
Responsiveness: Institutions and
processes try to serve all stakeholders.
Effectiveness and efficiency: Processes
and institutions produce results that
meet needs while making the best use
of resources.
 Promoting the free expression of views,
with no discrimination related to gender,
ethnicity, social class, etc.
 Fostering dialogue and consensus
 Fostering relations of trust among
stakeholders
 Making sure that rules are respected
because they are “owned” by people and
not solely because of fear of repression
Accountability
Performance
Fairness
Equity: All men and women have
opportunities to improve or maintain
their well being.
Rule of Law: Legal frameworks are fair
and enforced impartially, particularly the
laws on human rights.
 Making sure that stakeholders possess an
adequate knowledge, and quality of
knowledge, regarding what is at stake in
decision-making, who is responsible for
what, and how responsibilities can be
made accountable
 Making sure that the avenues to demand
accountability are accessible to all
 Making sure that accountability is not
limited to verbal exchanges but linked to
concrete and appropriate rewards and
sanctions
 Ensuring a competent administration.
 Making certain there is sufficient
institutional and human capacity to carry
out the required roles and assume the
relevant responsibilities
 Being robust and resilient, i.e. able to
overcome a variety of threats/ obstacles
and come out strengthened from the
experiences
 Making sure that development is
undertaken with decency: without
humiliation or harm to people
 Ensuring that the governing mechanisms
(e.g. laws, policies conflict resolution
forums, funding opportunities, etc.)
distribute equitably the costs and benefits
deriving from development
 Making certain that public service
promotions are merit-based
 Being consistent through time in applying
laws and regulations
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Towards Converging Management Approaches for Mediterranean coastal zones
Direction
Strategic vision: Leaders and the public
have a broad and long-term perspective
on good governance and human
development, along with a sense of
what is needed for such development.
There is also an understanding of the
underpinning historical, cultural and
social complexities.
 Providing fair avenues for conflict
management and, eventually, nondiscriminatory recourse to justice
 Providing effective leadership, generating
and supporting innovative ideas and
processes.
 Providing or support initiatives to increase
the use of collaborative learning in various
forums.
2.6 Understanding the meaning of integration of integrated plans
Integration means incorporation, merging and synergy of the parts of the different
components to obtain better information and comprehension, better coordination,
coherence, avoidance of inappropriate policies, strategies, investments and activities that
are incompatible and mutually inhibiting, distracting, overlapping or simply repeating each
other.
In other words through integration we aim at increasing knowledge management efficiency,
coordination, coherence and economy in human, material and financial resources. We aim
at providing a better, more comprehensive management and make governance more
efficient and effective. Integration addresses different disciplines, different layers of
governance, different sectors, different interests.
To obtain a more integrated approach usually requires, at initial stages, more efforts and
higher level of cooperation and coordination of different administrations and sectors at all
levels which is not an easy task, particularly if cooperation and integration culture is not
developed in a particular area. In this respect, because integration is an objective but, most
importantly, a mean/tool and not an end in itself, there is always a limit of what should be
integrated and what either should be dealt with separately, or to be combined as an
additional element at a given time, later, when the circumstances allow. The ultimate aim
is, of course, the maximum integration of all relevant components and plans. However
realism, practical spirit and common sense are crucial for successful integrated planning and
management. Sometimes 80% of impacts are caused with 20% of pressures. Those are the
ones to be primarily integrated within the response.
The balance is based on the appropriate choice of the components (e.g. sectors) to be
combined; the tools to be employed and the degree of integration required which may differ
significantly from case to case. In the present experience the integration refers, at first level,
to the methodologies of ICZM and IWRM and, at second, to the individual components of
each one of them as they are used for the needed planning. In fact the two are closely
interrelated and considered in combination in order to make the whole approach less
theoretical and more easily understandable through examples.
35
Towards Converging Management Approaches for Mediterranean coastal zones
Other
ICZM
IWRM
PART I
Other
Other
PART II
PART III
Entire
Entire plus (“holon”/whole)
Figure 8. Visualisation of ICZM, IWRM and other management practices
In combining ICZM with IWRM, including ground waters, it is absolutely fundamental for all
actors involved in the drafting and implementation of management plans to understand in
depth what is common between the two and what, eventually, different.
It is obvious that in various regions/cases the commonalities or differences, respectively,
may be differentiated. However in the vast majority of cases it is expected that the
common/overlapping part between the two approaches overbalances the parts relevant
only for each one of them (see Figure 8). It is also very important to understand that in a
truly integrated Plan it is not only Part I “common”, but the “entire” = Part I + Part II + Part III
and, even better, the “Entire Plus”. To sum up, in order to produce the plan for the part I,
the problem approach that is to be used, can take us to any place within the “entire plus”
where the problem is created. Therefore, the plan for the Part I may contain the
recommendations, actions, measures or interventions related to the “entire plus” as well.
Because, currently, the tendency in preparing all integrated plans is to integrate in them also
the “ecosystem approach”, it is important to summarize at this point the specific provisions
(objectives and requirements) that need to be observed to ensure that the ecosystem
approach has been respected;
Objectives:
• The collective pressure of human activities is kept within levels compatible with the
achievement of Good Environmental Status (GES).
• The capacity of ecosystems to respond to human-induced changes is not
compromised
• The use of ecosystem goods and services by present and future generations is
sustainable
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Towards Converging Management Approaches for Mediterranean coastal zones
Requirements:
• The preservation and enhancement of ecosystems and ecosystem services is
systematically taken into account in the development of human socio-economic
activities.
• The objectives to protect and restore the environment should increasingly set the
boundaries for sustainable use of the natural environment
2.7 Few basic concerns: Implementability; Relevance & Adaptability
One of the known, perhaps the most serious and common, problems of all plans is its low
implementability or improper implementation. Reasons for that lie between the technical
incompleteness or deficiency, and political (un)willingness to overcome political costs which
may result from the implementation of the plan. Another important problem for the
improper implementation is the fragmentation of the authorities that are expected to
coordinate the implementation. Ministries in most of the Mediterranean countries tend to
work in “silos” and if there is no established scheme of coordination for the management
the results remain rather poor. So, the Plan needs to provide for the mechanisms of its
implementation (Governance scheme processes, communication etc.)
It is true that the engagement of the various stakeholders and the local society, in particular,
in preparing and introducing an integrated plan is not “time-neutral”. There are specific
more favorable moments than others for initiating such plans and these are normally linked
with the development and phases.
One of the essential characteristic of an integrated plan is adaptability. Adaptability is an
inherent quality that needs to be built in it and maintained or even enhanced with time.
Adaptability is requested explicitly under the ecosystem approach and, of course, it is the
“core” quality for addressing the impacts of climate change and variability as developed in
the relevant management practices already explained. Very high level of adaptability of an
integrated plan leads to the so called “Adaptive Management”, which is not another type of
management but rather a quality that all integrated management plans should have.
Key principles of the Adaptive Management are the following:
• Flexibility and adaptability of the measures to implement ICZM and IWRM including
groundwater management
• Regular update of sustainability targets to take into account the changes observed in
the system
• Integration of the outcomes of future scientific research
The main Instruments/methods employed for its implementation are:
• Monitoring programmes: measuring progress towards GES, using sets of targets
• Update Strategies according to the outcomes of the monitoring process
Most people refer to adaptability in relation to emerging issues or changing conditions. In
fact for this type of adaptability, flexibility is what we are looking for. Finally, the safest way
37
Towards Converging Management Approaches for Mediterranean coastal zones
to enhance implementability is for the plan to be simple, understandable by non-experts
and based thoroughly on common sense. Such a plan has more chances to gain the support
and ownership of large number and variety of stakeholders.
3. Chapter 3: Various aspects of integration of ICZM and
IWRM
Integration is complex and divers and has many different aspects. Integration begins with
clear definition of the system, its boundaries, its transboundary connections and inner subsystems, their connections and processes. In this case, the system of interest is coastal ecosystem which includes land, fresh surface and ground water, sea, associated living resources,
and the man made environment. This system has transboundary connections with the
upstream river basin system and downstream marine system.
3.1 Integration and Geographical Coverage
The coastline is at the same time the “interface” zone not only between land and the sea but
also between fresh waters (surface and ground) and the marine environment. This interface
zone extends to the entire boarders of the river/basin – catchment area, as it concerns
IWRM and in most cases coincides with the coastline covered by the ICZM.
According to the EU WFD coastal waters are defined on the seaward side at distance of one
nautical mile from the baseline. For the countries with islands that means one nautical mile
from the last island. In such cases there could be a considerable overlap of the territory. In
any case the principle to be followed is “consideration of the wider – covers the more
restricted” (see Figure 10). IWRM extends, theoretically, to the entire river basin. However
entire river basin may be too extensive for an integrated coastal management plan, and
therefore not cost effective. What is of paramount importance is to ensure the “integrity of
the functioning” of the “last” downstream part of the river as the absolutely minimum for
the plan. Upstream, partly cut off subsystems, that function independently or in
semiautonomous way, could be considered as “inputs” to the study system with limited
further analysis. Based on the “differentiated intensity management” explained in a previous
chapter,
some
basic
conditions
could
be
agreed
with
upstream
Communities/authorities/managers which will inform a broad framework for the
management of the area in question. The major coastal part of the watershed, as presented
at the figure 10 may be considered as a sub-basin of the river basin. In any case, it is
necessary to respect the hierarchy of the system in order to achieve desirable harmonisation
of the goals between the river basin and coastal sub-basin management.
From the ICZM point of view, geographical coverage is defined by the Article 3 of the ICZM
Protocol. This article defines the coverage at the seaward side of the coastal zone as the
territorial sea; and the landward limit as the limit of the competent coastal units. This is a
rather pragmatic approach, since it clearly defines the authorities responsible for
implementation of the ICZM, and therefore makes it more operational.
38
Towards Converging Management Approaches for Mediterranean coastal zones
Finally, the geographical coverage for our integrated coastal management plan would be the
coastal sub-basin, with its ground water, transitional water and coastal water, up to the
limits of the territorial sea. However, the integrated coastal management plan could also be
prepared for the small coastal area, in which case the limits could be smaller than the entire
territorial sea.
Partly cut-off and/or adjacent areas of “interest”
which need to be considered in a general way
to enhance coherence of policies and “buffering” effect
Some
acquifers,
acquifers,
some partly
cutcut-off
“upsream”
upsream”
parts of the
system
IWRM
ICZM
Some
“offshore”
offshore”
waters
Coasts
outside the
river basin
The major coastal part of the
watershed
Figure 10. Integration and Geographical Coverage
Similarly other adjacent areas of interest for the site in question may be considered broadly
in formulating such a framework further and beyond the strict boarders of the Plan. An
example of the differentiated intensity in management approaches is provided by the “Man
and the Biosphere” (MAB/UNESCO) methodology (see chapter 2.3).
3.2 Integration across systems
The coastal zone and the adjacent catchment areas frequently include a variety of terrestrial
as well as marine, brackish and fresh water sub-systems, surface and subsurface, that
although they have distinctive functions and different properties are closely interlinked and
synergise with each other through natural processes, as well as through the service
functions they provide. On these natural systems several manmade systems tangible (e.g.
towns) or intangible (administrations, culture), rely and often interact harmoniously or
aggressively and with tensions. Frequently, the more complex the clusters of natural
systems are, the more rich in biodiversity are and more valuable ecological services offer.
The management of these physical systems e.g. the terrestrial part eventually with the
presence of settlements or agricultural uses or sand dunes is frequently under the
jurisdiction of different Ministries or other authorities than the brakish lagoons, for instance,
with traditional aquacultures or the protected wetlands or the deltas or the purely marine
parts of the coastal zone.
A traditional IWRM plan is usually restricted to surface and ground waters with little
reference to brackish and marine systems. Nowadays, the impact of various pressures such
39
Towards Converging Management Approaches for Mediterranean coastal zones
as ground water over-abstraction followed by salt water intrusion affects directly and
indirectly many systems and makes absolutely necessary the integration of management
across systems on the entire coastal zone and, sometimes, even beyond. The most apparent
case for need of integrated management across a system which extends beyond the strict
boarders of the coastal zone is the case of the riverine systems. Management of the
upstream parts is critical for the situation downstream, e.g. at the delta area,
pressures/consumption downstream may inhibit certain uses and allocations upstream, and
vice versa.
Integration across systems is particularly noted and gains special importance when dealing
with problems related to climate change and biodiversity. Without a full integration of all
components and sub-systems it will not be possible to solve these problems successfully.
As for the needed competences and skills to work across systems, particularly when the
manmade ones (socioeconomic or intangible) interact with the natural ones, the issue of
ensuring multi and intra/trans-disciplinarity is of fundamental importance.
3.3 Integration across Sectors
In most cases a majority of important economic sectors and activities are present in the
coastal zone and the river basin and involved directly or indirectly. Such sectors may include
urban and/or rural development, agriculture, aquaculture, fisheries, industry, tourism,
transport, energy. All these sectors are attracted by the natural resources of the area, and
are in competition over sustainable capacities of the resources. Therefore, environment,
economy and society are all affected and connected through these sectors.
From most cases studied until now throughout the Mediterranean, the majority of the
sectors are common, with few exceptions (Figure 11). Closely related to the sectors and – to
some extend- also to the prevailing geomorphological characteristics and pollution transfer
mechanisms in the study area(s), are also the “pressures” exerted on the water resources
and the coastal zone by industry, agriculture or urban settlements. In the majority of cases
reviewed until now these pressures are recognized as “common” and of comparable priority
for both IWRM and ICZM approaches. Several of them give rise to pollution “hotspots”
which are at the centre of attention of the protocol for the land based sources of pollution
of the Barcelona Convention, the National Action Plans (NAPs) of the Mediterranean
countries to reduce pollution and the Horizon 2020 Programme.
40
Towards Converging Management Approaches for Mediterranean coastal zones
Pleasure boat
marinas
Winter sport
centers
Energy production
from upstream dams,
some mountainous
forests, etc
IWRM
Coastal industry,
urban
development,
agriculture,
coastal transport,
aquaculture,
coastal fisheries,
ICZM
etc ..
Maritime
transport,
offshore
fisheries
Figure 11. Integration across sectors
Ubaci tekst u sliku
3.4 Coordination for Integration
In most cases ICZM Plans are administered by Ministries of the Environment and/or Physical
Planning. The same is the case for IWRM plans in approximately half of the Mediterranean
countries, while in the rest Ministries of Water (water and energy etc.) are responsible. In
both cases the coordination is supposed to be shared with other competent national and
regional services of Ministries of Mercantile Marine or other involved with Coast Guards,
Tourism, Agriculture, Fisheries, or Interior etc, while Economic Ministries (e.g. of National
Economy or Finances) are directly or indirectly involved on issues of regional development,
taxation, fees, property rights, compensation, economic tools etc. (Figure 12). These type of
integration usually is described as horizontal integration. Besides horizontal, it is necessary
to secure vertical integration, meaning that integration and coordination of the national
level with the regional (prefectures etc) and local (e.g. city councils etc) authorities of the
area(s).
Article 7 of the ICZM Protocol obliges parties to ensure institutional coordination, through
appropriate bodies or mechanisms, in order to avoid sectoral approaches and facilitate
comprehensive approaches.
41
Towards Converging Management Approaches for Mediterranean coastal zones
Important “peripheral” bodies
Ministry of
Mercantile
Marine
ICZM
Ministry of Energy
(Dept. of offshore
hydrocarbon
exploitation)
some local authorities
Ministry of
Environment
Ministry of Industry
Ministry of Agriculture
……
Many local authorities
IWRM
Ministry of Energy,
(Dept. of
hydropower)
Forestry services…
services….
Some local
authorities
The core of the supervising governance structure
including the “sponsor” organisation(s)
Figure 12. Coordination for Integration
At the Figure 12 different authorities relevant for the ICZM and for the IWRM are presented.
Potentially suitable coordination structure for the integrated management plan have to
bring all competent authorities (core and peripheral) as well as other stakeholders. As
presented in the second part of this publication, it is proposed to have a Steering Group
consisting of the core bodies, as well as consultative group that may encompass all involved
“peripheral” bodies. It is to be expected that a permanent body would have much more
significant role than an ad-hoc body. Finally, the role of this body is of crucial importance for
sustainable development of this area.
3.5 Participation for Integration
In both, in ICZM and in IWRM, adequate participation and engagement of stakeholders are
among the key principles and the crucial factor for success. Article 14 of the ICZM Protocol is
dedicated to the participation, asking for appropriate involvement in the phases of
formulation and implementation of the plans. Given the complexity and the diversity of the
activities in order to achieve integrated management all stakeholders should be involved.
Apart from the representatives of the relevant Ministries and regional or local authorities
and the Professional bodies/chambers etc. of the key sectors active in the area in question,
economic operators, and civil society organizations are to be involved such as national,
regional or local environmental and users/consumers groups, Academia, NGOs, youth and
women organizations etc, In the vast majority of cases the relevant to IWRM and ICZM
stakeholders as groups and sometimes even as persons coincide, perhaps with the
exceptions of few experts/ academics involved only for specific issues (Figure 13).
42
Towards Converging Management Approaches for Mediterranean coastal zones
Mountain
climbing
clubs
IWRM
ICZM
Local authorities
Academia
Scuba diving
clubs
Chambers of tourism and commerce
Stakeholders
Shepards
NGOs
Users organisations
Farmers
Youth
Fishermen
Ferry boat
owners & crew
CSOs
Figure 13. Stakeholders involved in Integration
Much greater differentiations are expected on the Professional and Labor Unions and
interest groups, proprietors of land etc. between the coastal area and professions linked
with it (e.g. fishermen, coastal hoteliers) versus those from more upstream sites (e.g.
farmers or shepherds or hydropower companies etc.). However, this differentiation in
synthesis or emphasis and priority of various stakeholders is not associated entirely with the
nature of ICZM vs. IWRM but exists already within each one of these management practices
and is very common issue particularly when dealing with water allocation in IWRM.
3.6 Governance for Integration
Well defined governance structures improve the integration processes by enhancing
communication, establishing guidelines and policies, reducing conflicts, and fostering
coordination and cooperation. The success lies in forging partnerships and linking initiatives
in order to harmonize needs, expectations and initiatives, avoiding at the same time to get
lost in structures, processes and administration.
Governance is fundamental to ICZM and IWRM since it allows an integrated and adaptive
management approach. If we agree that the coastal zone needs to be approached in a
holistic way i.e. as a unique socio-ecological system governed by multiple links and
interactions, adequate governance models need to be found, capable of responding to
cultural, socio-economic and environmental challenges with dependable solutions.
There are various governance architectures and each situation will require a locally tailored
and, in any case, nested governance approach. As one of the main principles of ICZM and
IWRM is the ecosystem approach, it is expected that the existence of a governance
mechanism covering the needs of both will contribute to the coherence between policies,
plans and programmes they rely on. It will also help defining the competencies/roles,
capacities and ‘capabilities’ that the different stakeholders have in management, as well as
varied connections and trade-offs, e.g. cross-cutting responsibilities, missing or overlapping
responsibilities and rights, conflicts, etc.
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Towards Converging Management Approaches for Mediterranean coastal zones
To be efficient each governance structure has to be designed jointly by a cluster of
institutions and partners that decide what works best for them. Nevertheless, each structure
should have, as a minimum, a document that sets forth its goals and objectives, establishes
the decision-making process, confirms the commitment of participants and defines their
responsibilities. Structures must be established in such a way that they will not be negatively
affected by possible changes in institutional and partner appointed leadership. Each
governance structure needs a committed champion who will work to ensure smooth
working relationships and who will keep the integration efforts moving forward.
3.7 Methodologies & Tools for Integrated Planning
Different methodologies and tools are used for integrated planning. These could be
clustered or specified according to the needs, e.g. for preparation, drafting,
assessment/approval, implementation and monitoring/follow up of the plans. More on
methodologies and tools will be provided in the next section, through the operational, stepby-step guidelines.
44
Towards Converging Management Approaches for Mediterranean coastal zones
4. Chapter 4: The Foundation Documents for IMF
Plans for coastal areas including estuaries within the Mediterranean should be developed
within the context of the ICZM Protocol and IWRM, and institutionalised approximation of
which is offered by the EU WFD. Obviously the latter is obligatory only for the EU Member
and Accession States. However, all non-EU Mediterranean countries and many others follow
voluntarily the EU WFD which, in any case, offers an inspiring guiding document for IWRM.
4.1 The ICZM Protocol
The ICZM Protocol, adopted in 2008, the seventh Protocol in the framework of the
Barcelona Convention, represents a crucial milestone in the history of the Mediterranean
Action Plan. It completes the set of Protocols for the Protection of the Marine Environment
and the Coastal Mediterranean Region. It will allow the Mediterranean countries to better
manage and protect their coastal zones, as well as to deal with the emerging coastal
environmental challenges, such as the climate change.
Ultimately, the ICZM Protocol identifies a hierarchy of a Mediterranean ICZM Strategy,
National Strategies and coastal plans and programmes for individual coastal areas (including
transboundary ones).
General principles of ICZM
a) Marine and land part should be taken as a single entity
b) All elements relating to hydrological, geomorphological, climatic, ecological,
socio-economic and cultural systems shall be taken into account in an
integrated manner
c) The ecosystem approach shall be applied
d) Appropriate governance allowing adequate and timely participation in a
transparent decision-making process shall be ensured
e) Cross-sectoraly organised institutional coordination shall be required
f) The formulation of land use strategies, plans and programmes covering urban
development and socio-economic activities and other sector policies shall be
required
g) The multiplicity and diversity of coastal activities shall be taken into account
and priority shall be given to public services and activities requiring the
immediate proximity of the sea.
h) The allocation of uses should be balanced and unnecessary concentration and
urban sprawl should be avoided.
i) Preliminary assessments shall be made of the risks associated
j) Damage to the coastal environment shall be prevented, and where it occurs,
appropriate restoration shall be effected
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Towards Converging Management Approaches for Mediterranean coastal zones
The ICZM Protocol sets both the framework and the nature of ICZM plans, being:
 Innovative;
 Forward-looking and proactive - preventing and not only reacting to coastal problems;
 Comprehensive - covering all issues crucial for coastal environment and its protection in
the 21st century; and
 Integrated - ensuring institutional co-ordination, co-ordination of national, regional and
local authorities, involvement of non-governmental organisations and other competent
organisations, as well as the integrity of sea and land areas.
The presumption in the General Principles of the Protocol (Article 6) is that all sectors are of
equal importance in the ecosystem approach - achieving the optimal combination of the
approaches within a common spatial and temporal context. Plans for coastal areas should
therefore represent all sectors equally. Where Plans are produced by a combination of
sectors, a clear ‘foundation’ statement should be made prior to the process - a statement
that expresses the shared vision of working together; the larger macro, or high-level
elements of policy abstracted from the individual sectors and the cross-cutting themes; the
interrelationship/communality between them; along with the operational policy means and
consolidated actions. Sectoral integration should achieve optimal solutions rather than
mere compromises or distortions due to institutional funding priorities.
Article 18 of the ICZM Protocol for the Mediterranean defines the coastal plans as follows:
“Coastal plans and programmes, which may be self-standing or integrated in other
plans and programmes, shall specify the orientations of the national strategy and
implement it at an appropriate territorial level, determining, inter alia and where
appropriate, the carrying capacities and conditions for the allocation and use of the
respective marine and land parts of coastal zones.”
4.2 The Water Framework Directive
In 2000, the European Union adopted the WFD which introduces a new legislative approach
to managing and protecting water, based not on national or political boundaries but on
natural geographical and hydrological formations: river basins. It also requires coordination
of different EU policies, and sets out a timetable for action, with 2015 as the target date for
getting all European waters into good condition. EU established a 6-year planning cycle for
the development of River Basin Management Plans, where first are to be reviewed in 2015.
Box II summarizes some key principles of the WFD.
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BOX II: Key principles of WFD
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
protecting all waters, surface and groundwaters;
covering all impacts on waters;
water quality comprehensively defined in terms of biology, chemistry and
morphology;
water management based on river basins;
monitoring programmes for surface and groundwaters, both as a planning tool
and as an assessment instrument;
economic instruments: getting the prices right - to promote prudent use of
water;
mandatory public participation;
complemented/guided by an enhanced cooperation on implementation.
reducing marine pollution from land-based sources and protecting ecosystems
in coastal waters
Member States have had to draw up River Basin Management Plans (RBMPs) to safeguard
each one of the 110 river basin districts of the EU. The EU now has more than 100 000
surface water bodies: 80% of them rivers, 15% lakes and 5% coastal and transitional waters.
The same river can contain different water bodies, since the status of the water may change.
Public participation is a fundamental principle in this process, so European citizens are
expected to play an influential role in planning and implementing the WFD measures.
The WFD introduces a series of important criteria and classifications. The ecological status
looks at the abundance of aquatic flora and fish fauna, the availability of nutrients, and
aspects like salinity, temperature and pollution by chemical pollutants. Morphological
features, such as quantity, water flow, water depths and structures of the river beds, are
also taken into account. The WFD classification scheme for surface water ecological status
includes five categories: high, good, moderate, poor and bad. ‘High status’ means no or very
low human pressure. ‘Good status’ means a ‘slight’ deviation from this condition, ‘moderate
status’ means ‘moderate’ deviation, and so on.
To define good chemical status, environmental quality standards have been established for
33 new and 8previously regulated chemical pollutants of high concern across the EU. The
WFD is backed up by other EU legislation such as the REACH regulation on chemicals and the
Directive for Integrated Pollution and Prevention Control (IPPC) for industrial installations.
The rules for groundwater are slightly different and good chemical and quantitative status is
the objective. Member States must use geological data to identify distinct volumes of water
in underground aquifers, and European law limits abstraction to a portion of the annual
recharge. Groundwater should not be polluted at all – any pollution must be detected and
stopped.
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Under the WFD, Member States had to hold extensive consultations with the public and
interested parties to identify first the problems, and then the solutions, to be included in
river basin management plans. Finally, WFD addresses also the changing environment which
creates challenges for the future, including climate change, floods and droughts.
BOX III: History of WFD implementation
The Directive is implemented through six-year recurring cycles, the first of which covers the period
2009-2015. After the Directive came into force, Member States had to define their river basin districts
geographically, and identify the authorities responsible for water management (2003). The next task
was to undertake a joint economic and environmental analysis (2004), and to identify water bodies at
risk of not achieving the 2015 target. By 2006, countries had to launch water monitoring networks.
The Commission checks each step of the implementation of the Directive. In 2007, in the first WFD
implementation report, it issued its first assessment of progress. In 2009, a second WFD
implementation report evaluated efforts to establish monitoring networks. But the process was
delayed.
2009 was also the deadline for Member States to draw up RBMPs and programmes of measures to
meet the WFD’s objectives. All European waters have to achieve ‘good ecological and chemical status’
by 2015. That means not only low levels of chemical pollution but also sustaining healthy aquatic
ecosystems.
4.3 Groundwater Directive
4.4 Some Additional Legal Documents to be considered
In addition to the already mentioned two basic documents to support the IMF and all
elements and lessons that can be deduced from the other integrated (targeted)
management approaches, one should consider some important inputs from other legal
documents such as:
(1) The EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD), which - to a large degree - covers
the extension of the management beyond the transitional waters to the marine
environment and maritime activities and which constitutes a compulsory framework for
the EU Member States;
(2) Integrated Maritime Policy (IMP), overarching EU strategy for a coherent approach to
maritime issues, with increased coordination between different policy areas.
(3) the UNECE Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and
International Lakes which has been signed and ratified by many of the Mediterranean
Countries;
(4) EU White paper - adapting to climate change
(5) EU Flood Risk Directive
(6) A series of other Conventions (such as the Ramsar, CBD, etc.) to be taken into account in
the relevant parts of the integrated plans.
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Section 2: The planning process and stages
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1. Introduction
There is no single recipe for preparing an integrated coastal management plan because
there are numerous opportunities for starting points and methods to be followed,
depending on the site, its history, previous management efforts and the political and
socioeconomic circumstances. There are quite many elements and components to be
synthesised as it has been evident from the Section 1. However, from reviewing a
considerable number of IWRM, ICZM and other types of integrated plans, sustainable
development plans, integrated management plans and relevant strategies, projects and
schemes proposed in literature and applied until now, we are in a position to broadly
describe a logical sequence of key stages that seem to be practical for the
preparation/drafting of workable plans. There is a wealth of planning experiences under a
variety of names and frameworks the most important of which have been presented in
Chapter 2 and were of particular usefulness for the design of the present section.
1.1. Overview, its dynamic nature and practical suggestions
It is very important to understand the various stages or phases of planning, to be presented
in the following chapter not as cut-off steps but as parts of a “continuum” which is enhanced
by multistage feedback. The latter, if successful, could lead to a “virtuous cycle” of
improvement, deepening and (depending on the necessities) adding details without
however, getting into describing micromanagement which may become soon obsolete.
In elaborating and implementing integrated coastal management plans, there are three
clusters of actions to be considered:
(A) Planning by keeping in mind the inclusion of “no regret measures”, several of which
have been identified by local communities or scientists, e.g., by avoiding building
infrastructures in vulnerable areas, by giving preference to low energy and reduced
material demand options, by promoting waste recycling option, etc.
(B) Using nature, ecological services and natural capital in an appropriate way as
“capital” and “service”(see relevant chapters) by enhancing the functions of natural
regulation systems, e.g. by “re-naturalising” areas which could act as natural
“buffer” or detention zones, such as transitional and intermittent wetlands for
absorbing flood pressures, tsunamis, pollution, etc.
(C) Securing/ preparing/providing both technical and human resources for adaptation
and increase of robustness and resilience of the systems involved to climate change
and also to emergencies and extraordinary events of whatever nature. This also
includes elaboration and testing of the contingency plans, trainings, early warning
systems and putting relevant facilities in place.
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1.2. Schematic representation of the Planning Process
In order to achieve integration, a planning process was agreed within IMF to guide the plan
preparation step by step and identify the issues for permanent and focused integration of
coastal, river basin, aquifer and groundwater management. The guidelines that follow are
structured into 5 sections representing the 5 stages of the agreed planning process within
which the ICZM ingredients are combined with those of IWRM, IGWM and several other
important inputs. This process was developed in collaboration with and is used by the EU
FP7 PEGASO project1.
There are, undoubtedly, many ways to design, draft and present a planning process and
even more ways to systematically depict it. This depends on where the emphasis is placed.
Planning includes both “substance” in the content of each stage and “process”. If the broad
content of each stage is emphasized, the schematic representation of the planning can be
simple and relatively linear. If the emphasis is on explaining the process itself with some
accuracy the representation becomes more complex and “cyclic”.
It is of crucial importance to understand that the stages cannot be developed separately,
without overlapping and without feedback. Linear representations of the stages of the
process should be understood as including dynamic internal interaction among the various
stages but also within each one of the stages. Figure 15. depicts in a rather linear way, an
overview of the plan preparation and implementation process. The sequence of the stages is
very clearly presented and the two arrows on each side of the five steps emphasize (a) the
gradually increasing degree of integration obtained with time and further elaboration of the
plan, while, (b) indicates the expected and needed feedback during the preparation and,
most importantly, during the implementation of the Plan.
The triggers for the initiation of the plan may be different. Starting from the legal
requirements, like the ICZM Protocol or the WFD or some other international or national
legal requirements, through problem escalation in need for solution, new developments
representing opportunities for some more sustainable approach, up to the opportunities
provided through the international donors and alike. The timeliness of the initiation as part
of the Response in the DPSIR framework has been analysed in section 2.
1
http://www.pegasoproject.eu/wiki/ICZM_Process_diagram
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ESTABLISHMENT
•Definig Territorial Scope
•Scoping issues, pressures,..
•Establishing Coordination Mechanisms
•Defining Governance Context
•Engaging Stakeholders
•Proposing a Vision
•Deciding on SEA
•Building the Evidence
•Identifying Futures
SETTING THE
VISION
•Building Consensus
•Setting the Direction
•Measuring Success
DESIGNING THE
FUTURE
•Formulating Plan
•Establishing Management Structure
•Embedding
REALISING THE
VISION
•Implementating
•Acting
•Monitoring and Reviewing
FEED BACK
INTEGRATION
ANALYSIS &
FUTURES
Figure 15. Plan Preparation & Implementation Process: Overview
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2. Five Stages Process
2.1 Establishment
The overall aim of the Establishment Stage is to establish an operational foundation for the
subsequent preparation of the plan and its implementation. Within this stage the team
generates the process of understanding the challenges facing the area, including the
differing perceptions of those challenges, and begins building a constituency of support for
the plan.
In this initial phase it should be clarified what the mission context and mandate are. Who is
asking for the integrated coastal management plan, what Authority will lead and take the
main responsibility for the plan, what statutory /conventional purposes or obligations
towards international conventions the plan will serve or may cover, what are the likely
driving forces to support the planning process, what are the available time and financial
frameworks within which the plan should be drafted. All partners interested for the plan
preparation should agree the final status of the plan at its initiation, particularly where this
plan is being used to meet the statutory purposes of one or more sectors. All relevant
national, regional authorities should be aware and ‘signed up’ to the production of the plan
and the body or bodies responsible for its adoption agreed.
It is not the intention or purpose of this stage to achieve a fully detailed scientific analysis of
the state of the area or the complex interrelationships between issues. Rather, the purpose
is to specify the system, achieve a picture of the likely range of human and natural forces,
the existing sectoral policies and plans, and their potential interrelationships to be used as a
focus for discussion, challenges and opportunities, analysis and the identification of
priorities in subsequent stages.
At this early stage effort should be directed to create tools for engaging stakeholders
through good design, non-technical language and appropriate visualised media.
Key Tasks
1. Defining the initial territorial scope, by identifying the boundaries of the specific
coastal zone and its ecosystems.
2. Initial scoping of the issues and state, pressures and drivers, and risks.
3. Establishing coordination mechanisms for the planning process, (Steering Group,
Technical Group and Consultative Group)
4. Defining the governance context.
5. Engaging stakeholders and preparing communication strategy.
6. Proposing a potential vision for the coastal area.
7. Deciding on Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA).
The key tasks are not necessarily performed in the order as outlined above. They can be run
in parallel. The Work Plan defines timing for each task.
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Potential Outputs
Depending on the type of initiative and its scale and magnitude, an Inception Report,
including the Work Plan, and a Scoping Report may be needed. These may be combined into
a single document.
Inception Report
The Inception Report should be agreed among the core partners in the planning process to
include:
 Background and purpose of the project including the "trigger” factors for the
process (the trigger may be a political decision, a strategic priority or a response to a
specific local problem or issue).
 The shared vision of working together.
 The elements of policies abstracted from different sectors and the cross-cutting
themes.
 The operational policy means of delivery, funding and consolidated actions.
 The geographical boundaries of the coastal area including both the terrestrial and
marine boundaries (system concept).
 External influences (challenges and opportunities).
 International and/or national context, including the relevant legal and strategic
context and parameters of the process.
 The governing partnership and the proposed Coordination Structure, in the form of
the Steering Group or Committee, including its objectives, tasks, mode of operation
etc.
The Work Plan is a constituent part of the Inception Report. It should clearly detail the tasks
and milestones of the Process, the allocation of responsibilities among partners, along with
the logistical structure for technical and administrative support. The objective of the Work
Plan is to help ensure the smooth running of the project and a common understanding of
the time constraints, and to allocate resources efficiently over the planning period. Typically,
the Work Plan should include:
 A detailed description of activities, with a wide range of practical, political and
financial considerations presented.
 A basic time-line that should reflects elements of the planning process.
 A simple GANTT chart that depicts graphically the order in which various stages of
the planning process should be completed to facilitate communication with partners
and stakeholders. This should set out the duration of each phase, outputs and the
key milestones. The GANTT chart should set out the following:
- Planning process stages
- Major outputs
- Key event dates
- Critical milestones centred on key events
- Key financial requirements
- The schedule of implementation.
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Scoping Report
The Scoping Report will contain the following:






