States of Consciousness (2-4 %)
Consciousness- awareness of our environment and ourselves
Unconscious -psychoanalytic psychologists believe some events/feelings are unacceptable to our conscious mind and are repressed into the
unconscious mind.
SLEEP
Circadian Rhythm- 24-25 hour biological/thought progress patterns.
Sleep Cycle – 1, 2, 3, 4, 3, 2, REM
90 minutes long.
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Hallucinations right before falling asleep, Alpha waves present (during awake hours and stages 1 and 2)
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(Stage 1) Light sleep, alpha waves
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(Stage 2) EEG machine detects sleep spindles- random bursts of brain activity
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(Stages 3, 4) deep sleep or slow wave sleep. Shortens as night progresses, delta waves.
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REM sleep (most dreams), also called paradoxical sleep because muscles are relaxed but brain, heartbeat still active. REM sleeps
lengthens as sleep progresses. REM or dream sleep occurs after returning to stage 1.
REM Rebound- if you receive very little REM sleep you will have longer REM sleep the following night.
Pineal Gland – secretes melatonin and is connected to our sleep patterns / circadian rhythm
Sleep Disorders
Insomnia- difficulty getting or staying asleep
Narcolepsy- sudden sleep attacks
Sleep apnea- difficulty breathing during sleep
Night terrors/sleepwalking- during stage 4 deep sleep. (not nightmares)
Theories of DreamsFreud says they are meaningful. They may be used to uncover repressed memories/conflicts in the unconscious mind.
Manifest content- literal content of dream. (Freud)
Latent content- underlying meaning of dream (Freud). Our ego protects us by presenting these repressed desires in symbols.
Activation-synthesis theory – biological explanation of dreams (random bursts of neurons in which the brain processes and makes up a
Story
Information-Processing Theory- in between previous 2 theories. The function of dreams is to process and give meaning to the days
events/stresses. This is why we have REM rebound and why babies have longer REM sleep
HYPNOSIS
Post-hypnotic suggestion- patient behaves in certain way after hypnosis.
(Example: smokers, dieters, alcoholics use this)
Those hypnotized report false memories at times
Theories explaining Hypnosis:
a. Role Theory- It is not a separate state of consciousness but rather the person is merely fulfilling his role/job as hypnotized subject.
b. Dissociation Theory- a divided consciousness. Hilgard proved this with his hidden observer. Experiment had patients saying they felt no
pain with arm in ice water but they were lifting there finger indicating that they did feel pain.
c. State Theory – a person who is hypnotized is in an altered state of consciousness
DRUGS
Psychoactive Drugs induce altered state of consciousness.
Tolerance- varying level at which different people can feel the effects of a psychoactive drug
Withdrawal- physical and psychological effects after stopping the use of a drug.
Stimulants- (caffeine, amphetamines, nicotine, cocaine (Dopamine causes this effect)) – speed up nervous system.
Depressants- (barbiturates, tranquilizers, alcohol) – slow down nervous system
Hallucinogens (psychedelics) - (LSD, marijuana)
Opiates- heroine, morphine, codeine- painkillers (take place of endorphins)
Learning (Behaviorism- observable responses to environmental stimuli) 7-9%
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING -(Pavlov, Watson) learning through associations. EX- the story of the women who was raped and she now gets
anxieties when she is alone with men. Stimulus (being alone with men) Involuntary Response (experiencing anxiety)
UCS-original stimulus eliciting a response (food)
UCR- natural response (salivation)
CS- conditioned or learned stimulus (bell)
CR-conditioned response (salivation). Associating food with bell elicits salivation.
Acquisition- acquired new associated behavior. (first learning to flinch to word can)
Delayed conditioning- the bell (CS) rings and while ringing the food is presented. This is the most effective order for conditioning.
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Extinguish- losing behavior, no longer pairing food and bell. (no longer flinching to can)
Spontaneous recovery- after a conditioned response is extinguished; it will reappear quickly upon presence of conditioned stimulus. This
is NOT relearning.
Generalization- tendency to respond to similar CS’s (Ex. Dog salivating to doorbell).
Discrimination-ability to see difference between similar stimuli (Dog not salivating)
Watson/Raynor- conditioned Little Albert to cry when he saw a rat (he associated loud noises with rats)
Learned Taste Aversions (Garcia effect) – if you ingest food or drink and get nauseas then you are more likely to get nauseous just
thinking about the food.
