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FUTURE USES OF THE PIEZOELECTRIC EFFECT FOR ENERGY
PRODUCTION
Zack Mester (zlm5@pitt.edu) and Guilherme Tamassia (gvt2@pitt.edu)
Abstract–It has become clear that engineers must find
alternative solutions for the energy crisis. One promising
alternative utilizes technology whose current applications
range from sparking barbeque grills to powering clocks and
lights. This technology is known as the piezoelectric effect
in which pressure (or deformation) can generate electricity
and vice versa. The piezoelectric effect can be used to
harvest the energy used in walking to help reduce the impact
of electricity generation on the environment, but unless the
nano-particles used in creating piezoelectric generators are
carefully monitored these generators could cause more harm
than good.
In this paper, we will discuss how scientists and engineers
are looking to use this effect to generate electric power on a
mass scale via piezoelectric floor tiles. The concept relies on
using the pressure from human footsteps to activate and
generate power. The East Japan Railway Company (JR
East) has installed piezoelectric tiles in a subway that sees
2.4 million passengers in the station each day. Some nanoparticles have been shown to be toxic to both humans and
bacteria, and the use of piezoelectricity could spread these
harmful nano-particles if it is not regulated properly, which
poses some ethical dilemmas.
The piezoelectric effect identifies most closely with the
Conference Topic area of energy. This effect is also cross
disciplinary because it calls upon concepts of Materials
Science, Mechanical, and Electrical Engineering because it
is the bridge between mechanical and electrical energy.
the impact of electricity generation on the environment, but
unless the materials used in creating piezoelectric generators
are carefully monitored, these generators could cause more
harm than good.
HOW THE PIEZOELECTRIC EFFECT WORKS
To begin, the piezoelectric effect combines the work of
many fields of study, such as mechanical engineering,
material science, and of course, electrical engineering. It
describes the association between mechanical stress and
electrical voltage in solids.
In fact, it is often defined as
the bridge between electrostatics and mechanics, thus,
combining the efforts of electrical engineering and
mechanical engineering. The piezoelectric effect can only
happen in certain materials that are nonconductive. These
materials are manufactured very small to the size of
nanoparticles, and they make up two main groups which are
crystals and ceramics. Quartz is often used in piezoelectric
devices, but many other types of nano-sized crystals and
ceramics can be used as well [“Piezoelectric materials” np].
Thus, in order for the piezoelectric effect to be achieved
successfully, a sufficient knowledge of mechanics,
electrostatics, and material science is all required.
The key to the generation of electricity within the
piezoelectric effect lies within the organized lattice structure
of the crystal or ceramic nanoparticles. In Greek, “piezo”
means “pressure” [Scholer 4]. When pressure is applied to
these nanoparticles, the symmetry of the crystal structure is
inverted creating a nonzero dipole moment within the lattice
structure [Berger np]. The small size of these nanoparticles
bends more easily than larger crystals and produces charge
more easily. As one large solid piece, the materials are
brittle. At a nanoscale, however, the piezoelectric materials
are much more flexible. This effect is similar to comparing
fiberglass with a pane of glass. Fiberglass is composed of
many small strands and fibers while a pane of glass is a
large, solid, and brittle piece. Hence, this flexible structure
allows the nanomaterial to distort more and create more
charge. These nanoparticles can be formed into braided
fibers which can then be shaped into plates. These plates
can be adjusted and tuned for various environments to
capture various types of energy [Berger np].
The next
section discusses how these piezoelectric materials can be
tuned to a small scale to capture energy from the vibrations
of noise or flowing water. Also, large scale applications,
such as piezoelectric walking tiles or ocean tiles, are
discussed at length along with their economic and
Key Words–Efficiency, Environment, Floor Tiles, High
Population Traffic, Nano-particles, Piezoelectricity,
Renewable
FUTURE USES OF THE PIEZOELECTRIC EFFECT
FOR ENERGY PRODUCTION
Until the twenty-first century, the world’s means of
obtaining energy has never been questioned. Fossil fuels
have been polluting the atmosphere for decades, and the
entire population has become almost completely dependent
on these disappearing fuels. It has become clear that
engineers must find alternative solutions for the energy
crisis. One promising alternative utilizes technology whose
current applications range from sparking barbeque grills to
powering clocks and lights. This technology is known as the
piezoelectric effect in which pressure (or deformation) can
generate electricity or vice versa. The piezoelectric effect
can be used in floor tiles to harvest the energy from pressure
and vibration from activities such as walking to help reduce
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environmental implications. Therefore, much innovation
can be implemented into the effects of piezoelectricity.
by the running water from sinks, and even sewage systems
that power streetlamps.