The geographical boundaries and the description of the area
A preliminary assessment of the problems, issues, drivers, pressures, existing
response and their effectiveness, risks along with their relative importance, policy
context and inter-relationships.
Coastal governance baseline defining institutional, legal and policy context, as well
as detailed analysis of the key stakeholders to identify their real competencies/roles,
their capacity and importance/relevance for the Process. The ICZM Protocol
specifies the range of stakeholders to be included in the Process: “...the territorial
communities and public entities concerned; economic operators; non-governmental
organizations; social actors; the public concerned.”
A communication strategy.
A potential vision for the area.
Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA), decision on SEA. The environmental
authorities of the relevant state should therefore be consulted on the requirement
for an SEA and its terms of reference.
Foundation statement
All relevant national, regional authorities should be aware and ‘signed up’ to the production
of the plan and the body or bodies responsible for its adoption agreed. Responsible
authority should be clearly appointed and its future legal status agreed.
2.1.1 Defining the territorial scope
Article 3 of the ICZM Protocol for the Mediterranean defines the geographical boundary of
the coastal zone as follows:
(a) “the seaward limit of the coastal zone, which shall be the external limit of the
territorial sea”; and
(b) “the landward limit of the coastal zone, which shall be the limit of the competent
coastal units.”
Exceptions to this are defined where:
(a) the seaward limit is less than the external limit of the territorial sea;
(b) the landward limit is different, either more or less, from the limits of the territory of
coastal units as defined above , in order to apply, inter alia, the ecosystem approach
and economic and social criteria and to consider the specific needs of islands related
to geomorphological characteristics and to take into account the negative effects of
climate change.”
The maximum seaward limit is therefore relatively clear – the external limit of the territorial
sea. However, this is to be decided according the size of the area chosen for the plan.
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The landward limit is however less clear – the type and nature of “competent” coastal units
varies enormously around the Mediterranean in terms of both their geographical scale (from
small municipalities to extensive counties and regions), and in terms of their functions,
competencies and capacities.
Defining the territorial boundaries of the planning area is of crucial importance for
implementation of the plan. The boundary should be defined in a way to encompass all
important problems in the coastal zone in the most effective way, including trans-boundary
issues. That means that the boundary should include eco-system, socio-economic system
and associated water resources important for the zone. In addition, one should keep in mind
that climate change may affect the territorial boundaries and, therefore, the boundaries
should reflect expected future situation. Climatic changes will have impacts on areas that do
not respect the boundaries of a coastal zone as defined in the plan. Sea level rise, for
example may well affect areas outside the defined zone, and extreme events could impact
on areas that extend beyond the defined boundaries, yet are part of an integrated area that
includes the coastal zones.
The water resources management plan must cover an entire river basin district. Where river
basin districts are large, the division of the district into operational areas/sub-basin areas are
possible and recommendable. This provides an opportunity for integrated coastal
management plans which will cover river sub-basin in coastal area. These sub-basin usually
cover transitional water of particular river basin, estuary, wetlands, coastal aquifers and
coastal waters. Such sub-basin is a part of the river system where stagnation of the river
flow and mixing with the sea water occur, and coastal waters with predominantly mixing sea
water take place. As regards the groundwater it is necessary to encompass the area which
has significant impact on the coastal eco-system and socio-economic activities. These water
bodies should be fully integrated with the integrated coastal management plan in order to
fulfil the requirements of the ICZM Protocol (in particular article 18 and 10). In the same
time these plans should fulfil the requirements of the IWRM.
The plan boundary will conform to, or fall within the Protocol’s limits and river sub-basin
definition. The geographical scale of the Plan area cannot be predefined in this guidance, it
will be determined by one or more of the following:
a) National guidance or the allocations of plan responsibilities to individual
administrations, or to levels of administration such as coastal regions, counties
or municipalities.
b) Initiatives from local coastal administrations.
c) The physical nature of the area and its landscape.
d) Fresh water resources characteristics.
e) Local and traditional perceptions of the coastal area or its issues.
f) Functional areas that share common infrastructure, transport and access.
g) The marine area should always be included.
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The territorial scope of the integrated coastal management plan could be presented with
the following scheme:
Figure 16. Parts of coastal zone (Guidelines ICZM)¸
HERE WE NEED THE SCHEME WITH THE RIVER
Whatever the scale, the plan itself should recognise the inter-dependence of the plan area
and its ecosystem as explained in Section 1 and further detailed below.
Methodologies and Tools
In defining the plan boundary therefore, the ‘competent’ coastal units should be reconciled
with the ecosystem, economic, social and political criteria as above, but also take into
consideration the management issues (possibility for efficient management). This also
applies to maritime zones, where the economic and social criteria should be applied,
including coastal tourism, culture, agriculture and economic uses, but also includes patterns
of transport and accessibility and urbanisation. In order to define boundaries of the plan
main processes and impacts should be recognised and boundary delineated in such a way
that a number of transboundary connections are minimal and easily understood and
managed. In this manner the connections between different systems (natural, man-made,
social, economic, etc.) could be easier recognised and elaborated. In that manner drivers
and associated pressures and conditions for the land-freshwater-sea interface should be
considered in order to define appropriate boundary. The ecosystem, as an open system, will
in the majority of situations, extend so far as a significant maritime influence can be
recognised in land-use, ecology, landscape or geology and river catchments.
The use of administrative boundaries should be retained where possible to maintain the
integrity of stakeholder accountability and recognition, policy conformity and statistical
information. A pragmatic compromise of ecosystem and administration may be required.
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Within a fully integrated approach involving water, groundwater and aquifer management
may however extending the boundary of concern to river basins and hydrological
management units including both recharge and discharge areas, the latter in particular may
extend way beyond the coastal area. Similar concerns apply to biodiversity planning which
cannot operate effectively in closed ecosystems.
ICZM has traditionally dealt with the problem of issues which transcend management
boundaries by accepting that, although the physical boundary remains fixed, policy and
programme actions may be required ‘upstream’ or ‘downstream’ (in this case the marine
territory beyond the territorial sea limit. It will be the responsibility of individual parties to
define these boundaries at the scoping stage. This is turn may feedback into the stakeholder
analysis as there may be significant interested bodies or individuals who may be required to
provide input.
In reconciling the differing sectoral boundaries and scales the IMF could therefore adopt the
same approach – recognising that the policy and programme level actions are designed to
impact within a boundary fixed or close to, administrative entities, but that those actions
may take place externally to those boundaries.
The central massage is that, whilst a map boundary may be fixed, the operational limits
will almost inevitably ‘spill over’ significantly into adjoining areas, and possibly to areas
which though relatively physically remote from the plan area, are fundamentally linked,
within the boundaries of ecosystems, in terms of drivers, pressures, impacts and necessary
responses.
The plan boundary may extend beyond national boundaries where relevant. Article 28 of the
ICZM Protocol draws special attention to the need for transboundary cooperation:
“The Parties shall endeavour, directly or with the assistance of the Organization or
the competent international organizations, bilaterally or multilaterally, to
coordinate, where appropriate, their national coastal strategies, plans and
programmes related to contiguous coastal zones. Relevant domestic administrative
bodies shall be associated with such coordination.”
Similar statement is valid for the IWRM plans. The issue of boundary definitions is something
to be brought up at the strategy stage, with a pragmatic view as outlined above being the
recommended approach. When the national strategy being prepared more details should
be provided on how to deal with conflicts between administrative definitions and ecological,
economic, social and political zones. Some resolution of these conflicts should be proposed.
The local plans should then work with the agreed boundary definitions.
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2.1.2. Scoping the problems, issues, drivers, pressures and risks
The objective of this task is to describe the generally understood conditions of the coastal
zone at the start of the planning process, whether or not they are verified or verifiable at
this stage. It is better to include all perceived problems and issues at this stage, leaving them
to be ‘distilled’ into a manageable and refined set of ‘core’ issues later in the process.
The first analysis of key problems and issues should be relatively cursory - primarily to guide
future discussions, to assist in the identification of stakeholders and to identify work
priorities. Recognising that the list will change and be refined over the whole project cycle
once a wider range of stakeholders are brought into the process.
The initial identification of drivers and pressures is next, and it could be carried as
independent task for specialists, or if conditions allow it could be carried out as the first two
stages of the DPSIR (Drivers- Pressures-State -Impacts-Response) framework that provides
the converging framework for assessment, planning and indicators.
Drivers are the high-level forces that ‘drive’ the society to impose or decrease pressure on
the environment of the coastal zone and watershed. As with the Problems and Issues
analysis, the identification of drivers must encompass the full spectrum of the 3 pillars of
sustainability.
This analysis is to describe how these natural and societal drivers lead to pressures on the
coastal zone ecosystem, and to provide a vital communication tool to engage stakeholders.
These could include:
•
Demography and Urbanisation
•
Use of surface water and groundwater resources
•
Use of other resources
•
Economics (e.g. globalisation, market, commerce, GDP and poverty)
•
Climate change
•
Use and adaptation to technology
•
Social and political change
•
Scientific and technological changes
•
Cultural drivers (consumer choice & perception)
•
Land and Marine-use management and changes
Additionally, the analysis of drivers should also include relevant existing or potential
economic, social and environmental policies and programmes of governments at all levels
that will drive change in an area. Examples include sub-regional economic policies,
agricultural subsidy regimes, fisheries quotas, and waste and water quality directives. These
will include both national and local policies and legal instruments, as well as relevant global,
regional and European legislation and conventions. Conversely, the lack of a comprehensive
or adequate policy and legislative framework may also be considered a driver.
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The main drivers and pressures for adaptation to climate change include the following: sea
level rise, change in temperature, humidity, precipitation (causing declines in water
availability in some areas and during some seasons and causing floods in other areas and
other seasons), increased frequency of extreme events (hurricanes, floods etc., heat waves)
and possible increases in risks of vector and water borne diseases. At this stage an
identification of these pressures, and an idea of where and when they are likely to be most
serious, is required. The impact of the pressures will depend, among other things, on future
plans for land use.
The main problems arising from climate change have been broadly identified under the
following headings: damage to infrastructure from sea level rise and flooding, health risks
from heat waves, risks to human life from extreme weather events, shortages of water due
to changes in precipitation and possible saline contamination of groundwater, risks to
human and ecosystems health due to water salinisation, declines in agricultural yields,
possible declines in tourism in the high season and possible increases in the shoulder
seasons due to changes in climate, damages to ecosystems from changes in temperature,
water availability and quality, etc..
Drivers and the resulting pressures to the coastal zone should be divided in two basic
groups: (i) those within the coastal zone, and (ii) those outside the zone, transboundary.
Namely, the inside drivers are controlled locally while the transboundary ones are subject to
regional and/or global changes and, accordingly, it is at that level that they have to be solved
and at that level the coastal zone management adapts to the pressures and situation (for
example climate change). However, when speaking of water resources management, ICZM
can and must deal with the current and expected pressures and situations (upstream and
downstream processes and impacts) jointly with IWRM.
BOX IV: Typical coastal zone drivers and pressures



