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Introduction
Through the years, the coexistence of different cultures has formed what we call today a
multicultural society. In this multicultural society, language plays an important part in people’s
lives; it represents their homeland, culture, and heritage. There is a natural internal debate
between wanting to assimilate into one language to minimize the tension caused by differences
and wanting to hold onto one’s personal heritage. Therefore, it is evident that language plays a
fundamental role in the education of minority students. Schools and classrooms reflect a
multicultural society where most language minority students face the problem of losing their
linguistic and cultural identity. By the end of elementary school, most language minority
students present no balanced biliteracy. For that reason, it is necessary to look for new
theoretical and practical strategies to help language minority students to reach and support
literacy in both languages.
This action research reports on data gathered at Public School X to draw conclusions on
why minority language students do not develop both languages equally. P.S. X is located in
Sunset Park, Brooklyn. The school serves Pre-K through 5th grade students, and provides to the
Latino community of Sunset Park with dual bilingual programs. The student body reflects the
population of Sunset Park, which has families from the Dominican Republic, Mexico, and
Central American countries. The school’s ethnic breakdown is 4% white, 2% black, 91 %
Hispanic, and 3 % Asian (Insideschools.org, 2009). The class observed during the fall of 2008
and spring of 2009 was a second grade dual language class. The class was composed of 21
students. The same class was observed two years later to compare and draw conclusions on both
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English and Spanish language progress. The class observed during the fall of 2010 is a fourth
grade dual language class.
Statement of the Problem
The coexistence of different cultures has formed what we call today a multicultural society.
In this society, bilingualism is a rule and not an exception. Schools and classrooms reflect this
multicultural society where most language minority students face the problem of losing their
linguistic and cultural identity in the process of acquiring a second language. By the end of
elementary school, most language minority students do not posses balanced biliteracy.
Literature Review
Bilingual Education Models
It is important to understand the different models of instruction in order to implement an
effective program for language minority students. Most bilingual models of instruction value
bilingualism, bilitercy, multiculturalism, children’s development and academic achievement.
But, there are a variety of models of language instruction that serves different functions and
different students’ needs. It is important to point out that within these models of bilingual
education each has a separate structure in regard to the intended population, in regard to the
language used in the classroom, in regard to the societal and educational aim, and the language
outcome. The models that U.S. schools offer have both strength and weaknesses. The following
models are the most commonly used by U.S. schools.
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Sheltered English Immersion
The Sheltered English Immersion model (SEI) provides language minority students with
classes almost entirely in English throughout their elementary school. The native language (L1)
is not used in the classroom, for this reason, most students in this program experience the “sinkor-swim” effect throughout the school year. The SEI model does not promote bilingualism or
biliteracy; it is designed to promote English language skills while teaching content as well. Most
researchers believe that English-only instruction leads to subtractive bilingualism in the
academic domain. Subtractive bilingualism, in which the second language is added at the
expense of the first language and culture, diminishes students’ success in school. Research
shows that students enroll in this type of program take from 7 to 10 years to reach the national
English reading levels (Collier, 1989; Cummins, 1992; Garcia-Vazquez, 1997; Mora & Wink,
2001). Kubera and Philips (2005) from the University of Michigan state the following about the
immersion program:
In Law v. Nichols the Supreme Court found that the submersion approach violated the
civil rights of language-minority students and that schools had to make an extra effort to
help overcome the language problems of these students (University of Michigan, 2005).
The SEI program is not the most adequate for language minority students that want to
obtain equal fluency in their first language and second language.
English as a Second Language
The English as a Second Language (ESL) program is divided into Content-based ESL
and Pull-out ESL. Both, Content-based ESL and Pull-out ESL remove students from
mainstream classrooms for a period of time and give them instruction in English. Content-Based
English as a Second Language programs teach non English speakers using English lessons
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focusing on content. Teachers provide vocabulary and language lessons on grade-level material;
students learn the academic content and new vocabulary at the same time. Consequently,
students’ strategies for comprehending the content are limited by their lack of specific
vocabulary. Pull-Out English as a Second Language works with students from different age
groups and languages backgrounds and it does not necessarily include the class lesson. Students
from these two programs face lots of problems. First of all, the feeling of being pulled out of the
class. This could be really stressful for students because they might feel separated or segregated
due to their language. This could lead students to think they are different in a bad way, and that
their native language is worthless. Second of all, the time used in ESL classes is insufficient.