Research is also being used in ways to apply these
piezoelectric films to detect stardust, small impacts on the
outside of space shuttles, and to detect tampering with safes.
By plastering these films on the outsides of safes one could
monitor any sort of tampering from the exterior. The films
could be used to detect micro particles that collide with
space shuttles by exposing them to outer space like a layer of
skin. These films could also be used to capture the kinetic
energy of raindrops [Berger np]. The uses for these films are
limited only by the imagination, something that makes this
technology truly unique.
INNOVATIVE PIEZOELECTRIC TECHNIQUES
The main advantage to developing piezoelectric power
generators is the fact that there are multiple ways to harness
the piezoelectric energy. Some approaches involve using
electrical energy, such as the Pavegen tiles, while others
attempt to convert mechanical energy into chemical energy.
Research is currently being developed in the area of
chemical reaction catalysis via piezoelectric materials. This
is a situation where the potential difference created by the
piezoelectric material of choice would be used to catalyze
some chemical reaction. The most common reaction to be
subject to this exposure is the splitting of water molecules
into its respective atoms. This is useful for storing hydrogen
on its own, which can later be used as a carbon emission free
fuel [Berger np]. Thus, piezoelectricity can be used to
harness small scale energies such as splitting water into
hydrogen.
Perhaps the most innovative approach of capturing
piezoelectricity stems from an everyday activity performed
by people every day: walking. The piezoelectric effect can
be used in floor tiles to harness an energy that most people
take for granted every day: the energy that is dissipated into
the ground in every step. The most rudimentary techniques
to harness this power simply involve a piezoelectric sheet
that would get compressed by the pressure exerted by
someone’s footsteps. This method captures one “cycle” per
footstep. The frequency would, arbitrarily, be one because it
would fulfill one compression per footstep. Through this
technique, the goal is to maximize the area of the
piezoelectric material in order to maximize the energy
output [Amato np]. Since a force can only deform the tile by
a fixed amount, increasing the area of this deformation or
even creating multiple layers of piezoelectric sheets would
improve the energy production.
A different approach to piezoelectric floor tiles involves
a method called “plucking.” This is because a beam of
piezoelectric material would be plucked like a guitar string
when the tile is stepped on and allowed to oscillate freely
[Wu 6]. This reduces the amount of deformation the
piezoelectric material goes through, but still produces a
significantly larger amount of energy than the traditional
methods.
The piezoelectric effect can also be used on a much
smaller scale using very thin sensitive sheets. These sheets
are so sensitive that sound waves will generate electricity
that can be harnessed. One possible use for these sheets is to
capture energy through the sound of running water. If used
properly these sheets could greatly improve the energy
output of hydroelectric dams and allow any form of running
water to create power [Streeter np]. This technology could
potentially lead to self-heated showers, appliances powered
CREATING PIEZOELECTRICITY
As previously mentioned, piezoelectricity can be created in a
large scale fashion and in a small scale fashion as well.
Piezoelectricity is often created on a large scale by using
tiles to capture vibrations from objects that are visible to the
human eye. The conventional build of a piezoelectric tile
creates energy using the “forced method.” In a piezoelectric
experiment performed by mechanical engineers in Taiwan,
the forced method was simulated by connecting two sides of
a piezoelectric beam directly to a shaker that simulates
external vibration from the environment [Wu 6]. Hence, the
external force provided by the shaker is absorbed directly
into the beam distorting the material to create
piezoelectricity.
Within the same experiment, the group of mechanical
engineers also tested a new innovative approach to
generating piezoelectricity known as the “plucked method.”
Instead of clamping down two sides of the piezoelectric
beam, only one side is clamped down allowing the beam to
resonant more freely, and a small pick is now clamped down
onto the shaker. Now when the shaker operates, it is able to
“pluck” the beam allowing it to oscillate similarly to how a
guitar string oscillates. The initial force of the “plucked
method” is less than the “forced method.” However, the
oscillating pattern of the “plucked method” creates a higher
frequency of vibration that is ninety times bigger than the
“forced method.” This causes the overall displacement of
the piezoelectric materials to be greater than the “forced
method” leading to an energy level that is 9.6792 times more
[Wu 7]. Without a doubt, the technology and efficiency of
piezoelectric generators is definitely increasing, and one can
expect to see even further improvement in years to come.