Local (land use change, urbanisation, tourism and
recreation demand, wastewater discharges, solid waste,
agriculture intensification, traffic, water abstraction, etc.
Regional (water abstraction change of regional
hydrological regime, fisheries and aquaculture, watershed
deforestation, air pollution, upstream change in land use
and crops, etc )
Global (economic and population growth, international
transport and trade, climate change, sea level raise, etc.
The objective of the Risk Identification is to identify key areas of uncertainty, to identify
vulnerability, and to help identify measures to increase the resilience of the coastal zone.
This task seeks to identify the natural and man-made risks to the coastal area of a magnitude
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that exceeds normal ‘trend’ expectations of other pressures. Examples include severe
flooding, acute pollution from watershed or marine sources, or enhanced disaster risk as a
result of topography, sensitivity or proximity to a major natural or man-made risk source, or
even to social or economic instability.
Methodologies & Tools
National, sub-national and local literature search, review of current and former projects and
programmes; stakeholders consultations and interviews; use of local consultants;
observation; brainstorming, such as DPSIR, SWOT Analysis, etc.
The selection of issues must encompass the full spectrum of the 3 pillars of sustainability –
environment, society and economy (avoiding ‘observer bias’ in the identification and
selection of issues resulting from the professional background of the persons conducting the
analysis). The nature and quality of governance is also a key theme that will be developed
through the objectives, indicator and policy process, and should therefore be included in the
problems and issues analysis. The problems and issues should therefore be described under
governance, environmental and socio-economic headings.
The identification of Drivers & Pressures at the ESTABLISHMENT stage will primarily be a
desktop exercise supported by participative techniques such as brainstorming (for example,
the Blue Plan's IMAGINE2 systemic and sustainability analysis method), the results being
clustered according to a list similar to that above - the Drivers will therefore be indicative
rather than definitive at this stage.
BOX V
SWOT analyse
Example for coastal zone
Pressures will require a higher level of quantification in many areas. However, spatial
disaggregation of relevant data (such as GDP levels), trends or information to the local,
coastal level may not always be possible. Approximations in the form of simple
categorisations (such as moderate, severe, very severe; low, medium, high), or simple
numerical scales (such as 1-5) may be appropriate. Such simplification may have benefits in
saving time and aiding communication with non-technical stakeholders. Even the use of
emoticon symbols ( ) has been used to good effect in some areas.
The integrated coastal management plan should note the important climatic drivers and
pressures. It is at the national plan stage that national level data will be collected and at the
local plan stage that further relevant data will be assembles. The collection of data at these
stages is seen as a desktop exercise. There are data sources that provide information at
2
For more information visit www. planbleu.org
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some degree of spatial disaggregation (see the websites listed at the end of this report). For
further information on the likely pressures, a downscaling exercise may be needed, but this
can be undertaken, if required, at a later stage in the process.
Risk identification and initial risk analysis is primarily a desk exercise in conjunction with key
stakeholders and technical experts from relevant sectors. Risk vulnerability is conventionally
categorised according to the:
1.
Nature of the risk and its consequence
2.
Magnitude of the possible adverse consequences from each risk
3.
Probability of occurrence of each risk
Quantification may be possible in many risks (e.g. area of land subject to flooding according
to likely scenarios). However, in many risk cases, approximations and simplifications
proposed above may be appropriate.
BOX VI
Risk analyse
Example for coastal zone
Climate change adds a new and challenging dimension to risk analysis in coastal areas, not
only because of the uncertainty of its scale and impacts, but also because of its long-term
nature compared to, for example, the risk of pollution from a shipping disaster. Climate
change risk analysis will be based on high, medium and low impact scenarios derived from
IPCC projections. Nevertheless, climate change is probably the most important, far-reaching
and difficult to predict risk in terms of the scale and nature of its impacts on the coastal
zone.
2.1.3. Establishing Coordination Mechanisms
Objective of this task is to ensure the plan making process is representative and based on
the governance principles, well informed and transparent, and ensure the plan’s legitimacy
and long-term sustainability.
There are three important, and very distinct, functions that should be clearly separated
within any plan coordination mechanism: to ensure political legitimacy; to provide high
quality solutions; to include opinions and expertise of the community.
The three functions can be seen on the Vital, Essential and Desirable (VED) scale:
1.
Vital: political legitimacy and accountability, financial management
2.
Essential: technical/operational guidance and support
3.
Desirable: local representation and consultation
There are various governance architectures, and each situation will require a locally tailored
approach, however the following model reflects the above VED scale. The stakeholders as
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well as the Administrations responsible for ICZM and IWRM are usually, to a large extent,
common with few, sometimes significant, differentiation see Chapter 3.4.
Climate change and climate adaptation measures should be an integral part of the planning
process and not an add-on or a separate component. The main concern is to ensure that
there is institutional coordination with bodies responsible for climate adaptation and
mitigation strategies and plans. All countries have an obligation to produce a communication
to the United National Framework Convention on Climate Change, detailing greenhouse gas
emissions (GHGs), as well as vulnerability assessments and some actions to adapt to climatic
changes.
Thus from the outset any actions on climate change under the water resources or coastal
management should be coordinated with the National Communication Office of the country.
In addition, local authorities in many coastal zones are already planning to introduce
measures to respond to some of the expected impacts of climate change. It is essential that
these authorities and their plans and procedures be brought into the planning process at
this Establishment stage.
Steering Group or Committee
Composition: representatives of the core political and financial stakeholders in the plan.
Representatives of the funding bodies, national government, the higher-level competent
local administration(s). Good and appropriate balance of local, regional and national
representatives. It is also useful that external experts are included in the steering committee
to transfer knowledge and help in consensus reaching. This group needs at least one
representative from national government or the higher-level competent local
administration(s) familiar with climate issues, possibly because s/he is involved in one of the
other bodies dealing with this topic.
Function: to ensure the smooth running of the project; to support and facilitate
implementation; to ensure political legitimacy, and provide financial accountability.
1.
Technical Group
Composition: technical staff or representatives of organisations and institutions with
knowledge, information and data resources for the plan area and its key issues, along with
logistical and IT support. The technical group needs at least one person with working
knowledge of adaptation to climate change
Function: to develop the high quality plan using the best available technical and logistical
support.
2.
Consultative Group
Composition: representatives of stakeholder organisations, administrations, important
sectors, opinion formers, and key individuals in the process not included elsewhere. The
final composition of the group is defined after the stakeholder analysis. This group should
3.
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include someone from the National Communication Office as well as representative from all
sectors where climate issues have been assessed.
Function: to reflect the opinions and expertise of the community, and to act as a
consultative body at all stages of the plan.
The Steering Group or Committee requires timetabled and formally constituted meetings,
Technical and Consultative Groups can be more flexible and may be served through mailing
lists, virtual media etc. Each group will require its own Terms of Reference (ToR’s) to specify
remit, membership, frequency of meeting, meeting procedures etc.
When the integrated coastal management plan is agreed, the Steering Group should specify
the route and appropriate national or regional body or bodies to formally adopt the plan.
The plan may be adopted by one or more Ministries, by regional or by local authorities. It
may also receive joint endorsement. Sponsoring organisations may also be asked or require
a formal endorsement.
Methodologies and Tools
It is important to design the scale and complexity of the governance structure consistent
with the staff and logistical resources available to support it. At that it is necessary to take
into consideration the characteristics of the zone and the problems being solved, especially
with regard to the transboundary drivers and impacts if relevant for the coastal zone.
Central themes for coordination and governance are:
 Ensure equal involvement/participation of all stakeholders and partners,
 Search and secure funding,
 Set realistic goals and objectives with a reasonable implementation timeframe,
 Keep ongoing, open lines of communication with all stakeholders involved,
 Have unconditional support of local and regional/national authorities and selected
officials,
 Have a well- trained staff,
 Standardise and network all software, hardware, and protocol as much as possible,
 Use ICTs as much as possible.
2.1.4. Defining the Governance Context
Objective of this task is to define the coastal governance baseline by informing stakeholders
on the development of the plan; by providing feedback into complementary plans and
programmes; and by identifying policy and institutional gaps. For appropriate understanding
of the governance see Chapter 1.3.
The ‘mapping’ of the many relevant institutions, along with their policies and functions, is an
essential first step in defining the operating context of the plan. A thorough understanding
of key institutional, legal and policy drivers at international, national and local scales is key
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to ensuring the relevance and effectiveness of the plan. The spatial boundaries of
administrations and their relevant functions should also be mapped.
A stakeholder analysis should be performed in order to identify and assess the importance
of key people, groups of people, or institutions that may have significant influence on the
success of the ICZM Process. It is an act of identifying the individuals or groups that are likely
to affect or be affected by the actions proposed in the ICZM, these groups will have in the
process. It is important to identify their real competencies/roles and capacities they have
related to the management of the coastal zone. It should also identify the relationships (e.g.
cross-cutting responsibilities, missing and overlapping responsibilities, rights, levels of
conflict) within and among different stakeholders.
Relevant institutions at the national scale are the relevant government ministries or
agencies. As explained in the section 1, institutions responsible for coastal and for water
resources management are not the same. In addition, the influence on the future of a
coastal zone of other sectoral ministries or agencies - for example agriculture, water,
fisheries, tourism, infrastructure and economic development, maritime affairs - may be of
equal or greater significance.
As regards the climate change, the institutional context at the national level is already well
established. These include:
•
Ministry of Agriculture, for possible impacts in terms of crop yields
•
Ministry of Environment, especially the Department dealing with water
management, pollution control and ecosystem health