Students are struggling through the first years of the program because they miss content
instruction and there is not enough time to cover all the material they have to learn in order to be
academically equal to their English-speaking classmates. This leads students to do poorly in
school, and later on, to drop out of school (Goldenberg, 2008; Mora & Wink, 2001).
Two-Way Immersion
The Two-way Immersion program (TWI) provides instruction in English and another
language. The classroom is composed of students whose native language is English and by
students whose native language is something else. Literacy instruction takes place in English
and Spanish, so both groups become proficient in both languages. The success of this program
depends on there being a minimum of four to six years of bilingual instruction, a stronger
bilingual curriculum, a more balanced instruction in both languages, and developing high levels
of motivation and collaborative learning among students. Even though this program could
benefit both English language learners and native English speakers, the last group mentioned
could face more difficulties learning the second language because they are not immersed in the
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culture and daily use of the new language. They can easily improve in English but the use of the
new language takes place only in the classroom. On the other hand, English language learners
have the advantage of being exposed to both English and the native language. Taking into
account these points, Two-Way Immersion program is one of the best multicultural programs.
According to Thomas and Collier (1997) who did a study on school effectiveness for language
minority students, the effectiveness of this program is about 50% in both languages; with a high
of 83% over the 70% normal curve equivalents (p.53).
Bilingual Dual Immersion
The last program to be mentioned is the Bilingual Dual Immersion. The program goals
are bilingualism and biliteracy, high academic achievement, and positive intergroup relations.
The program covers the seven years of schooling, from Kindergarten to sixth grade. Bilingual
Dual Immersion develops proficiency in both languages using the native language (L1) and
second language (L2) as a medium of instruction for academic content. Starting in Kindergarten,
students have 80% of the day in Spanish and 20% in English; as they advance into higher grades
they develop more English until they get 50% and 50% on both languages. Students’ response to
the English language is less stressful and overwhelming because they have learned the same
content in Spanish. Thomas and Collier’s report shows that Bilingual Dual Immersion is the
only program that allows students to reach a 50% in all subjects in both languages and maintain a
high level through the end of school. The effectiveness of this program is about 61% with a high
of 83% over the 70% normal curve equivalents (Thomas & Collier, 1997, p.53). Teachers from
Dual Immersion programs believe that this program is the best way to assess non-English
speaking student necessities and to help them develop a fully bilingual career with equal
opportunities (Baker, 2006; Collier, 1989; Thomas & Collier, 1997).
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All these models have weaknesses and strengths and many educators have different
perspectives about these programs. Ruiz (1984) describes three perspectives of language;
language as a problem, language as a right, and language as a resource. There are models and
teachers that use English as a medium of “correction” and believe that English language learners
need to be placed into special education to develop a more intensive English program. These are
the programs that consider language a problem. There are also people and programs that
emphasize the right to an equal education and equal opportunities for students to succeed. There
are others who believe that a second language is a resource for students’ career and it is
important to develop both languages to achieve academic success. Ruiz (1984) says:
Without a strong foundation in literacy and academic development in their native
language, students’ second language acquisition will result in a low literacy and low
cognitive skills (p.20).
No matter what program is followed, teachers must use instruction to meet students’
developmental needs, such as the linguistic, academic, cognitive, emotional, social, and physical.
Biliteracy and Empowerment
In the United States, bilingual education is viewed as a means of remedying inequalities
in educational opportunities for those students of no or limited English language skills. Students
who come to school with a home language other than English have limited or no participation in
the classroom because they do not understand what is going on and cannot communicate with the
teacher and other classmates. The major issue that many public schools deal with biliteracy is
the function of the native language in the educational process (Goldenberg, 2008).