This experiment demonstrates very well where piezoelectric
technology is going. Later sections in this paper will discuss
innovative possibilities as well as current uses for
piezoelectricity.
A different way to use piezoelectric materials is to have
them be compressed by sound waves [Scholer 8]. Some
ultra-high quality microphones already use piezoelectric
materials for sound quality and pitch accuracy beyond the
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normal microphone technologies. This piezoelectric material
is actually a very thin film that captures the energy of sound
waves as they reflect off of it. There is research being
conducted in expanding the uses for these films by using
them for power generation in noisy environments [Scholer
8]. One example of such an environment is a hydro-electric
dam. The massive volume of water flowing through the
turbines generates an incredible amount of sound, and if
piezoelectric films were to be used to capture that energy
alongside the hydro-electric turbines we could greatly
increase the energy output of existing hydroelectric dams
[Berger np].
A different set of loud environments where these films
could be used include highways and city streets. The cars,
trucks, and motorcycles all contribute to the noise pollution
in the areas near highways. Some highways already have
noise barriers erected alongside them to prevent the noise
from bothering those living nearby, and these barriers could
provide an ideal support for piezoelectric films. They would
be laid out and flattened on the side of the barriers facing
traffic [Berger np]. These films would further reduce the
noise pollution by acting as a buffer layer between the sound
waves and the wall, and could generate a consistent energy
output through the constant exposure to sound.
Finally, one of the most promising environments to use
piezoelectric films to generate power is the beach. By
placing films along the shoreline we could capture the sound
of the crashing waves every hour of every day. This would
be accomplished by making a floating platform that would
move back and forth with the tide in order always be near
the area with the most crashing waves. Thicker films could
also be placed around piers and docks to absorb the energy
of the waves hitting the piers or docks [Amato np]. This
works in a similar way where piezoelectric floor tiles absorb
the impact from footsteps.
areas. One particular area that is extremely high traffic is
the check-in station where large lines of passengers and
baggage await to obtain boarding passes. Baggage weighing
scales could also be used for piezoelectricity while weighing
passengers’ bags at the same time. Security lines provide
another high traffic area where piezoelectric floor tiles can
be laid. Popular concession areas and gift shops would
benefit as well from the tiles. Plus, engineers could use
really creative designs by placing piezoelectric tiles near
light-up billboards to turn them on only when people walk
by [Scholer 8]. Thus, the airport’s energy is conserved.
In Japan, another innovative approach at capturing
piezoelectricity has been implemented in the high population
areas of a subway station. From January 19 to March 7,
2008, The East Railway Company (JR East) established an
experimental demonstration in the Tokyo Station at Yaesu
North Gate by installing a new power-generating floor
within the subway station [Chapa np]. The tiles were
strategically placed at the ticket gate area in order to
maximize the amount of vibration received from passenger
footsteps [Scholer 8]. For both the airport and subway
systems, the piezoelectric tiles are very thin and can be
easily installed underneath previously flooring with very few
complications. As the old flooring needs repaired or
replaced, the thin piezoelectric tiles can be installed
gradually overtime reducing the initial installation cost.
Next, harnessing the power requires a capacitor to convert
the DC power from the piezoelectric material into AC power
that is required for lighting and other devices within airports
or subway stations [Scholer 7]. This method is but one way
to install the use of piezoelectric tiles.
Within dance clubs, many owners are powering their
venue by installing piezoelectric tiles on the dance floor
itself [Trimarchi np]. The technology for these tiles varies
from the use of the airport and subway tiles because they are
much thicker and require the use of springs. As the dancers
jump up and down on the bouncy floor, they are
compressing a series of piezoelectric blocks underneath
them, similar to how a BBQ lighter uses a spring-loaded
hammer to strike a crystal hard enough to ignite a spark in a
grill. The pressure from the feet of the dancers creates an
electric current that is fed into nearby batteries which are
continuously recharged by the constant movement of the
dance floor [Scholer 5]. Another application is used at Club
Watt of Rotterdam, The Netherlands. Club Watt sets itself
apart from other clubs by utilizing a spring-loaded flooring
system of independently moving tiles combined with the use
of a fly wheel. The energy from dancers’ feet provides
enough wattage to sustain LED lights embedded inside the
floor. The rest of the energy is stored in a flywheel
mechanism which then powers a small electrical generator
[Scholer 10]. All of these methods vary in there ways of
energy storage and use, but they all achieve the same goal by
making their local systems self-sufficient on self-produced
renewable energy.