Ministry of Water Resources management, if exists
•
Ministry of Health, dealing with consequences of heat waves, vector and water
borne diseases and increased risks of food contamination with higher temperatures
•
Departments responsible for land classification (local and central).
•
Ministry of Tourism
An understanding of relevant private and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) will also
be essential. Individuals and enterprises with significant investments in the coastal zone will
be well aware of the increased climate risks and will be planning to take some measures.
These measures, however, will depend very much on what policies the government is
putting in place and there is a strong inter-linkage between actions by the two sets of actors.
It is critical that the ICZM, as well as IWRM are aware of the private sector’s plans and
provide it with the right framework and incentives so it can make a cost effective
contribution to adapting to climate change. The potential role of private sector and NGOs as
a service provider through for example mapping, data or meeting space, as a client for plan
outputs, as a potential facilitator or intermediary with key groups, or even as potential
partners should be well understood. One of the industries most endangered by the climate
change is insurance industry. Together with the banking sector they may represent key
partners for the alliance against the climate change.
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Similarly, the policy context will be equally broad; ranging from spatial plans to economic
development strategies and sectoral plans and policies for environmental protection,
energy, transport, waste, agriculture, tourism, water resources management, etc. The key
plans and programmes, along with the organisations responsible for them, must be
identified.
As important as the existence and importance of institutions, policies and programmes is an
understanding of their effectiveness, their influence, or in some cases, their absence.
Mapping should therefore encompass any weaknesses and gaps.
Finally, the legal context for ICZM and IWRM planning interventions should be defined. In
principle, it is at the national level where major legal acts affecting coastal development are
being adopted. All relevant laws and regulations should be identified and their impacts on
the respective coastal area briefly assessed. In addition, there may exist regulation adopted
at lower, regional or municipal, administrative level. It should be identified and analysed in
the same manner as described above.
The integrated coastal management plan needs to liaise with all individuals, institutions and
groups named above to understand their positions and, ideally, play the role of coordinating
their efforts for the effective management coastal zones. This can only be done if this plan
has buy in at the highest level and recognition for its capacity to play this coordinating role.
Methodologies and Tools
Stakeholder analysis will be carried out in the Establishment stage, but its results will be fully
utilised in the subsequent stages of the planning process. The process should allow for the
iterative evolution of the analysis as more stakeholders become involved.
Identification of legislation, policies and programmes: desk-based documentary analysis
supplemented by interviews early in the process.
BOX VII
Typical stakeholders for ICZM
Institutional and functional analysis: various tools are available for such as mapping and
clustering (to be added), however there is no straightforward technique for identifying the
‘political’ sensitivity by those managing the process. Institutions should be considered
according to their:
 remit, both functionally and spatially
 relevance to both the coastal zone and water resources, to its problems and issues
 resources and skills, including technical resources, personnel, data and information
 influence, including both legal and political
 role in relation to the plan process as either service provider, client, facilitator or
potential partner.
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The identification of the key institutional aspects of coastal management should be done in
the Strategy, including those relating to addressing climate change. In the national and local
plans these linkages should be implemented, ensuring that all the important stakeholders
are included in the process of preparing the plan.
2.1.5. Engaging Stakeholders and preparing Communication Strategy
Objective is to ensure full engagement of stakeholders and the public in the planning
process and its implementation.
Time and resources must be planned for the process of consultation either formally or
informally to ensure that stakeholders and the wider public in the coastal area are not just
aware of the plan and its importance, but are also engaged in the process. As far as climate
change is concerned key groups need to be informed about the major climate changes in the
area of interest, the likely consequences of these changes and the increased risks they
represent. This can be done without providing too much technical detail.
The groups who need to be involved will include local communities, government agencies,
NGOs, business, media and opinion formers etc., providers of tourism services, private
developers, and those engaged in agriculture and fisheries. Based on these consultations
options for action will be drawn up. The same groups need to be consulted once these
options have been evaluated technically to get their feedback. The final plan will be based
on a consensus that includes opinions from these key stakeholders.
Ultimately the success of the implementation will rely on the key audiences being inspired
by the plan process and its objectives. It is recommended therefore that a simple
communication strategy be produced during or shortly after the establishment stage,
outlining how these different participatory activities will be carried out and what other,
wider, communications will be undertaken.
BOX VIII
Typical communication tools & techniques
Based on the stakeholder analysis, a Communication Strategy, defining stakeholder
engagement, will be drafted at this stage. The communication strategy should be developed
by expert in this subject. Communication Strategy should contain the following:
Communication Objective – communications should support the Vision & Objectives of the
plan itself.
Key message and the ‘identity’ of the plan – ICZM, IWRM and other acronyms are not
recognised or relevant to the non-technical audience, the technical nature of the process
can be a barrier to effective communication. The Key Message should be positive, simple
and widely accepted (see Setting the Vision).
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A professional branding and identity specification will ensure consistency of presentation
across media and the web, throughout the process and strengthen the wider recognition of
the plan.
Identification of key audiences: this should follow from the stakeholder analysis, but should
include a brief description of what each group should know about the plan; what reaction or
‘result’ from each group (e.g. raise awareness, become involved, change entrenched
attitudes, give political support etc.); and the appropriate media. Key individuals may also
be identified who may become ‘ambassadors’ for the plan. The audiences will also divide
between external (i.e. local communities, government agencies, NGOs, business, media and
opinion formers etc.), and internal (partners, technical staff and external consultants etc.).
Communication and Promotion Mix: how the message is conveyed. To the external
audience this will include; press and TV, online, print, events and conferences. Internally this
will include meetings, printed media and electronic media, including e-mailing and social
networks. Training in communication may be required. Innovative methods of
communication and visualisation should be used as much as possible.
Measurable targets should be set where possible (e.g. number and frequency of press
releases, printed material, number and type of meetings etc.) along with measures of
effectiveness (e.g. hits on web-site, attendance at meetings etc).
Budget: define what funds are required within the programme and what external support
can be offered by partners (for example human resources, web hosting, meeting venues,
etc.).
2.1.6. Proposing Potential Vision
The scoping process should help identify key points around which the vision could be
formulated, and where there are potential conflicting sectoral visions depending on the
point of view or sector in question.
The first step in the planning process is to complete the integrated costal plan’s vision and
goals. The planning process should be guided by a vision statement. Writing a vision
statement is a meaningful exercise during which one should permanently test whether the
desired vision will actually succeed in achieving the ultimate goal of sustainable coastal zone
development. The main vision is sustainable development of a coastal zone based on
“greening”. In green economy, for instance, the growth in income and employment should
be driven by public and private investments that reduce carbon emissions and pollution,
enhance energy and resources efficiency, prevent the losses of biodiversity and ecosystem
services and create equitable society. Coastal zone economic and environmental issues are
inseparable and have a major impact on local green economy. How to transit to a green
economy in a particular coastal zone requires a mix of short- and long-term policies well
adapted to the zone characteristics (natural, social and economic) and the zone’s wider
environment (cut-off upstream parts of river basin and other areas of interest).
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For example, spatial plans may propose large urban and tourism development in areas that
are highly vulnerable to climate change (due to e.g. sea level rise and coastal inundation).
Similarly, proposals to protect from flooding or coastal erosion could cause significant
biodiversity losses and undermine natural equilibrium. Economic growth is often most
dynamic and highest in coastal areas, leading to further environmental stress. The need for
sustainable development is also highly accepted determinant of the vision for the future;
however there are often substantial differences in understanding of what is actually
sustainable.
The scoping report should at least pose the question “what do you consider unsustainable
that needs to be changed” and eventually a second question on “what do we want to see in
the area in a 15 – 20 years time” and propose at least a tentative vision shared amongst the
key stakeholders to expose to a wider audience in order to trigger the next stage – Analysis
and Futures.
PAP/RAC has defined a ‘model’ vision for the Mediterranean coast which encompasses 6
principles of sustainable development:
“A coast that is:
• resilient - resilient to climate change, resilient to natural processes, resilient to
human processes
•
productive - productive financially, competitive, high in value, increasing GDP,
alleviating poverty
•
diverse – diverse in ecological, diverse in experiential terms
•
distinctive – distinctive culturally, distinctive in marketing
•
attractive – attractive to visitors, investors and to local people
•
healthy – free from pollution”3
Based on the vision statement, the goal and objective setting as substantive exercise should
be defined when a clear idea of the problem and full knowledge of the commitment to a
solution are known.
2.1.7. Deciding on Strategic Environmental Assessment
Another assessment technique, or EU legislation, may be relevant for the plan team to
consult. Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) may be requested by law for some
countries. For EU Members and Accession states SEA is required for some large plans or
programmes. SEA is also requested by the ICZM Protocol’s article 19 for plans and
programmes affecting the coastal zone. However, as regards coastal plans, programmes and
strategies most of the requirements within SEA are already embedded in the ICZM process.
3 Shipman, Henocque & Ehler, The Way Forward for the Mediterranean Coast: a framework for implementing regional ICZM
policy at The national and local level; Priority Actions Programme/Regional Activity Centre, Split, December 2009.
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“Strategic environmental assessment (SEA) is a systematic process for evaluating the
environmental consequences of proposed policy, plan or programme initiatives in order to
ensure that they are fully included and appropriately addressed at the earliest stage of
decision-making, on a par with economic and social considerations.
Evaluating Socio Economic Development, SOURCEBOOK 2: Methods & Techniques. Strategic
environmental impact assessment. EU Regional Policy, INFOREGIO, December 2009
If there is an SEA made for the planning area, it should be consulted, and vice versa. Study
should be carried out independently but in close collaboration with the planning team and
may proceed in the same manner as the planning process. It should be an interactive
process producing judgements and recommendations by SEA experts. It is an integral and
parallel part of the planning process. The report may be part of the plan, but in any case it
must be clearly distinguishable.
BOX IX: Environmental issues and concerns under the EU SEA Directive