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As it was mentioned before, Ruiz (1984) considers language in three perspectives:
language as a problem, language as a right, and language as a resource. Educators that consider
language as a problem support the transitional model and believe in the primacy of English,
using the native language as a medium of instruction only until the point where students have
acquired competent English skills. On the other hand, there are also educators that consider
language as a right and they are advocates of the maintenance model which upholds the longterm use of L1 (native language) and the right of students to maintain their native language and
culture. There is another group of educators that consider language as a resource. These
educators believe in the enrichment model in which the opportunity of becoming bilingual is
open for both English language learners and English-speaking students. L1 schooling is a key
element in biliteracy acquisition, academic success, and empowerment of minority language
students.
There are different approaches that discuss the empowerment of language minority
students. Cummins is one of the main researchers that strongly believe in the importance of the
relationship between first and second language, the effects of bilingualism, academic language
proficiency, and empowerment. He encourages educators to contemplate bilingualism and
biliteracy as part of the solution and promote critical literacy; this means to teach students not
only to “read the word,” but also to “read the world”. He states that the following characteristics
lead to empowering minority students: additive bilingual education, collaborative community
participation, reciprocal-interactive pedagogy, and advocacy oriented assessments (Cummins,
1999-2003).
Educators need to understand the disempowering impact that this educational system has
on the development of both identity and knowledge in second language minority students.
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Implementing critical thinking to foster personal and cultural identities as well as the
construction of knowledge through different context is essential to encourage students to develop
and express their voices. Cummins (1986) says that it is difficult to separate the
cognitive/academic and social/emotional factors when referring to academic success. He
emphasizes points such as the incorporation of bilingual students’ language and culture into the
school, the participation of the community, the promotion of intrinsic motivation, and the role of
teachers in the assessment of these students (Morales-Nadal, 1988-1990, p. 198). The following
quote sums up what Cummins is saying regarding the complexity of the issue:
Although conceptually the cognitive/academic and social/emotional (identity related)
factors are distinct, the data suggest that they are extremely difficult to separate in the
case of minority students who are ‘at risk’ academically. For example, data from both
Sweden and the United States suggest that minority students who immigrate relatively
late (about ten years of age) often appear to have better academic prospects than students
of similar socioeconomic status born in the host country (Cummins, 1984, p.106).
Bilingual students need a connection and support between what they know (their native
language) and what they need to learn (a second language). They also need to establish a
connection between their families and school. For example, the love of reading is provided and
supported by the child’s family who reads to the child. This can be done in the first language
and be supported in school with a second language. This plays an important role in the
development of biliteracy in language minority students.
Another researcher that supports biliteracy and empowerment is Bowman (1989), who
stresses that teachers should become familiar with students’ first language and culture. They
should be interested, responsive and affectionate. These three points are really important to
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develop in bilingual classes because the lack of interest from teachers about students’
background and language can form a gap between students and teachers. Teachers should listen
to and observe students before making any assumptions, and support students in order to strength
their relationship and build a productive learning environment. Each student lives in a
completely different environment and she or he needs comprehension and help from the teacher
in order to overcome difficulties and obtain academic success (Morales-Nadal, 1988-1990).
It is important to recognize students’ abilities and strengths to work with them and assess
language proficiency. Native language is a tool of empowerment. Some people may think that
retaining ones native language will confuse students when they are learning a second language,
but this view is inaccurate. Teachers should use the first language (L1) in order to support the
second language (L2) with different activities, text, and materials that will help students to
acquire language through literacy. If teachers connect with students and they know what
students’ surroundings are, teachers will know how to use different instruction in order to help
each of them to acquire the skills and knowledge necessary to be biliterate and empower them
for this technologically sophisticated society (Cummins, 1999-2003; Bowman (1989); MoralesNadal, 1988-1990; Milk, Mercado, Sapiens, 1992).