WHERE PIEZOELECTRIC TILES CAN BE USED
In order for the piezoelectric effect to reach maximum
efficiency in power creation, it must be utilized in an
environment with a maximum amount of pressure and
vibration to distort the piezoelectric nanoparticles. Public
areas in heavily populated cities make great spots for the
installation of these piezoelectric tiles. These areas may
include crowded sidewalks, busy subway stations, massive
airports, or even high-energy dance clubs.
As the world makes an effort to turn green, many
industries are finding clean, renewable sources of energy by
installing piezoelectric tiles. Airports, especially, have
begun to implement these tiles in an attempt to lower their
day-to-day operation costs, increase efficiency, and set an
overall good example for surrounding communities [Scholer
3]. Certain places within an airport receive more foot traffic
than others. In order to gain the most energy out of the
piezoelectric tiles, it is important to locate these high traffic
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piezoelectric tiles proves them to be both environmentally
friendly due to their nearly one hundred percent recyclability
and economically feasible due to their ability to pay off the
initial installation expenses within their five year lifespan.
Many club owners acclaim the tiles for helping their
nightclubs become more self-sufficient. The owner of Club
Watt spent $275,000 for a 270 square foot floor. While he
does not expect to recover his entire investment immediately
through energy generation, he does expect to benefit his club
over time by recovering ten percent of his electrical
expenditures through the flooring system [Scholer 10]. This
ten percent, over the lifetime of the tiles, will ultimately
return the initial investment in the tiles.
ENVIRONMENTAL AND ECONOMICAL
ASSESSMENT
As on can see, piezoelectric technology is by no means a
new discovery. As discussed in previous sections, many
ideas, experiments, and projects have been carried out in an
attempt to create renewable energy that is environmentally
friendly yet economically feasible at the same time. A study
of the installation of piezoelectric floor tiles within a new
Student Union building at the University of British
Columbia yields in-depth results regarding the tiles’ green
and economic capabilities. To begin, Pavegen Systems is a
company based in the UK, and they are currently the only
company selling energy-harvesting piezoelectric floor tiles
[Cramm 6]. The top surface of their tiles is made up of one
hundred percent recycled car tires. Meanwhile, the frame is
made from 80% recycled Aluminum compounds and alloys.
The piezoelectric material itself is not specified for the
Pavegen tiles, but the materials usually consist of Lead
Zirconate Titanate or quartz. This is because the most
common piezoelectric material is Lead Zirconate Titanate
(PZT), a material deemed toxic by the U.S. National Library
of Medicine. Thus, since there are no lead content warnings
on the tiles quartz is likely the piezoelectric material used
[Cramm 8]. Because the Pavegan tiles are made out of
almost all recyclable materials and presumably safe
piezoelectric materials, the impact on the environment from
these tiles is a positive one. Upon disposal, the top surface
can be turned into playground surfacing, colored mulch,
athletic tracks, commercial flooring, or tire fuel
supplements. The aluminum frame can easily be recycled at
a typical recycling plant or sold for scrap metal. Finally, the
piezoelectric material quartz can be recycled using means
similar to recycling glass [Cramm 9]. Therefore, the tiles
are without a doubt renewable and environmentally friendly.
Now, are the tiles also economically feasible?
The immediate cost for the eight Pavegan slabs is
$30,800 which requires a down payment of $15,800. This
price does not seem too costly at face value, but these
numbers do not include the costs of shipping, installation,
maintenance, and insurance, and disposal fees. Also, the
large size and heavy weight of the tiles may mean an
increase in shipping fees. Plus, Pavegan is located on the
other side of the globe from the Student Union which
increases the price of shipping further [Cramm 13].
However, upon considering the amount of wattage created
per hour, the varying amounts of activity within the building
during the week, and the length of a school year, it estimated
that the University of British Columbia could save about
$37,608.48 over the tiles’ lifespan of five years [Cramm 15].