biodiversity, fauna and flora
population and human health
soil
water
air and climatic factors
material assets
cultural heritage, including architectural and archaeological heritage
landscape.
energy efficiency
use of renewable and non-renewable resources
adaptation to climate change
transport demands, accessibility and mobility, etc.
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3 Analysis & Futures
The overall aim of Analysis & Futures stage is to establish an operational foundation for the
subsequent preparation of the plan and its implementation – making the invisible visible and
engaging stakeholders in the search for outcomes.
The objectives of the Analysis & Scenarios stage are:
1.
To substantiate the issues and problems through more rigorous analysis and review,
describe the present ‘State’ and likely future trends.
2.
To evaluate the coastal zone natural, technical, financial and managerial capacities
including future capacities resulting from climate change impacts.
3.
To assess system change and effective response to external changes and
opportunities.
4.
Identify strategic options of coastal zone development for achieving its goals.
5.
Identify carrying capacities and conditions for the allocation and use of the
respective marine and land parts of the coastal zone in accordance with the
identified expected changes.
6.
Through the use of tools and scenarios to generate and test alternative views of the
future.
7.
To lay the foundations of future cooperation and implementation through pilot
actions and the identification of future funding sources.
Key tasks
1.
Building the Evidence: closer analysis of key issues where needed and finalisation of
the DPSIR
2.
Identifying futures: building alternative scenarios and testing - including pilot
actions, and identifying potential future funding sources.
Potential Outputs
Diagnostic Report: state and trends. It is recommended to complete the DPSIR framework at
this stage.
Alternative scenarios: it is necessary and always useful to consider more scenarios in order
to have better understanding of the future. These scenarios should also include the
preliminary schedule of future funding sources for implementation, and the first pilot
actions where appropriate. The alternatives have to be politically feasible, environmentally
sound, socio-economically acceptable and politically permissible.
3.2.1. Building the Evidence: Diagnostic Report
Building the Evidence and the elaboration of the Diagnostic Report should start from
identification of the sources of the existing data and information and collection and
processing of those data and information (e.g. coastal lands, marine waters, hydrological,
environmental, socio-economic, legal, institutional, infrastructure, etc.)
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Within the parameters of the objectives and indicators, the task is to better understand both
the present context as well as the future flows of processes in the area. This is achieved by:
I.
General description of characteristics of the coastal area, including capacity (natural
environment, built environment, social environment, economic environment)
II.
Analysing in greater detail key problems and issues and, then, summarizing the
existing conditions of the area and root causes, focusing on the agreed priorities
(governance, environmental and socio-economic).
III.
Assessing the water system structure and roles in terms of the hierarchy from
governance, to management, to organization, as well as what service functions the
water system presently provides.
III.
Projecting the conditions forward on the basis of possible or likely trends for periods
compatible with the lifespan of the plan.
IV.
Examining factors such as goods and services provided by the ecosystem, along with
wider area’s issues such as erosion, land husbandry, deforestation, water
abstraction and pollution (both point sources and diffuse) either through their
impact on the plan or by displaced impacts in other areas resulting from actions
within the coastal areas.
V.
Analysing wider environment in order to provide necessary evidences of existing and
future trends and impacts on the coastal zone. Impacts from the climate change are
already taking place, only question is how fast these changes are taking place and
magnitude.
The objectives here are two-fold: first, to ensure a solid basis for discussion and decision
making; and second, to provide a basis for the visualisation, testing, development and
discussion of alternative futures, in other words, “to make the invisible visible”.
The value of local, or ethnic knowledge should also be recognised and sourced. It should be
recognized that the affected citizens and employees in a coastal community may have a
profound knowledge of the coastal system, and should be actively involved in the analysis in
order to improve the quality of the analysis itself.
Techniques and Tools
Whilst technical data, measurable objectives and indicators are easily visible and underpin
integrative planning, it is the intangibles - the assumptions, interests, beliefs, agendas and
real power structures - that must be engaged in order to allow any real progress. The
challenge is how to create the preconditions for these intangibles to play their legitimate
role in the plan.
Much data and information will already be available; so the first task is to source, assess and
re-present this. New research should only be required to fill the gaps or update existing data
and information. Importantly, the data and information collected should be ‘fit for purpose’
for its intended use i.e. it should be appropriate and of a necessary quality, without being
excessively complex or expensive to obtain than required.
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One of the important ways of utilising the data at this stage is to complete the DriverPressure-State-Impacts-Responses (DPSIR), since it is a tool that aims to develop appropriate
management responses to certain environmental problems. It is a descriptive, simple and
flexible cause-consequence loop which illustrates the links between human activities and
environmental processes. It has been widely used in environmental research, as it helps
stakeholders to understand the importance of natural systems in the decision-making, as
well as the repercussions of economic activities.
The main elements of the DPSIR framework are:
 Drivers (or driving force of certain environmental problem) - they are a result of human
needs to satisfy their primary (shelter, food, water, energy) and secondary requirements
(mobility, culture, entertainment). They include social, economic and demographic
changes in societies, which are reflected in changes in production and consumption
levels, and people’s lifestyles in general.
 Drivers lead to pressures on the environment. They are results of production and
consumption processes and, usually, they are reflected in increased emissions of
harmful substances in the air, water and soil; land use changed; excessive usage of
certain resources; alterations of sediment, water cycle and capacity of water resources
etc.
 Pressures result in altered state of the environment. The state of the environment
represents the level of environmental quality, which is reflected in environment’s
biological, physical and chemical conditions.

Altered state of the environment exerts environmental and economic impacts on
ecosystems (such as altered biodiversity, social and economic impacts, repercussions on
human health etc.)