Instructional Approaches
In order to help students to acquire language skills, it is necessary to understand how
language acquisition works and how teachers can use different instructional approaches to
support their students. Research has proved that most minority language students in “weak”
bilingual programs who are taught through a second language do not develop sufficient academic
skills and have low academic proficiency. On the other hand, minority language students in
“strong” bilingual programs who are taught through their first language present better results on
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acquiring a second language and other academic skills. Baker (2006) supports this statement by
declaring that “a child’s second language competence is partly dependent on the level of
competence already achieved in the first language. The more developed the first language, the
easier it will be to develop the second language” (p.173). Cummins found that conversational
skills (Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills, BICS) are acquired within the first two years
and the more complex academic skills (Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency, CALP) are
acquired between five to seven years. BICS refers to the ability to communicate socially in any
given situation, and CALP refers to the ability to use higher level thinking skills in which language
is not necessarily supported by the context (Dworin, 2003). This level of thinking requires
analyzing, synthesizing, and evaluating in order to resolve an issue. The following chart can help to
understand these concepts:
Figure 1: BICS and CALP
Note. From: BICS and CALP. http://www.asij.ac.jp/elementary/parent/mosaic/Research.htm
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The development of both BICS and CALP is essential to reach academic success. The
chart explains that there are four areas to be developed at home and school. The main goal is to
guide students through all the areas until they get to the area “D” which is related to the
academic success. There is a progression from the more visual, less content based tasks to the
more language dependent content based tasks. This progression takes time. To develop BICS
and CALP and ensure academic success students could take up to seven years.
Cummins (1984) proposes a minimum threshold of first language cognitive/academic
development necessary for success in second language learning. He also suggests that if the
threshold of cognitive proficiency is not achieved, the learner may have difficulties achieving
bilingual proficiency. It is important to consider these concepts when assessing students’
development or placing them in different programs. If students do not have sufficient competency
in CALP, they will be not able to obtain proficiency and they will be misplace as many students are
in programs that do not fulfill their needs. Therefore, if a student has not acquired the basic
interpersonal communicative skills, it would be better to avoid placing him in situations which
require CALP level thinking skills in their second language. This was the case of student “A” in
P.S. X in 2008. She had been in the Dual Language Program for three years and she was transferred
to a monolingual class. Student “A” had difficulty reading and writing since she did not have
CALP skills to function at the required level. She was struggling with her homework and class
activities.
The first objective to be considered is to produce bilingual proficiency in each student.
Teachers should support L1 building on student’s prior knowledge and increasing their vocabulary
with experiences and real life situations that students can relate to. The second objective is to
produce CALP level thinking skills in each of the students. Once the child has achieved CALP
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level thinking skills in their first language they can then transfer it to their second language with
relative ease (Hornberger, 2002).
There are two different language approaches, the whole language approach and the
traditional language approach. The traditional language approach includes different methods of
reading, like the alphabetic method, the phonetic method, and the syllabic methods. These
techniques are not really helpful for students and they do not provide authentic, meaningful
reading experiences. On the other hand, the whole language approach helps students to increase
language competence through using the language experience approach, reading aloud to
students, exposing them to different styles of writing, selecting well-illustrated text,
incorporating creative dramatics and dialogues. This approach also uses reading of poetry, jokes,
riddles, and folktales and stories from the student’s native culture for enjoyment (Morales-Nadal,
1988-1990, p.204).
Children must be encouraged to use all classroom reading materials. They must be
allowed to make comparisons and transactions with the author to enjoy reading. The following
comics show how important is to provide students with meaningful lesson and avoid basal
reading lessons.
Figure 2: Mafalda: Asi es la cosa.
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Teacher:"My mom pampers me. My mom loves me."
Mafalda: "I'm happy for you, Ms. I see you have a wonderful mother..."
Mafalda: "Now, please, can you teach us something important?"
Quino (1967). Asi es la Cosa.
It is important to provide students with meaningful lessons and activities that will support
and enhance their reading comprehension skills (Zehler, 1994).
A variety of books in both languages will help students to connect and relate new
vocabulary and information between the two languages. The sense of connection between these
entities will support student’s learning process and encourage them to achieve academic success.
Morales-Nadal (1988-1990) addresses the importance of using different approaches to increase
language competence, and the importance of multicultural literature to empower language
minority students. Having the opportunity to read books in L1 can help language minority
students to affirm that they are good readers and they can also apply the same strategies they use
in L1 to read books in L2. This approach can also help students to increase their enthusiasm and
comprehension.