OPERANT CONDITIONING – learning to associate behaviors (stimulus) with their consequences (Skinner, Thorndike)
Thorndike’s Law of Effect- behavior is more likely to continue if it has a positive consequence. Less likely with a negative consequence.
Skinner Box- pigeons, rats, a bar/key, pellets, shaping of behavior using reinforcers or punishers.
Reinforcers- behavior is more likely to happen.
Positive (hint: think of adding not good) reinforcer- adds something positive. EX. Good grades = money
Negative (hint: think of subtracting not bad) reinforcer- takes away something negative. Ex. Good grades = no chores
Punisher- decreases the likelihood of behavior occurring. Best when given soon after behavior.
Negative punishment- subtracting something pleasant EX. Bad grades = no car for the week
Positive punishment- add something negative (EX. Bad grades = Spanking.)
Shaping - Ex. teaching a dog to roll over
Chaining – Teaching a dog to roll over, then bark and play dead – reward is given after all three are complete
Primary reinforcers- biological - food, water, escaping electric shock
Secondary reinforcers- need to be learned – money, grades.
Token economy- any system (such as the experiment with schools) in which all behaviors are reinforced with tokens or demerits. The
purpose is to shape behaviors
Overjustification effect – external rewards decrease a person’s intrinsic interst in doing something that he/she liked to do.
Reinforcement Schedules (continuous reinforcement (reinforced immediately after every behavior) is best schedule.
Fixed- constant
Variable- changing
Ratio- number of responses
Interval- passage of time.
Ex. Fixed Ratio (paid by how much work you do)
Fixed Interval (paid by hour)
Variable ratio (gambling, fishing)
Variable Interval (pop quiz)
(Fixed is usually acquired the fastest but also the fastest to become extinct.)
Instinctive drift – animals cannot be shaped to behaviors that go against natural inclinations (Ex. Rats will not walk backwards)
Rescorla’s Contingency Model of Classical Conditioning - A cognitive view of classical conditioning, Rocco and Sparky experiment. Rocco –bell
then food are always paired and presented. Sparky – bell then food, food with no bell, sometimes food and bell together. Sparky learns less because
the UCS and CS in unclear. – Sparky and Rocco’s expectations and thoughts influence their learning.
Observational Learning (aka social learning theory)- Bandura, Bo-Bo dolls Children imitate behavior of adults beating and kicking doll, monkey
see monkey do
Mirror Neurons- the same neurons that fire when you do something fire when you see someone else do that thing
Latent Learning and cognitive maps – Tolman showed how rats can learn their way around a maze without reinforcement by making a mental
representation (cognitive map). When given reward learning is apparent.
Insight Learning- Kohler studied apes that used crates to get to bananas. Apes show cognitive insight.
Cognition (Memory, Thinking and Language) 7-9%
MODELS OF MEMORY
Three box/information processing model – information is sensed, then encoded to STM, then encoded to LTM. Information is retrieved from LTM
to the STM (Working memory) Sensory memory
Sensory Memory – a split second holding tank for incoming sensory information
Iconic Memory- split second photograph of a scene. Ex. flashing a series of letters
Echoic memory- split second memory of sounds. Ex. Parents ask you to recall what you just said when they think you aren’t
listening.
Short-term (working) memory-limited to about 7 items.
Chunking- mnemonic device, divide items or numbers into chunks.
Mnemonic device- memory aids.
Long-term memory (LTM) –limitless
Explicit Memories – with conscious recall
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a.Episodic memory- specific sequence of events
b.Semantic memory – memory of facts, meanings, words
Implicit Memories – without conscious recall
c.Procedural memory- remembering how to drive stick shift after not driving stick in awhile
Prospective Memory- memory of future events such (remembering to take medications) tends to decrease as we age.
Eidetic (photographic) memory- powerful memory of memory of visual images
Levels of processing Model - the more deeply processed the more likely to recall it later
RETRIEVAL
Recall vs. recognition fill in the blank tests vs. multiple-choice tests
Priming- (Example- retrieval cues- by giving the class the category of the word to be retrieved.)
Primacy effect- tendency to recall the first item of a list.
Recency effect- tendency to recall the last item of a list.
Serial Position effect- recall is affected by the order of items on a list
Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon- trying to remember a person’s name (already in LTM) by listing things about their
appearance/personality or going through the alphabet.
Flashbulb memory- split second memory of an emotionally significant event.