Although the initial cost of the tiles seems a bit pricey, they
prove to outweigh themselves in profit and efficiency in due
to time. Plus, the profit generated from the first set of tiles
helps go towards replacing and maintaining new tiles in the
future. Therefore, the analysis of Pavegan power-generating
POTENTIAL DRAWBACKS
The piezoelectric technology is not without flaws. Some
of these flaws include the fact that it does not produce a
constant flow of energy: every step produces a burst of
energy, which means the technology cannot be hooked up
directly to any machinery [Wu 7]. The need for adaptors and
a means for energy storage decrease the efficiency of the
technology. This is, however, a limitation that can be
overcome through electrical engineering. As piezoelectric
systems become more popular and widely used, more
electrical engineers will start working with it, which will
lead to more efficient systems. More research in the field of
energy storage will also improve the effectiveness of
piezoelectric applications.
Another flaw with piezoelectric technology is the
inconsistency of the energy output on a macro scale. Floor
tiles, for example, can only produce energy while people
walk on them. This limits their energy output to times where
people will be awake, and subjects their energy output to
cycles where they produce a lot of energy during peak hours
and not much otherwise [Scholer 8]. Thus, the application of
piezoelectric tiles is limited to a case by case scenario, and
very little can be said about their applications as a whole.
The need for research prior to installing the tiles will drive
up the initial cost to implement them, and higher start-up
costs will hinder the expansion of piezoelectricity. The way
to overcome this is to use piezoelectricity to power areas
where there is a large amount of people traffic during those
traffic hours, and not consistently. Piezoelectric floor tiles
will not be able to power buildings or lights the entire time
they need energy, but they can significantly reduce the need
for energy from other sources during peak energy usage
hours.
The use of nanotechnology to create piezoelectric
materials could also have negative consequences. Research
in nanotechnology has been solely focused on creating new
applications for it, while very little has been researched
about possible side effects. Nanoparticles do not behave the
same way larger clumps of the materials do, and many of
them have unknown properties. Silver as a whole is not
toxic, yet silver nanoparticles have been shown to damage
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bacteria’s ability to absorb nutrients from food it ingests
[Lawrence np]. The reasons why silver nanoparticles
damage bacteria are unknown which is a significant cause
for alarm. There have only been a little over a thousand
articles published discussing the negative side effects of
nanoparticles and nanotechnology as a whole and future
research could bring to light large implications with its use
[“The good and the bad of nanotechnology” np].
A different problem with nanoparticles is that they do not
go away. The disposal of nanoparticles is very difficult
because of their size [“The good and the bad of
nanotechnology” np]. They can soak into the soil, slip past
organic and artificial membranes, and turn up in many
unexpected places. For example, some nanoparticles have
been used in fertilizing plants. However, these particles do
not get harvested with the plants but instead soak up into the
soil. In some cases they have been found in water wells,
streams, and even local wildlife. Piezoelectric technology
could significantly increase the amount of nanoparticles in
existence and significantly contribute to the propagation of
their negative side effects. A couple ways to curb this
negative impact are to carefully monitor the disposal of the
nanoparticles used in the production of piezoelectric
materials and attempt to recycle these nanoparticles
wherever possible. By containing and disposing of
nanoparticles carefully we can significantly reduce the
amount of these tiny pieces of material that get lost or
released in the environment [“The good and the bad of
nanotechnology” np]. Recycling them can also be very
helpful because since they are very difficult to dispose of,
one simple solution is to not dispose of them. Simply reuse
these particles in the production of more piezoelectric
materials. To successfully recycle the nanoparticles used in
piezoelectric materials could greatly decrease the cost
associated with producing the tiles and reduce its negative
impact on both the environment and budgets.
Because piezoelectric floors would need a variety of
adaptors and means of energy storage to work effectively,
large amounts of work would need to be done to install them
in existing buildings. The cost to remove old floors, install
the wiring, install the adaptors, create space for batteries,
and the wiring required to connect these batteries to the
existing power grid will significantly bump up the overall
cost to install these in existing buildings [Cramm 13].
Because of this, the use of piezoelectric floor tiles will likely
be restricted to new buildings or buildings under renovation.
This is a problem because it will postpone their use in many
scenarios where piezoelectric tiles might be very beneficial.
This high installation cost also means that piezoelectric
floors will be competing with all kinds of alternative and
green energy solutions when being considered, and some
better established technologies such as solar panels or
geothermal energy might be chosen in lieu of
piezoelectricity.