Flor Ada (1976) stresses another instructional approach using children’s heritage and
language in order to amplify children’s vocabulary and bring new linguistic patterns into the
process of language learning. This helps children to be more motivated to read and it also helps
to reinforce the learning process in two languages. In order for students to acquire language,
they should have lots of experience reading. Students should be exposed to a variety of
culturally appropriate reading materials so they can select books and magazines that interest
them. Morales-Nadal states that “Multicultural children’s literature will promote diversity,
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positive images, self-esteem and positive identity” (Morales-Nadal, 1988-1990, p.203).
Readings should be student- centered and there should be plenty of time for them to explore and
build new vocabulary through different books.
Flor Ada (1992) also mentions different activities that promote and incorporate children’s
literature and traditional oral literature into the classroom. These activities can be done every
day in class or as a final project for the end of a unit plan. Short stories, folktales, songs,
traditional songs, proverbs, and tongue twisters can help students to develop literacy skills like,
reading and interpretation, diction, pronunciation, phonemic structure and vocabulary. There are
many ideas and suggestions to improve the classroom learning environment and to support
students through differentiated instruction:

Provide quick explanations in the L1 of confusing key concept or terms during whole
class or small group instruction.

Use the L1 to help students at their desk struggling with independent work.

Pull students aside and reinforce/re-teach concepts in the L1 that students are struggling
with in English.

Read books aloud in the L1 that reinforces concepts being taught in English.

Accept students’ contributions in their L1 during class discussions, then repeat back in
English what they said (Ernst-Slavit & Mulhern, 2003).
During the semester of 2008, the researcher introduced to the class the concept of
community and community helpers as part of the multicultural curriculum. The project included
a short history of Sunset Park, its demographics, and its transportation system. Students were
able to see different pictures depicting the neighborhood through different times. Students were
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also able to go through the neighborhood and see the different services and community helpers
that Sunset Park provides to its community.
This activity provided students with the opportunity to connect the curriculum with their
own experiences, helping them to support some of the vocabulary they already had with the new
words introduced in the lesson. It was also used to make a school-home connection. At home,
students asked their parents what kinds of jobs they have. Students found out more details to
complete the writing assignment about their community helpers. This lesson provides
information about students’ writing abilities and the vocabulary they have which deals with the
concepts of community, community helpers and different services around the neighborhood.
Students were able to make their community helper out of construction paper and write some
sentences about the jobs and responsibilities each person has in the community.
This project was done in the Spanish component, so the responses were in Spanish. Most
students wrote complete sentences and some of them included questions they would like to ask
to their community helper. Students were able to connect what they know and learn new
vocabulary while doing something related to them and their community.
Bilingual Education Controversy
Bilingual education has become a critical topic among educators, scholars, parents,
teachers and various educational organizations. Bilingual education is controversial because
politicians, researchers, administrators and teachers are separated between two stands, bilingual
education versus English-only, failure versus opportunity.
Amongst various cons of bilingual education, the disadvantage of bilingual education that
pops up mostly is that bilingual education is the more expensive and the least effective program
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of education. People who oppose bilingual education say that millions of dollars are wasted by
focusing on bilingual education (Williams, 2009). Administrators and school personnel also
regard bilingual education as expensive. Bilingual teachers’ stipends, bilingual textbooks, the
student to teacher ratios, teacher assistants and the training of personnel to administer bilingual
tests, are all perceived as burdens for districts which are overcrowded, poor and constantly
providing services to minority population. In other programs, where students were immersed in
English instruction, when students were forced to “sink-or-swim” they swam (Rothstein, 1998).
Therefore, these schools see bilingual education as a failure compared to other programs that are
less expensive and less demanding.