Mood-congruent memory- increases the likelihood of recall when you are in the same mood as memory.
State-dependent memory- increases the likelihood of recall when you are in the same state of consciousness (example: losing keys while
intoxicated… will not remember where they are until intoxicated again).
Mnemonics- memory aids such as acronyms and …
Method of Loci – picturing items or words at certain locations in a familiar place.
Peg word system – one bun, two shoe, three tree. .visualize things on a bun when memorizing a list of words
Smell- sense that is strongest/most associated with memory, olfactory nerves are connected to the hippocampus
Constructive Memory- ability of humans to report false details/recollections of events (not intentionally). Many witnesses recall can be distorted by
adding events that didn’t happen (misinformation effect)
Elizabeth Loftus – showed how leading questions can change people’s memories of events by describing car accident as smashed or hit.
Source Amnesia- attributing the wrong source to a memory. Ex. Thinking something happened in life but it happened in a movie.
FORGETTING
Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve – At first we forget a lot of information rapidly but the amount remember levels off over time.
Proactive Interference- trying to recall new information (old interferes)
Retroactive Interference- trying to recall old information (new interferes)
TIP: Focus on what is trying to be recall (retroactive is older)
Retrograde amnesia- unable to recall old information
Anterograde amnesia- unable to encode new information.
MEMORIES AND THE BRAIN
Hippocampus is responsible for storing new memories in the brain.
Long Term Potentiation (LTP) – neurons can strengthen connections between each other through repeated firing. This is associated with the
formation of memories.
Language
Phonemes- smallest unit of sound language. Ex- sounding out C-A-T.
Morpheme- smallest unit of language with meaning (Ex. Pre- is not a word but carries meaning)
Syntax- rules of grammar
ACQUISITION OF LANGUAGE
Babbling Stage- googoogaagaa
Telegraphic Speech (about 2 years old) - (EX. - No book, movie). Like a telegraph they are missing several words to the sentence but
you understand.
Chomsky- born with language acquisition device (nature) children learn some grammar without instruction from parents. A critical
period for developing this exists.
Overgeneralization (aka overregularization)- misapplication of grammar rules. EX “ I holded the ball”. Chomsky said this was proof that
children don’t simply model language
Skinner- language is learned, modeled (nurture) through reinforcement.
Whorf’s Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis- language controls/limits our thinking. (EX. The Department of War was changed to the Dept.
of Defense and the approval rating of this dept. immediately improved.
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Thinking
Metacognition – thinking about thinking
Prototype – best example of a category (ex. Rose in the category of flower)
PROBLEM SOLVING
Algorithm- logical step by step rule that guarantees solving a problem (Ex. Searching every aisle in the grocery store )
Heuristic- a rule of thumb strategy used to solve a problem or make a judgement, a mental shortcut. (Ex- anytime you do a search on the internet.)
Availability Heuristic- judging the likelihood of a situation based similar situations that are available in the immediate memory or come to
mind first (Ex. Fear of flying after seeing a plane crash in the news.)
Representative Heuristic- judging the likelihood of a situation based on stereotypes or prototypes (Ex. Truck drivers who read poetry or
Ivy League professors who like poetry.)
Belief Bias – make illogical conclusions to confirm preexisting beliefs. (EX. I believe blondes are dumb and I hear a blonde make a stupid statement
so I say to myself, “there’s the proof that blondes are dumb”
Belief Perseverance- tendency not to change our preexisting beliefs even in the face of contradicting evidence. (EX. I tell you that research says
blondes are of equal intelligence to brunettes yet you continue to believe blondes are dumber.
IMPEDIMENTS TO PROBLEM SOLVING,
Ethnocentrism- tendency for people to believe that one’s culture is superior to others.
Mental Set (rigidity) – tendency for people to fall into established thought patterns or ways of solving problems. Using methods that
worked in the past. Older people may drive to the library and spend 45 mins. to look up information that could have been googled on the
internet)
Functional Fixedness- inability to see a new use for an object. (EX- butter knife as screwdriver)
Confirmation Bias- tendency for people to seek out information that confirms their beliefs.
False Consensus Effect- tendency for people to overestimate the number of people who share their beliefs and values.
Framing- the way a problem is presented (EX. Meat that is 80% lean vs. 20% fat)
Divergent Thinking- thinking that searches for multiple answers.