Finally, one of the most overlooked challenges that
alternative energy as a whole face is the inefficiency of the
current lighting system. Incandescent light bulbs are
incredibly inefficient when compared to LED and
Fluorescent. Fluorescent and incandescent bulbs both use a
significantly larger amount of power than LED bulbs
[Scholer 9]. They also dim after thousands of hours of use,
while LED bulbs do not. However, because the current
lighting system relies of incandescent and fluorescent
lighting, the energy produced by piezoelectric materials will
not fulfill its full potential unless it is installed in new
buildings. By installing LED lighting in buildings, we can
reduce the power usage needed to keep the building
illuminated. Doing so would allow the power generated by
piezoelectric floor tiles to accomplish more tasks within the
building and further increase their efficiency [Scholer 10].
Overall, the current buildings will not use the energy
generated by piezoelectric floor tiles efficiently because of
existing inefficiencies in the buildings.
PARTING REMARKS
Without a doubt, piezoelectric technology consists of a vast
amount of possible applications for renewable and green
energy. The technology is extremely versatile and can be
applied to many surfaces in many different environments. A
small scale use of piezoelectricity can be utilized to capture
the small vibrations such as noise and flowing water.
Piezoelectricity can even be used on a molecular scale to
fuel the fission of water molecules to create hydrogen power
[Berger np]. Also, piezoelectricity can be harnessed on a
large scale by utilizing the power of energy dissipation
visible to the eye such as walking, dancing at clubs, and
crashing ocean waves. Although many apparent drawbacks
may present themselves while pursuing these innovative
approaches, they should instead be seen as scientific and
creative challenges that are obtainable and necessary in
order to create environmentally friendly energy.
Piezoelectricity may not be able to mass produce energy in a
way that one power plant can power an entire city. A
combination of innovative piezoelectric technology must be
used all over the world in order to create a significant
amount of energy. Any area with high amounts of foot
traffic or vibrational energy can be transformed into a
renewable energy source. Despite the skepticism of safety
concerns with nanoparticles within piezoelectric materials,
these hazardous materials can either be properly disposed or
replaced by nanomaterial, such as quartz in the Pavegan
tiles, that is not toxic to the environment and can even be
recycled. Humans are not entirely used to relying on
piezoelectricity, but they surely can adapt especially if it is
benefiting the environment.
Piezoelectric tiles also have the potential to do much
more than simply convert wasted energy into power. They
can be used to greatly increase awareness for the
environmental movements occurring today. They act as
daily reminders for people to focus on not wasting energy by
doing menial or habitual activities. If the public knows that
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
massive airports and subways are making efforts to help the
environment today, they will be more motivated to
participate or act in ways to conserve nature. People might
remember to take shorter showers to avoid wasting water,
ride a bicycle instead of driving, use a refillable water filter
instead of buying plastic water bottles, or simply buy energy
efficient fluorescent and LED light bulbs instead of power
lusting incandescent bulbs. Perhaps the main goal of
innovative piezoelectric tile generators is not to miraculously
solve the world’s energy crisis in one stroke of innovation.
The tiles most likely serve as a reminder and a step forward
that solving the energy crisis is in fact a possible feat if
everyone has the same mentality that it is important to help
the environment before it is too late. With the new
innovation of piezoelectric technology, it is in fact possible
for the whole world to take a “step” forward in the right
direction to develop renewable and environmentally friendly
energy.


Cero, J., Thompson, M., & Hann, J. (1993). U.S. Patent No.
5,341,062. Washington, DC: U.S. Patent and Trademark Office.
“Piezoelectric Effect.” Hyperphysics. [Online]. Available:
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/solids/piezo.html
(S. Shroff, personal communication, February 1, 2012)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to acknowledge the writing center for their
caring and honest responses at Pitt. We would like to
acknowledge our engineering graduate student friend,
Sameer Shroff, for guiding our research in the right
direction.
Also, we acknowledge our professional
engineering chairman, Jeff Cadman, for helping us get into
the finer details of research on piezoelectricity. And finally,
we acknowledge our excellent high school English teachers
for showing us how to correctly research and write in order
to prepare us for college writing today.
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to Environment and Our Bodies.” Mother Earth News. [Online]. Available:
http://www.motherearthnews.com/natural-home-living/nanotechnologyharmful-to-the-environment-and-our-bodies.aspx
[11] (2009, Jan. 12). “The good and bad of nanotechnology.” Wiser Earth.
[Online].
Available:
http://www.wiserearth.org/article/d27e5d280fc17217dd2f6a5b68aba9c8
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
6
Twelfth Annual Freshman Conference
March 1, 2012