Another controversy of bilingual education is the fact that there is no consensus as to
what kind of bilingual education is most successful. This question leaves administrators
paralyzed or unable to make decisions. The so-called lack of research for bilingual effective
programs is a barrier that does not provide a clear answer for schools and administrators in order
to choose and implement a bilingual program that succeeds. The reason why researchers do not
find an answer is that there are many arguments that are not clear or unsolved, such as, bilingual
programs isolate and segregate the bilingual population, and learning of the language is more
effective if the students are immersed in it. All these arguments contribute to keep bilingual
programs effectiveness unclear and many school administrators do not know which one to
implement in order to obtain better results (Valdes, 1997).
Bilingual education opponents claim that English should be the national language, and
until children are proficient in English, their ability to drop back to speaking another language
pull students back from the overall learning process. Opponents believe that language minority
students are not sufficiently mastering the English language, and low test scores prove that
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education is failing them in their native and second language. They also support that English
can't be taught without following the immersion approach of education, that is students must be
totally involved in studying English instead of any other language. This idea is stated due to the
fact that bilingual education may get students confused in learning various languages. The
failure to learn English well leave students unprepared for the workplace (Williams, 2009;
Rothstein, 1998; Anderson, 2001; Valdes, 1997; Moran, 1987).
There are various bilingual education controversies. The debate on bilingual education is
an ongoing one and is discussed in the news very often. Since globalization highly values instant
communication and multicultural education, the United States will benefit if its citizens learn to
appreciate the different contributions that the native language and the variety of cultures bring to
society by creating cultural appropriate programs in education.
Statement of the Hypothesis
HR 1: To implement a bilingual reading program over 6 weeks for 45 minutes 4 days a
week to 21 fourth graders will increase their reading scores in both English and Spanish.
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Methods
Participants
The participants of the study are twenty-one fourth- grade students from a dual language
classroom in PS X. There were ten boys and eleven girls.
Instruments
The instruments utilized for this study included Consents forms (found in Appendix A)
distributed to the principal, to the teacher and parents.
Home Survey based on levels of measurements (found in Appendix B), was another
instrument used. The survey was given to the parents and the participants’ names were kept
anonymous.
The assessments used for pretests and posttests (found in Appendix C) were taken from
the websites www.superteacherworksheets.com and www.abcteach.com.
A sample lesson plan (found in Appendix D).
Experimental Design
Pre-Experimental Design: One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design. Single Group: Single group
is pre-tested (O), exposed to a treatment (X), and posttested (O).
Symbolic Design: OXO
Threats to Internal and External Validity
The threats to internal and external validity are shown in the following chart:
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Threats to Internal and External Validity
Threats to Internal Validity
Threats to External Validity
History: Poor weather conditions, student misbehavior,
and classroom distractions.
Ecological Validity: The results of this study may be
generalized with other students that are in bilingual
programs and need to achieve balance biliteracy.
Maturation: Students may lose interest in L1 and improve
skills in L2.
Generalizable Conditions: The same program could be
applied to other participants but the results may not be the
same because of different variables like age, culture,
education, etc.
Testing/Pre-test Sensitization: Students may do better on
the post-test since they already had a pre-test.
Pre-Test Treatment: The pre-test questions may have an
impact on the post-test scores.
Instrumentation: Researcher may not administer the test
correctly or parents may not fully understand the survey.
Selection Treatment Interaction: Students were not
randomly selected.
Mortality: Possible students' drop outs and transfers.
Experimenter Effects: The researcher may affect the
performance and responses of the participants.
Statistical Regression: Test scores may differ between
the data obtained two years ago.
Reactive Arrangements/ Participants Effects: Students may
react differently once they know they are involved in a
action research study.
Differential Selection of Subjects: The group may be
different due to transfers to other programs or changes in
the classroom.
Selection-Maturation Interaction: Students’ progress in
both languages may vary in terms of maturation an
interaction.
Figure 3
Procedure
There are innumerous articles and literature concerning bilingual education, its programs,
and its pros and cons. The first part of this action research included library research to complete
the literature review and the annotation of twenty-five relevant and current articles. The second
part included field study, which involved weekly visits to P.S. X in Brooklyn, NY.
The field research that included observation of a second grade dual language class in
2008 and 2009 was compared with the observation and implementation of differentiated
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instruction to the same students in a fourth-grade class in 2010. The research was conducted
over 8 weeks for 45 minutes 4 days a week from September 2010 to November 2010.