Responses are prioritisations with the aim to reduce negative impacts on environment,
economy and society in general. Responses can affect any part of the chain between
drivers and impacts. In case of ICZM Plan Process, the Responses should be discussed in
form of proposals of how to deal with environmental issues. IWRM response cover river
basin as a whole including coastal sub-basin responses fully integrated in a set of
responses of ICZM.
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Figure 15. Schematic presentation of the DPSIR Framework proposed by Global
International Water Assessment (GIWA), 2001; European Environment Agency (EEA).
The Driving Forces, Pressures, State, Impact, Response sequence (DPSIR framework), maybe
even if sometimes disturbed by unexpected external parameters, indicates that the
initiation of an integrated plan represents a Responses phase of a well documented and
communicated cycle where the Pressures and Impacts are well understood and therefore
there is adequate public support or even demand for a coherent strategy to address the
problem. Therefore, during the analysis stage drivers, pressures, state and impact should be
documented, analysed and understood. However, feedback, monitoring and appropriate
adaptations should be a part of the process all along the plan preparation and
implementation.
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Dodati D – urban area; R –treatment, land use; S-sea
Figure 9. The DPSIR policy cycle/framework
Building the evidence also has to identify challenges and opportunities. It includes an
assessment of the zone capacity for green development, and learning the systems strengths
and weaknesses. It is also necessary to assess if the zone can cope with the expected climate
change and effectively respond to external challenges and opportunities. The zones that
have a clear understanding of their services roles in sustainable development, as well as of
their surrounding environment and the internal capacities are well positioned to identify
alternative future scenarios.
DPSIR
Future Trends will inevitably be speculative, based on retrospective data, or on accepted
forecasts; but where relevant they should match those used by sectoral decision-makers and
be ‘likely’ rather than ‘desirable’ trends at this stage.
The plan team should use the best available climate scenarios provided by the IPCC and the
national meteorological and other relevant organisations. From a climate viewpoint the key
tasks are to:
•
Identify the main elements of climate variability and change in the short- (10-20
years), mid- (30-40 years), and long-term (60+ years) periods.
•
The impacts of this variability and change on key sectors and the risks associated
with them.
These and other broad estimates of climate impacts in the region are a strong indication of
the magnitude of the impacts that need to be taken into account in any future coastal plans.
In doing, however, it is important to avoid duplication of effort and to draw on existing work
that has been undertaken at the national, regional and global levels. The best point of
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departure is the National Communication by the country the UNFCC, which should provide
at least national level estimates of the main impacts in terms of temperature increase, sea
level rise, precipitation and extreme events. By the very nature of the problem, such data
cannot consist of point estimates, but must be provided in the form of ranges. Thus they
will take a form that makes it appropriate to adopt a risk based assessment at future stages
of the process.
Cimate change
Global warming
Sea level rise
A. Coastal zone and
hinterland
B. Estuary and rivers
C. Coastal
groundwater flow
regime
D. Imapct on water management
Figure xx. Impacts of climate change and the related sea level rise affecting the coastal areas
(modified from …)
IZVOR :
Coastal Areas
Impacts
Increased risk of flooding
A. Coastal zone and hinterland
B. Estuary and rivers
Increased wave attack
Increased tidal range
Increased storm surge
Population at risk
Changes in morphology:

Coastal erosion

Dune erosion

Shoreline retreat
Land losses, land degradation
Increased risk of flooding
Population at risk
Changes in sediment load: river bed elevation
Backwater effect
Salt water intrusion
Increased seepage
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C. Coastal groundwater flow regime
D. Impact on water management
Crop losses, land degradation, changes in ecosystems:
decrease in diversity of species
Salt water intrusion in aquifers
Rise in piezometric level
Extra upcoming saline groundwater
Decrease of fresh water resources
Increase of seepage:

quantitative

qualitative
Safety
Domestic & industrial water supply
Agriculture & horticulture: salt damage to crops
Flushing of water courses
(beach) recreation: narrowing of sand-dune areas
Ecosystems: degradation
Navigation
Irrigation
infrastructure
Examples
WFD to addapt to this plan, elements 1-5
A summary of significant pressure and impact of human activities on the status of the
environment
3.2.2. Identifying Futures: Scenarios, Pilot Actions and Funding
Based on the “Building the evidence” stage and the resulting Diagnostic Report in this stage
the task is to analyse several scenarios in order to identify the possible futures. Based on the
results of this stage and the proposed scenarios in the next stage the final vision will be
agreed. The final plan configuration is determined by selecting a small number of
representative and promising alternatives for detailed analysis.
Scenarios - alternative, ‘what if?’ visions of the future – and the process of generating them
is to be used as a key part of the plan’s development. Scenarios are also to be used to:
 Provoke debate about common futures
 Expand the range of options
 Expose contradictions and conflicts
 Clarify and communicate the technical analysis
 Expose uncertainties for future state and developments
 Evaluate policies in the face of an uncertain future
Scenarios and the process of scenario development should engage the imagination of both
the planners and the stakeholders. Their value should be to widening the participant's
perception of possible future events and possibilities and encourage 'thinking the
unthinkable'.
Scenarios can be generated from a combination of factors, such as demographics or
economic growth, with plausible alternative political, social, technical, legal and
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environmental trends as key driving forces. Climate change scenarios are part of every
scenario for the plan zone. When developing a scenario, trans-boundary or external
(upstream to river basin and downstream to the sea) challenges and opportunities have to
be properly considered in order to build a realistic scenario for the coastal zone.
Asking what actions are required to mitigate the negative, or reinforce the positive aspects
of the likely scenarios can then inform the formulation of plans. Various combinations of
tactical options, which can be implemented within the existing scenario framework, and
structural options, which require fundamental changes to the existing scenarios, have to be
considered.
There are many variations of the scenario process, but they can be placed between two
extremes:
1.
A limited number of top-down scenarios generated formally by the planning team
and subject to a formal consultation – often consisting of ‘high’ and ‘low’ scenarios centred
on a ‘do nothing’, ‘business as usual’ or median option.
2.
A fully participative process involving facilitated workshops etc. at which few
constraints are placed on the number or range of alternative scenarios generated; whether
objective or subjective, driving forces and outcomes are given equal weight.
The option 1 requires an effort to do a research and quantification, but is self-limiting in the
quality or innovation of options. It also largely self-fulfilling in terms of stakeholder response
and the resulting strategy. Option 2, following the fully participative process, offers more
creative way forward in terms of the selected outcomes and, more importantly, taps in to
local knowledge and encourages the ‘ownership’ of the outcomes but is less endowed with
quantified outcomes and indicators. The best option would be to combine the two:
scenarios based on research, analysis and quantification, and scenarios based on
participative process where decision making could be simulated (option 2) and impacts
these decisions assessed (option 1). It is important to note that scenario making is not, per
se , a decision making process. It may simulate decisions, but actual decision making could
take place only in the planning process.
The indicators can be used to help ‘measure’ the impacts of the alternative scenarios in
terms of costs and benefits – recognising and accepting that in many cases these will be
speculative. The degree of sophistication applied to the technical evaluation of alternatives
through, for example, coast-benefit analysis, will be dependent on the resources and
expertise available. Risk indicators also have to play an important role in the alternative
analyses.
Box
Typical set and hierarchy of goals and objectives relevant to the coastal zone sustainable
development + indicators including WFD
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One of the most powerful tools for securing stakeholder and public ‘buy-in’ to the ICZM
Process is through Pilot Actions. The executions of pilot actions - especially eye-catching,
showcase projects – can be one of the most important tools to demonstrate the benefits of
collaborative action to the area. Pilot actions and small-scale demonstration projects are
designed to:
1.
Give real, practical and visible substance to the planning process
2.
Build trust and capacity by engaging a wide variety of stakeholders in collaborative
activities
3.
Test and enhance the local potential for future interventions.
Community-based pilot actions can take many forms; from small-scale concrete actions, to
awareness-raising events, data collection and local knowledge sharing. Pilot actions are
primarily demonstrations of the relevance and potential of ICZM. In particular, the actions
should test the benefits of an integrated approach. They can be linked to wider events such
as the annual Mediterranean Coast Day. There is no one accepted technique for pilot
actions. Such actions should be closely adapted to the local cultural context plus the local
capacity for such projects.
The criteria for selecting the right project as a pilot can include:
•
Relevance
•
Integrative nature
•
Duration
•
Manageability
•
Cost
It is important to perform a preliminary identification of key potential funding sources for
the subsequent implementation. Although the action plan will not yet have been elaborated,
the identification of potential major funding sources will help create the favourable
preconditions for the delivery of the strategy, plan or programme by linking them with the
results of the scenario development. If specific scenario has the feasibility of its
implementation tested through identification of potential funding sources it could be
considered, then, as more realistic.
1.
Ensuring that the proposed actions are realistic and deliverable.
2.
Reducing the time gap between plan and actions – thereby maintaining momentum,
stakeholder confidence and support.
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Methodologies and Tools
The literature contains many scenario tools for sustainability. No one technique is prescribed
here for the coast, rather the precise techniques used will vary with local cultures, social and
administrative complexity, local capacity and other contextual factors. In all cases however,
the added value of participation should be maximised. This stage can be successfully realised
by application of the methods of the system analysis for the formulation of the alternatives,
negotiation and conflict resolution considering the controversy among different users and
interest groups, taking into account uncertainties and stochastic character of the system
inputs and the interrelation between the water and coastal management systems.
Two key scenarios related to the climate change impact on the coastal zone should be taken
into account: flood risks and drought and water scarcity. Sea level rise risks should be
appropriately included in both scenarios.
As for the methods, in Coastal Area Management Programmes “Imagine” method has been
used. Recently a Bayesian belief network, a probabilistic graphical model is used to
represent, for example, the relationship between diseases and symptoms.
3.3. SETTING THE VISION
The overall aim of the Setting the Vision stage is to engage the stakeholders in the joint
vision for the coastal zone, and to set the course for the eventual ‘shape’ of the plan and its
implementation. From selected set of alternatives the team, in agreement with the
stakeholders, based on the necessary trade-offs between different interest groups and uses,
will propose the optimal long-term vision.
A vision should be both rational and inventive: "Prospective is above all an attitude of mind
… and a way of behaving…. If it has no future direction the present is empty of meaning....
The rational and the inventive trends of strategic planning are complementary, only prima
facie they seem opposite."4
The vision must be complemented by a set of goals, in order to know what we want to
accomplish. This means when as well as what, and also includes the questions of how much
it will cost and what the consequences and benefits will be.
Key tasks
1.
Consensus Building - agreement among stakeholders and the wider community on
the key problems, issues and priorities for the plan area.
2.
Setting the Direction – agree on the vision for the plan area, the priorities and the
consistency of the objectives of the plan.
3.
Measuring Success: select the indicators to measure the success of both the
planning process and its outcomes.
4
Godet, M. 1987. Scenarios and Strategic Management, Butterworth: London
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Potential Outputs
A single Vision Statement including priorities and objectives, along with supporting
interpretive material and reports of the participation process, as well as Indicator Matrix (to
be "populated" throughout the following stages of the plan preparation and its
implementation).
3.3.1. Consensus Building
Stakeholders identified in the Stakeholders Analysis performed in the Establishment stage
should now be fully active in order to filter, validate and amend the issues arising from the
Scoping Report, which were confirmed and further developed during the Analysis and
Futures Stage with the aim to identify priorities.
The objectives of consensus building are to:
•
Validate and amend the Analysis Report based on stakeholder reaction.
•
Identify the inter-linkages between the Drivers and Pressures, and the Problems and
Issues in a DPSIR (Drivers, Pressures, State, Impact, Response) framework, and to agree on
the risks confronted.
•
Refine a shared set of Priorities.
This process has to answer which alternatives are optimal/preferred in terms of selecting
criteria, and why. At this stage a clear distinction between vision, goals and objectives has to
be visible. Objectives are means to fulfil the goals, while the goals are the explanation of the
vision.
VISION
G2 GOALS
OBJECTIVES
G1
O3
2
O2
1
Figure xx Hierarchy of vision, goals and objectives
Bottom-up vs. Top-down Priorities
Additionally the planning process will need to reconcile the community-based priorities with
those originating at a higher governmental or sectoral level, (river basin, environmental,
socio-economic, etc.) Ideally, these should be mutually supportive where, for example,
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community concerns relating to local seawater are reflected in a statutory requirement to
meet national or international standards, or groundwater quality. Equally however, priorities
may conflict in, for example, the adaptation to climate change requiring localised
development restrictions and for example groundwater abstraction restriction.
A further refinement or consolidation into a shorter number of ‘headline’ issues will aid
objectives and indicator selection in later stages.
3.3.2. Setting the Direction
Setting the Direction, or preparing the Vision Statement, will define the desired or intended
future state, function and services of the coastal area. The vision describes in simple terms
the condition of the coastal area in the future, in a time span of 10 to 30 years and even
beyond, if the plan is implemented successfully. Ideally the vision statement should be:
 Clear and compelling
 Aligned with plan partners’ and the community’s aspirations and existing policies
 Ambitious and memorable
 A vivid picture of a desired future.
The Vision Statement and the objectives are derived from the agreed priorities. Objectives
will describe how the implementation of the Vision Statement can be measured, and will
reflect the governance, environmental and socio-economic priorities. It means that vision is
politically feasible, environmentally sound, socio-economically acceptable and legally
permissible. Objectives describe in measurable terms the desired end state of the plan and
are the measure of the plan’s performance.
Example of objectives and plan performance indicators
Classically, the objectives should be measurable, attainable, realistic and time-targeted.
Beyond this simple description however, the objectives can become more complex,
distinguishing between: High Level Objectives (or Goals) and clusters of Sub-Objectives.
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Figure 16: High level objectives, sub objectives and relevant indicators
Many objectives will be predetermined in existing international, national and sub-national
policies; examples include ‘Horizon 2020’, the WFD, the MSFD, IMP and other. In many
cases these adequate benchmarks will be provided, however they should be reviewed to
identify the potential to exceed them as a minimum aspiration. For climate change a clear
statement is needed of the importance given to adaptation to climate change as a high level
objective. This can be followed by a list of the areas where action is seen as required, and
the cross sectoral priorities (e.g. adaptation to climate versus short term development
imperatives).
3.3.3. Measuring Success: Indicator Selection
In preparing a integrated coastal management plan, a set of governance, environmental and
socio-economic indicators that align with the Objectives should be prepared to determine
whether the plan interventions are achieving their intended objectives and to measure the
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performance of the measures implemented. In selection and implementation of indicators
we should start with those required by the laws, international agreements and those
required by other sectorial management. Having in mind that integrated coastal
management plans encompass coast, river, groundwater and climate the number of
indicators will be large, so it is important to define criteria for selection and use of the most
appropriate ones.
Effective monitoring and evaluation is an indispensable tool in the planning and
implementation process. Indicators serve both as a corrective function during the plan
cycle, enabling adjustments, as a guide to structuring implementation effectively, and as a
communication tool.5
“Indicators are quantitative/qualitative statements or measured/observed parameters
that can be used to describe existing situations and measure changes or trends over
time. …Their three main functions are simplification, quantification and
communication.... Indicators generally simplify in order to quantify complex phenomena
so that communication of information to policy-makers and other interested parties,
including the general public, is enabled or enhanced.. …They are powerful tools in the
feed- back loop to an action plan, as an early warning signal about an emerging issue, or
in providing a concise message for engagement, education and awareness.”
Adapted from A Handbook for Measuring the Progress and Outcomes of Integrated Coastal and Ocean
Management. IOC Manuals and Guides, 46; ICAM Dossier, 2. Paris, UNESCO, 2006
The indicators should therefore be:
1. Clearly aligned with the Objectives
2. Clearly linked to the output/outcome being monitored
3. Developed with stakeholders
4. Part of the management process and not an end in themselves.
Relationship to Objectives
The matrix of indicators will become a core of the plan, quantifying the objectives and
ultimately measuring the implementation of the plan. They will also play an important role
in:
 Quantifying the Objectives
 Evaluating options – providing a check list to measure plan outcomes both positive
and negative
 Measuring the implementation of the plan
 Reconciling the long and short time horizons – measuring short-term outputs
against long-term outcomes.
Example of matrix of indicators
5 Adapted from A Handbook for Measuring the Progress and Outcomes of Integrated Coastal and Ocean
Management. IOC Manuals and Guides, 46; ICAM Dossier, 2. Paris, UNESCO, 2006
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There will be three types of indicator:
1. Sustainability Indicators: measures to show that the plan purpose is realised – long
term outcomes.
2. Impact Indicators: measures to show that the plan outputs are achieved –medium term
outcomes.
3. Performance Indicators: measures to show that project activities are undertaken – short
term outcomes.
Example of three types of indicators
The identification and collecting of data for indicators can appear daunting. However, a
simple, preliminary ranking of relative importance of the three types of indicator in relation
to the ease of gathering will assist the allocation of resources to this task.
The diagram below from the CAMP Slovenia illustrates a simple matrix for ranking indicators
according to both their importance and the practicality of gathering them.
Indicator Hierarchy – headline and specific indicators
Too many indicators will aggravate rather than help the process. A limited suite of indicators
is required: headline indicators and specific indicators. The detailed specific indicators may
be appropriate for a technical audience or for core and funding partners; but for a wider
audience specific indicators may be meaningless and obfuscating.
A further refinement therefore will be to select a limited number of ‘Headline Indicators’ to
effectively report trends to a non-technical audience on Sustainability, Impact and
Performance. These in turn should be presented in a way that quickly conveys a picture of
progress across the plan. In many cases the indicator data is condensed into simple graphic
forms such as emoticons (smiley faces), traffic lights or other images, ordinal ranking scores
(1 = worst, 5 = best).
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The prime function of Headline Indicators is communication - so, which are the bestunderstood indicators to convey the overall progress of the plan? Which indicators will have
an emotional resonance with the target audience?
Methodologies and Tools
The indicator can be measurable and non-measurable; quantitative and qualitative.
Indicators needed for the plan are always combination of these two types. The complexity
and number of indicators will vary according to the nature of the area and the resources
available. They should however include governance, environmental and socio-economic
indicators that align with the Objectives.
The example shown below is based on hypothetical socio-economic objectives. However,
the indicator description does not at this stage include the quantification measure (e.g.
number of hectares, number of jobs, volume of water abstracted etc.) that would be
required for each indicator as part of the final plan.
The climate change indicators, earlier identified and included in the Analysis and Futures
stage will be the part of the plan set indicators. Then as the Plan is implemented, changes in
the indicators need to be estimated as well. This need not be done too frequently, as the
indicators will not change that easily. For the climate indicators, calculations at 5 year
intervals should be acceptable. The estimation of the indicators is carried out as part of the
implementation of the plan.
Examples
FOR DISCUSSION
content to follow
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3.4. DESIGNING THE FUTURE
The ultimate aim of this stage - and indeed of the whole process - is to lay the foundations
for a self-sustaining process of sustainable coastal development. It will be based on a
combination of instruments including concrete actions materialised through an investment
portfolio, awareness-raising, institutional adjustments, and policy changes - ultimately
transforming the governance culture and the community's understanding and care for the
coastal zone. At this stage investment portfolio is to include location and capacity for
structures and measures, average requirements of the users, costs, benefits, risks, impacts,
etc. for the selected alternative. It is at this stage that the process shifts from analysing,
consulting, planning etc. - to catalysing change - making things happen.
Key tasks
1. Formulating the integrated coastal management plan and the actions (activities and
assignments) - evaluating the options, plan and programme formulation.
2. Establishing Governance & Management structures - setting up the inter-sectoral
management, facilitation and consultation structures for the long-term, post-plan
period.
3. Embedding - obtaining formal approvals, funding support and legal adoption.
Plan should be politically, technically, financially, and legally implementable.
Potential Outputs
1. Integrated coastal management plan consultation draft and the process for
public consultation and formal adoption. Draft coastal plan include, inter alia:
 The terrestrial, including water resources and aquifers (river sub-basin), and marine
areas as defined in previous stages, complementing and not replacing existing spatial
and other plans or programmes for the area.
 Proposed long-term governance and implementation structures. These structures will
not necessarily be the same as that responsible for the preparation of the plan. Critically,
it should include all key national and local agencies that can enable or facilitate the
delivery of the plan and its actions.
 Implementation Programme - the action plan including short (3-6 years), medium (5-10
years) and long-term actions, responsibilities for delivery, how costs will be shared, and
lines of accountability. The integrated coastal management plan will contain a mix of
infrastructure, ‘concrete’ actions and ”soft’ tasks such as changes to laws and
procedures, regulations, pricing, institutional development, training, awareness and
other 'soft' interventions. The integrated coastal management plan will also include
measures and programmes of measures for achievement of good status of all waters.
2. Public consultation support material
3. The approved integrated coastal management plan - the Steering Group or
Committee should approve the final document. The documents have to be
adopted by one or more Ministries or by local authorities at the appropriate
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level. It may also receive joint endorsement from a vertical combination of
both. Sponsoring organisations may also be asked for or require a formal
endorsement.
BOX XII: Example of summary of the programmes and measures in accordance with WFD
1. A summary of the programme or programmes of measures adopted under Article
11, including the ways in which the objectives established under Article 4 are
thereby to be achieved;
1.1. A summary of the measures required to implement Community legislation for
the protection of water;
1.2. A report on practical steps and measures taken to apply the principle of
recovery of the costs of water use in accordance with Article 9;
1.3. A summary of the measures taken to meet the requirements of Article 7;
1.4. A summary of controls on abstractions and impoundment of water, including
reference to the registers and identifications of the cases where exceptions
have been made under Article 11(3)(e);
1.5. A summary of the controls adopted for the point source discharges and other
activities with an impact on the status of water in accordance with prevision of
Article 11(3)(g) and 11(3)(i);
1.6. An identification of the cases where direct discharges to groundwater have
been authorized in accordance with provision of Article 11(3)(j);
1.7. A summary of measures taken in accordance with Article 16 on priority
substances;
1.8. A summary of measures taken to prevent or reduce the impact of accidental
pollution incidents;
1.9. A summary of measures taken under Article 11(5) for bodies of water which
are unlikely to achieve the objectives set under Article 4;
1.10. Details of the supplementary measures identified as necessary in order to
meet the environmental objectives established;
1.11. Details of the measures taken to avoid increase in pollution of marine
waters in accordance with Article 11(6);
2. A register of any more detailed programme and management plan for the river
basin district dealing with particular sub-basin (coastal sub-basin), sectors, issues
of water types, together with summery of their conditions;
3. A summary of public information and consultation measures taken, their results
and changes to the plan made as a consequence;
4. A list of competent authorities in accordance with Annex I.
BOX XIII: Example of summary of the measures for CAMP Algiers
To be added
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3.4.1. The Plan and the Actions
The plan should be a logical output of the preceding processes. More specifically, identifying
the preferred ‘trajectory’ of change in the coastal area based on the approved objectives,
securing its materialisation through concrete actions following an action plan for its
implementation, and measuring its success by using a set of indicators. Behind this technical
description, the plan is simply a set of desired and integrated outcomes - the "what", along
with an action plan to realise them - the "how”. The integrated planning complements and
fills gaps in spatial planning and other sectoral plans or strategies in coastal area. Most
importantly, it provides an action plan and a governance structure for delivery.
The integrated coastal management plan will set a number of objectives that shall be
achieved in order to fulfil its aim. The objectives will then be divided into several measurable
and achievable targets. The Plan will outline the resources that will be targeted, who are
responsible for actions, what actions are needed, how they will be managed and how to
implement them, in order that sustainability is achieved and the available resources can
benefit the future generations. The most important single element in the integrated coastal
management plan Plan preparation is the Task Force System, which can be considered as the
main engine to achieve the objectives of the project. It is the Task Forces, composed of
representatives selected from government agencies, NGOs and other private stakeholders,
who will carry out all key activities related to the preparation of an Plan (in assistance with
advisors/consultants where and when required). The approach – a thematic one, which is
critical for the sustainability of the project, amongst others, serves the following purposes:

it locates and activates existing responsibilities, capacities and interests related or
relevant to coastal zone management tasks and brings them together in an
environment where problems, issues and actions can be addressed in a coordinating
forum;

it provides a linkage and access to institutional expertise and experience in an issue
specific context;

it will assist in the dissemination of information about and by the project as well as
create awareness related to the coastal zone management issues;

it will promote the multi-disciplinary team approach required in true integrated
management;

it will provide ideal opportunities for training by doing;

it will initiate and reinforce the formation of an institutional and personalised network
among individuals with responsibilities related to ICZM and IWRM;

it will make the Plan a “local” product generated through the work carried out by the
existing government machinery and supported by the coastal zone stakeholders; and

it will provide the manpower resources to carry out the numerous and demanding
tasks required by the project.
Preconditions – in order to build confidence in the plan, it is worth reviewing at this key
stage whether the right preconditions have been created for the plan:
 Are the right issues or problems being addressed?
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





Is the Strategic Vision universally shared?
Have planning and management options that are not enforceable (legal, political,
societal, financially) been eliminated?
Have the major stakeholders and their interests been adequately identified and
engaged?
Is the scale and the geographic extent affected by the issues and system boundaries
adequately defined?
Is the initiative politically realistic and the route for formal adoption by the
appropriate national or regional bodies identified?
Have sustainable funding options been identified?6
Scope
Beyond the generalities of governance, environment and socio-economics, there is no
predetermined set of parameters for the specific issues that an coastal plan should (or
should not) encompass. This will be determined according to the local political and socioeconomic context, and the scope and content of existing sectoral plans.
The integrated coastal management plan should be produced with a clear awareness of the
local political and financial opportunities and constraints for implementation.
The proposals should encompass the four levels of outcome, namely:




The proposals creating an enabling framework - the preconditions required to
successfully implement the plan of action of the programme.
The changes in behaviour: changes in the behaviour of target user groups, changes in
the behaviour of key institutions and changes in how and where financial investments
are made.
The practical results and benefits including financial investments and motivations for
stakeholders and institutions to make the changes in their behaviour that sustained
success require.
The appropriate balance between environment and human society, in other words, the
sustainable development. These are likely to be more long-term, high level in nature,
embedding the outputs as outcomes and fully embedding integration.
Enabling framework or preconditions required to successfully implement the plan consist
in supporting structures and systems creation (such as governance structures, ICZM
Protocol adoption, National Coastal Strategies definition, coastal legislation) and capacity
building for ICZM (training, research, data & information and public awareness).
Shipman at al., 2009
6 Adapted from Evaluation framework for European ICZM projects according to GESAMP, 1996; Olsen et al.,
1998; Pickaver et al., 2004; SPICOSA, 2007.
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Importantly, the coastal plan should be holistic and avoid being single sector led (for
example; coastal erosion, water, nature conservation, spatial planning, etc.).
Action Plan
The integrated coastal management plan will contain an Action Plan which will set out the
management actions for a specific period, usually between three and six years. The Action
Plan will specify responsibilities for action, how costs will be shared, lines of accountability
and channels for exchanging and distributing information. The integrated coastal
management plan will most likely contain a mix of infrastructure, maintenance and nonstructural tasks such as changes to laws and procedures, regulations, pricing, institutional
development, training and other 'soft' interventions – it should not be a wish list of
projects.
Contents
The practical scope of the coastal plan and the issues covered should be locally determined.
The coastal plan should however include the following:








The Endorsement – the statement of adoption by the appropriate levels of government
The Context - derived from the Analysis and the Scoping Report
The Strategic Vision and Objectives - elaborated through the preferred long-term
scenario for the area and its ecosystem context
Long-term Policies – based on the Objectives
Governance Structure – to achieve integration and effective delivery
Institutional framework for implementation
Action Plan and Investment Portfolio, probably on a 3-6 year basis
Indicators – the pre-selected indicators quantified to enable measurement and
monitoring of both the process and outcomes of the coastal plan.
Relationship to spatial plans – plans for coastal areas should complement not replace
existing spatial plans. Where spatial plans are in place, and they provide a legal base for
development, the coastal area plan should ‘add value’ by providing a qualitative and
dynamic dimension to spatial policies. Plans for coastal areas may also inform the spatial
planning process through a deeper analysis of specific coastal issues such as climate change
adaptation, coastal erosion and water quality, or the nature and type of tourism. The same
‘added value’ principle applies to other sectoral plans. Special consideration should be given
to the potential of the plan to provide a marine spatial planning dimension (MSP). The ICZM
Protocol extends the coastal zone to the territorial limit that - in almost all situations exceeds that of existing spatial plans or the spatial boundaries of competent coastal
authorities. Plans for coastal areas will in any case include proposals for the marine zone,
but consultations should be undertaken to assess whether these can include spatial planning
policies.
The action plan will now have specific climate related elements. These will include measures
related to sea level rise, such as sea defences, changes in land use regulations etc., as well as
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measures derived in the areas of agriculture, tourism, health, water and ecosystems, mostly
in conjunction with national policies in these areas. Integrated coastal management plan
should also include flood hazard and risk maps, flood risk management plan and drought
management and water scarcity adaptation. Specific to climate change will be issues relating
to funding.
External funds should be available from the Global Adaptation Fund, which is being set up
and which will set out some guidelines for the documentation that needs to be provided for
projects that are requesting funding. Much of the information to be collected as part of the
integrated planning should be of great value in preparing such proposals, although further
data may be required. As the term indicates, this is an activity for the plan stage, although
the strategy will have identified it, along with the elements that have to be included within
it.
Form – plans for coastal areas rely on a constituency of support rather than their regulatory
or legal powers. The plan should therefore be a short, well-presented, well-illustrated
document written for a wide, non-technical audience. Complex technical data, where
absolutely required, should be presented in the form of appendices.
Consultation – the plan should now be the subject of a widespread consultation depending
on local circumstances. The amalgamated responses and the proposed amendments should
be transparent and available to the public in the form of a Consultation Response
Statement.
The Final Adoption Draft should be approved by the Project Steering Group. This will involve
reference back to parent bodies.
Adoption – the Steering Group will have agreed the route and the appropriate national or
regional body or bodies to formally adopt the plan (see Establishment Section ). The plan
may be adopted by one or ore Ministries or by local authorities. It may also receive joint
endorsement from a vertical combination of both. Sponsoring organisations may also be
asked or require a formal endorsement.
Example of possible integrated coastal management plan contents
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Realising the vision
3.5 REALISING THE VISION
This is the critical stage in the process where policy design shifts to the facilitation of change.
Plans for coastal areas will deploy a combination of policy instruments, management
processes and actions.
Key tasks
1.
Implementation – implementing legal, economic and spatial instruments &
management processes
2.
Supporting Actions – awareness raising, partnerships, financing & investment
3.
Monitoring & Review - constant feedback into the review of the plan, programme
and its action plan.
The implementation programme should have a clear work plan, be embedded into
supporting funding programmes, achieving maximum ‘gearing’ through multiple sponsors.
The Integrated Planning Steering Group and implementation team, or those bodies charged
with delivering the plan, should be in place and functioning.
Outputs and their subsequent outcomes should now be visible and, where possible, be
monitored as part of the monitoring & review process. Raising and maintaining public
awareness will be an ongoing activity.
Potential Outputs
1.
A Plan Review on an agreed timescale
2.
The cross-sectoral Integrated management or steering group tasked with the
implementation and review of the plan with ToRs and clear lines of responsibility and
reporting.
3.
Outputs as defined in the programme of implementation or its review.
The way in which the vision and the plan are going to be realised/implemented is of utmost
importance. In sections 1 and 2 the prospects and difficulties for fully integrated planning
and its implementability have been analysed. The format of the operationalisation depends
on the governance abilities and willingness and the commitment and preparedness of the
stakeholders to actively contribute.
3.5.1. Legal & Economic Mechanisms
Description & Objectives
ICZM deploys a combination of policy instruments. ICZM itself however rarely has its own
national legal status - this lack of a formal legal status is both a strength and a weakness:
the integration with IWRM and other targeted management relevant to the coast allows for
such an integrated scheme to operate across a range of issues and utilise tools and
measures not open to individual sectors restricted by legal statutes. On the weakness side,
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the lack of statutory basis leads to a potential lack of engagement and weak support from
regulatory bodies.
Legal Mechanisms
It is important to distinguish between legislation specifically for ICZM and the use of
legislation from specific sectors to achieve ICZM purposes together with all other important
components analysed already.
In the case of the former - legislation specifically for ICZM - general enabling legislation for
coastal management at national level is required.
1. Specific ICZM legislation
The Protocol highlights a number of ways in which governments can provide an enabling
framework for ICZM. These include a number of specific provisions such as Article 8
requiring the establishment of zones where construction is not allowed - “setback”, and
criteria in national legal instruments for the sustainable use of coastal zones. Other Protocol
Articles can only be fully implemented through action at national government level; Article
18 for example requires the strengthening or formulation of national strategies for
integrated coastal zone management and coastal implementation plans and programmes.
Separate guidance for the preparation of such national ICZM strategies has been prepared
by PAP-RAC link here , and Article 10.1 for specific ecosystems – estuaries and wetlands.
2. Specific IWRM legislation
The most prominent legislation in this field is WFD, but it relates only to the EU Member and
Associate states. However, it may used as a good practice guide for remaining
Mediterranean countries.
It is obvious that those two legal mechanisms cannot be successfully implemented unless
appropriately integrated. This is a key prerequisite for sustainable coastal development.
Economic & Financial
Using economic and fiscal measures to change behaviours.
“Market-based instruments and fiscal mechanisms provide financial incentives and
disincentives to guide behaviour towards environmentally responsible activity, and mitigate
undesirable activities, in an effort to reduce damage to the environment. If properly
designed, these tools can effectively integrate environmental management into economic
decision-making. Fiscal instruments depend on regulators setting clear direction and rules,
and then allowing markets to achieve desired environmental outcomes through price
signals.”7
Such instruments may be highly complex - requiring primary legislation, or relatively simple
– encouraging voluntary actions. The type and range of fiscal instruments are immensely
varied and locally dependent.
Some examples are shown below:
7 http://www.environment.alberta.ca
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
Product Charges and Taxes
Levies on products which are harmful to the environment when made, consumed or
disposed aiming to influence purchasing or behavioural habits. Typical examples include
carbon tax, pesticide tax, levies on packaging, plastic bags, etc.

User Charges and Taxes
Payments for the costs of collective services primarily used as a financing device by
authorities. Typical examples are water user charges, road user charges, quarrying &
mining charges, entrance fees to parks, etc.

Pollution Charges and Taxes
Requires regulated parties to pay for each unit of pollution emitted, discharged or
disposed. Generally such schemes require primary legislation and complex
monitoring/enforcement mechanisms.

Deposit-Refund Systems
A refundable deposit which is paid on products which can cause pollution if discarded.
Typical examples are beverage containers, vehicle bodies, lead-acid batteries, etc.

Purchase of Development Rights
Financial compensation to landowners willing to protect the natural heritage of their
land.

Transfer of Development Rights
Encourage transfer of development to less sensitive areas within a coastal region, while
minimizing development on environmentally sensitive land.

Tradable/Marketable Permits
A transferable right to discharge a prescribed level of pollutants or use a certain amount
of a resource. Such rights could be allocated for emissions, effluents or fisheries access.

Performance Bonds
Requires regulated parties to place financial assurance with a regulator to ensure
performance or against environmental damage.

Subsidies and grants
Provide grants, low interest loans, loan guarantees or favourable tax treatment to
promote specific activities and behaviour.

Fiscal Reform and Financial Programmes
Fiscal support for positive environmental or for social outcomes. Typical examples are
programmes or grants to encourage sustainable or traditional agricultural practices.
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
Environmental Liability
Requires parties causing environmental damage to compensate those harmed.

Land Trusts
Non-profit organisations established to protect and conserve important natural or
cultural sites or landscapes. Land trusts range from the very local to the national, and
even international scale. The term “land trust” does not exist in all legal frameworks but
national parallels (e.g “société civile des terres” in France) may provide a similar vehicle
for land conservation measures. Measures used by trusts include acquisition of land or
the purchase of conservation easements on the property to prevent development or
other exploitation. Land trusts rely on private donation of land, easements or finance,
often supported by tax-incentives, but can also be vehicles for government funding
through grants.
3.5.2 Actions
Financing & Investments
Financial accountability is essential to all enterprises, public and private, including water
resources activities. Responsible financial strategy is essential for sustainable development
of the coastal zone and associated water resources. To achieve that, continuous planning is
necessary. The purpose of such planning is to examine the financial impacts of different
strategies and alternatives. This work should be basically carried out by the working team,
but with regular input from financial specialist.
For financial planning the supply of funds is critical. Funding sources have to be viewed from
the perspective of the operating and capital budgets. For the most part, water and coastal
zone projects are financed from public revenues such as taxes, assessments, and fees. Other
relevant sources are international sources (grants and loans) and the private sector.
Capital funds are generally difficult to obtain. That problem is more central to the planning
function than operation costs. There are different financing techniques based on local,
regional, national or international sources: assistance funds (regional, national, international
grants), loans, local debt financing-bonds, local debt financing-state assistance, fee system,
lease financing, privatisation.
For the operating budget, fees and dedicated tax revenues are common. User-pays and
polluter-pays principles are standard practice and for EU countries an obligation.
Awareness Raising and Partnerships
"Tell me, and I will forget. Show me, and I may remember. Involve me, and I will understand
(Confucius, circa 450 BC)." This smart but simple statement clearly shows the direction of
action for awareness planning and building.
12
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"A fully aware, well informed and properly trained population is the best
guarantee of safety and of successful response to any disaster."
UNEP, 2005
Awareness-raising is a broad and somewhat vague term, yet one that is almost intuitively
understood in most societies and cultures. To raise awareness of something - good, bad or
indifferent - is to promote its visibility and credibility within a community or society as well
as relevant stakeholders. To raise awareness is also to inform and educate people about a
topic or issue with the intention of influencing their attitudes, behaviours and beliefs
towards the achievement of a defined purpose or goal. Sustainable development of a
coastal zone is difficult and costly. It will require realisation of costly infrastructure
investments but also a set of so called soft measures aiming to create the change of culture
towards sustainability. Sustainable natural environment and sustainable built environment
are not possible to achieve without implementation of such measures, real engagement of
the public and finally the change of culture in our relationship towards environment.
Awareness-raising may cover a range of activities: anything that involves people
understanding, learning or doing something new; visioning the future; working out how to
change something in their lives; or talking to someone else about what they’ve done – all
are part of the process of raising awareness about the need for sustainable coastal zone
development. Any model of awareness-raising, or campaign planning, should be a tool to
stimulate discussions and innovations in the design of the process. Understanding the
process of change is a key tool in designing effective awareness-raising activities.
Awareness-raising needn’t always be about speaking and telling people things – listening is
also an important element. It is important also to design your awareness-raising so that it
makes sense to different people. Working in partnership with other organisations can help.
This will also help to learn a bit about the strengths and skills in the planning area (Hopkings,
2011).”
Campaigning is often less well understood and may be seen as a broadly organised effort to
change practices, policies or behaviours. It is based on the ability of stakeholders to
communicate the same message to a variety of audiences using a range of approaches.
There are four key components of an effective awareness-raising campaign and all should be
defined and described in our planning:
1. Message
2. Audience
3. Strategy
4. Timing
Common approaches and techniques for raising public awareness are presented in Box XIV.
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BOX XIV: Common approaches and techniques for raising public awareness include:
✦ Personal communication with community members through public meetings,
presentations, workshops and informal social events
✦ Structured education and training programs in schools, colleges, universities, adult
learning centres and libraries
✦ Enhanced information literacy skills within libraries, schools and universities
✦ Static and travelling exhibitions and displays
✦ Printed materials - for example, brochures, billboards, cartoons, comics, pamphlets,
posters, and resource books
✦ Audio-visual resources - for example, pre-recorded cassettes, videos, CDs and DVDs
✦ Websites, e-mail discussion lists and Web Logs (blogs)
✦ Mass media interviews and articles in newspapers, magazines and electronic
publications accessible via the Internet
✦ Mass media interviews and news items on radio and television
✦ Celebrity spokespeople - for example, Desmond de Silva in support of the Autism
Awareness Campaign in Sri Lanka
✦ Where oral traditions dominate, performances of specially composed stories, songs,
dances, plays and poems
✦ Strategic partnerships and alliances with other organisations - for example, local
libraries, schools and civil society
✦ Public Relations (PR)
✦ Political advocacy and lobbying
Richard Seyries , Principles of Aweneress-Risong, UNESCO , 2006.
The partnerships stand to amplify mutual interests and success. Partnerships present the
involved parties with special challenges that must be navigated unto agreement or mutual
interest and it is sustainable development of coastal zone. Partnerships for ICZM planning
should exist within, and across, sectors and institutions (horizontally and vertically) and
working team. Non-profit, religious, and political organisations may also be partner with
planners to increase the likelihood of each achieving their mission. However, governmental,
regional and local institutions may partner to achieve their national/regional interests.
Different characteristics and combinations of partnerships can be established all in
accordance with problem characteristics and needs. For successful ICZM as well as IWRM
the partnership with people/public in the area is crucial. They have to understand that all
this effort is for them. That is why a good public awareness campaign is very important for
the successful planning.
3.5.3. Monitoring & Review
Monitoring is used to oversee progress of both the action plan and of the plan itself. This
reporting advises of positive and negative events, allowing for enhanced or remedial action
as appropriate.
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Importantly, monitoring should distinguish between:
1. monitoring of the conditions in the plan area itself, including environmental,
economic and social factors
2. monitoring the specific outputs of the action plan in terms of their costs,
effectiveness and quality, and if the if the actions continues to be viable in terms of
the strategic objectives of the plan
3. monitoring the wider outcomes of both actions and the policies of the plan as a
vehicle in delivering sustainable development.
Each of the above relate back to the indicators identified earlier in the process:
1. Sustainability Indicators: measures to show that the plan purpose is realised – the
4th Order of Outcome - the long-term outcomes.
2. Impact Indicators: measures to show that the plan outputs are achieved – the 2nd
and 3rd Order Outcomes – the medium-term outputs
3. Performance Indicators: measures to show that project activities are undertaken –
the – the 1st and 2nd Order of Outcomes – short term outputs
This will take the form of reports at agreed review milestones. This reporting provides the
Steering Group with a summary of the status of the plan and its actions at regular intervals.
The monitoring process should feed into a review of the integrated coastal management
plan, typically on a five-year cycle.
BOX XV: Example of the monitoring programme for the water resources
Monitoring programme should be carried out for the status of:
 Surface water (ecological and chemical status)
 Groundwater (chemical and quantitative status)
 Protected areas (area designated for abstraction of water intended for
human consumption; areas designated for the protection of economically
significant acquatic species; bodies of water designed as recreational and
bathing water; nutrient sensitive areas including vulnerable zones and
sensitive areas; areas designed for protection of habitats or species)
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Annexes
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