Procedural Time Line
 September 6, 2010, consent forms distributed to the Principal, teacher and
parents.
 September 13, 2010, home survey was sent to the parents. The purpose of the
survey was to obtain information about students’ home environment and
language.
 September 13, 2010, all the students agreed to complete one pretest in English
and Spanish. The purpose of the pretest is to identify students’ performances in
both languages and their language levels.
 September 15, 2010, the researcher started to implement the lessons that support
differentiated instruction. Intervention was based on the whole language
approach selecting well-illustrated text, reading aloud, practicing different styles
of writing, and incorporating creative representations and dialogues. Intervention
was done in English and Spanish.
 November 8, 2010, students agreed to complete one posttest in English and
Spanish. The purpose of the posttest is to identify students’ progress in both
languages.
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Results
Second Grade Reading Levels
The chart below illustrates students reading levels in English and Spanish. The chart
displays the progress of students between the fall of 2008 and the spring of 2009.
Second Grade English Reading Levels
ENGLISH
STUDENTS
10
8
6
4
TCA 08
2
TCA 09
0
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
READING LEVELS
Figure 3
Figure 3 displays the gradual progression of students from one semester to another. The
reading levels for a second grade go from letter “I” to letter “M”. The chart shows that only five
students were at a second grade level in 2008 and seven students were at the required level in
2009. The chart shows the progress of students by 4 levels, but it is necessary to take into
account that most of the students are way back in their reading levels.
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Second Grade Spanish Reading Levels
SPANISH
STUDENTS
10
8
6
4
TCA 08
2
TCA 09
0
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
READING LEVELS
Figure 4
Figure 4 also displays the progression of students from one semester to another. The
chart shows that the progress in Spanish was more scattered than the progress in English. Only
four students were at a second grade level in 2008 and five students were at the required level in
2009. The chart shows some progress, but it is necessary to take into account that most of the
students stayed at the same reading levels.
Pretest and Correlation
The data below demonstrates the correlation between students’ pretest scores and survey
question #8: How many hours does your child read in English?
Data:
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Pretest and Correlation
Correlation between hours of reading in Englsih and Pretest
120%
TEST SCORES
100%
80%
60%
Pretest
40%
Linear (Pretest)
20%
0%
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
HOME SURVEY RESPONSES
Figure 5
3
3.5
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The Correlation Coefficient is (rxy) = 0.79. The line of best fit shows a positive
correlation between hours of reading in English and pretest scores.
Fourth Grade Reading Levels
The following chart will display the English and Spanish reading levels of 2010 from the
same class.
Fourth Grade Spanish and English Reading Levels
READING LEVELS 2010
STUDENTS
8
6
4
SPANISH
2
ENGLSIH
0
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
READING LEVELS
Figure 6
Figure 6 displays the scattered progression of reading levels in Spanish and English. The
reading levels for a fourth grade go from letter “P” to letter “R”. The chart shows that only three
students were at a fourth grade level in Spanish; meanwhile seven students were at the required
level in English. The chart shows that the performance of students in English is more closely
distributed; on the other hand, the performance in Spanish is more disperse. The lowest reading
level in English is “H” where in Spanish is “F”. The reading levels in Spanish are way back
from the standard level.
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Pre- Experimental Design
One Group Pretest and Posttest Scores graph demonstrates and lists the gradual
progression and improvement of reading levels in Spanish and English.
One Group Pretest and Posttest Scores
SPANISH PRETEST & POSTTEST
TEST SCORES
150%
100%
Spanish Pretest
50%
Spanish Posttest
0%
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
STUDENTS
ENGLISH PRETEST & POSTTEST
TEST SCORES
150%
100%
Englsih Pretest
50%
English Posttest
0%
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
STUDENTS
Figure 7
Mean
Median
Mode
Spanish Pretest
87%
90
75/100
Spanish Posttest
92%
95
100
English Pretest
90%
90
100
English Posttest
93%
95
100
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The charts display the development of students in both English and Spanish. Students
increase their performance by 5% in Spanish and a 3 % in English.
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Discussion
In order for language minority students to acquire balanced biliteracy, there must be
language programs that support and have balanced biliteracy as a key outcome of the program. An
effective bilingual program is the one that creates a productive academic environment and promotes
an active community relationship in which the language minority student can learn to embrace the
new language and maintain their own language and cultural identity.
Teachers should use students’ native language as an integral part of the goal of developing
biliteracy. As it was mentioned before, the more experience and knowledge students acquire in L1,
the easier it will be for them to “translate” into L2. This extended use of the native language
strengthens students’ linguistic and academic background and reinforces their work in English.
Curriculum and instruction must be representative of the student in the class. Instruction
should be bilingual and multicultural in order to prepare both students, as well as school’s staff, for
life in the globalized world. Schools should imply teachers who care about bilingual education and
who are from different ethnic and cultural backgrounds. Sometimes there are teachers that feel
isolated and they may not have opportunities for professional growth in the bilingual field.
However, if schools promote collaboration among teachers and staff, this will facilitate the growth
of positive relationships between teachers and colleagues. This will be reflected in the school’s
improved environment.
Formal and informal assessment can be used in class in order to obtain information about
children’s progress. Teachers should not forget that there are different methods which can be used
to better assess students. For that purpose teachers should take into account different aspects of
development at the time of the assessment, such as understanding the child’s culture and language,
BILITERACY IN LANGUAGE MINORITY STUDENTS
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creating a supportive language-learning environment, support and develop the child’s strengths, and
monitoring while teaching.
Most parents are very interested in their child’s education.
Good communication,
knowledge, and respect between all parties will enhance the school-home relationship. If the school
creates an accepting environment, it will have more positive attitudes from students toward the
school, other cultures, and the English language.
Teachers should follow these techniques or methods to help students develop literacy in
both languages:

they should present authentic instructional environments to students so that students can
experience interesting and significant activities appropriate for their age and environment

they should connect the child’s previous knowledge with the new information acquired

they should expand on vocabulary and apply the new concepts to their students’ reality

they should provide well organized lesson units and implement a variety of strategies to
address each students needs

they should include the child’s culture in literacy through short stories, songs, refrains,
rhymes, and jawbreakers.
Students must be viewed as an active cultural organism in their own learning
environment. After they have gained some confidence in the classroom they can go on to
examine the home and other social ideals. Keeping children in powerless roles will only hinder
their real social development. They must have opportunities to make choices about topics to
study, books to read, and how to present ideas. Students must be included in the process of
reading and writing in a way that permits them to find their own voice. They must be allowed to
BILITERACY IN LANGUAGE MINORITY STUDENTS
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make comparisons and transactions with the author and helped to enjoy reading. Children must
be encouraged to use all classroom reading materials.
The goals set for each bilingual program model, the language policies, and the methodology
adopted by each school will influence the students’ acquisition of balanced biliteracy. Teachers
must use instruction to meet students’ linguistic, academic, cognitive, emotional, social, and
physical developmental needs. It is important to take into account all these concepts in order to
help students keep their language alive while developing a new language. Through this process
language minority students will become fluent bilingual readers and writers who will be prepared to
confront our demanding society and who will be powerful instruments to build a better future and
society for all. Without a strong foundation in literacy and academic development in the native
language, students’ second language acquisition will result in a low literacy and low cognitive
skills.
By helping students become better learners, teachers create powerful, multicultural
thinkers who will help to construct a better relationship between the school and the community.
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Implications
All language minority students, no matter what language they speak and what country
they are from, need a certain amount of formal schooling in their first language in order to obtain
better results in acquiring a second language. Monitoring the amount of academic content in the
first years of school is a top priority; students who develop a new language need to be supported
by their teachers in order to get the information they need to succeed.
Reforms have to be made. There is a need to reform the educational system to promote
equal education. This can happen only if schools and teachers see students as equal and provide
them with the same future opportunities. Schools should be committed to humanize the
educational experience. That is the only way to reform the educational system.
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