Testing and Intelligence (5-7%)
Standardization: test items have been given to similar populations to establish norms (EX. - taking the section of SAT that doesn’t count set
standards for future exams (field ?’s)
Reliability: consistency of test (EX. If take SAT and score 900 then 1300 it’s not reliable. Research is considered reliable when it is repeated with
similar results.
Equivalent Form Reliability – the correlation between performances on different forms of a test
Test-retest Reliability – correlation between a person’s score a various administrations of a test
Split-half reliability- randomly divide a test in half and scores are consistent
Validity: measures what it’s supposed to measure. Is it accurate?
Predictive Validity- does the test measure future performance
Content Validity – how well a measure reflects the entire range of material it is supposed to be testing.
Aptitude test: measures ability, potential
Achievement test: measure what one has learned
Fluid Intelligence (speed of processing abstract problems) vs. Crystallized Intelligence (accumulated knowledge). As we age fluid decreases while
crystallized stays the same.
Spearman g factor- we have a general intelligence a single factor that underlies all specific abilities (s factor). Factor Analysis was used to group
related items (scores) on a test and prove this theory. Ex scores on verbal and math portions of SAT.
Gardner’s’ Theory of Multiple Intelligences: says we have several different types of intelligences. He and other contemporaries deemphasized the
math/verbal definitions. linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial (reading maps, playing checkers), musical, bodily kinesthetic (athletes),
intrapersonal (knowing oneself), and interpersonal (relating to others)
Savant Syndrome- combination of genius for one skill with mental retardation (IQ below 70)
Goleman’s Emotional Intelligence: E.Q. – measurement of mostly intra/interpersonal. Argues that to be successful you need both EQ and IQ.
Sternberg’s triarchic theory: divided 7 intelligences into 3 analytical, creative, practical .
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Binet- came up with concept of mental age as measuring intelligence (Ex. average 10 yr. old has mental age of 10
Standard Binet test: Terman created first IQ test where the formula was mental age over chronological x 100.
Weschler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS): The normal distribution of scores on a standardized test = Bell Curve 50% of scores fall below mean of
100. 68% of population scores between 85 and 115. 95 % between 70 and 130. 15 pts equals one standard deviation on the normal curve. Standard
Deviation- how much scores vary from the mean.
Testing Bias: some claim that advantages on these test come from the cultural experiences some groups have (i.e. exposure to the vocabulary on
SAT tests) or the fact that the more similar you are to the majority culture that creates the test then the more likely you are to do well.
Heritability- measure of the percentage of a trait that is inherited
Evidence supporting that nature (genetics) plays a role in intelligence
-Identical Twin studies score closer in intelligence than fraternal.
-Identical raised apart also score close.
Evidence supporting that nurture (environment) plays a role in intelligence
Twins raised apart don’t score as close as those raised together
Flynn Effect- standardized test scores have continually increased because of better schooling, nutrition.
Within group differences in intelligence are larger than between group differences. Ex. The range (difference) between smart Asians and dumb
Asians is much greater than the range (difference) between average Asians and average Caucasians.
Motivation and Emotion (6-8%)
Motivation – feelings or ideas that cause to act toward a goal.
THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
Drive Reduction Theory- behavior motivated by biological needs. Need= food, water. Drive= hunger, thirst. Drive reducing behavior = eating,
drinking. (Ex. Addict injects drug)
Homeostasis – our bodies seek a balanced internal state
Primary drives – biological needs like food
Secondary drives – learned drives like $
Arousal Theory- suggests humans are motivated to seek the optimum level of arousal.
Yerkes-Dodson Law- we perform better at easy tasks with a high level of arousal, we may perform worse on difficult tasks with a high
level of arousal. (similar to social facilitation)
Incentive Theory- behavior is not pushed by a need; it is pulled by a desire.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs- Pyramid showing which needs must be met to go to the next level. Physiological needs (ex. food) at bottom,
followed by safety needs, belongingness, esteem and self-actualization (reaching one’s full potential) at top. The other needs must be met before one
can self-actualize.
BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF HUNGER (NATURE)
Washburn balloon experiment – Washburn swallowed a balloon and determined that stomach contractions accompany our feelings of
hunger
The hypothalamus makes us feel hungry when we need to eat
Lateral hypothalamus – when electrically stimulated, the lateral hypothalamus causes an animal to begin to eat. Destruction of
this area would cause an animal to starve (because hunger disappears)
Ventromedial hypothalamus – when electrically stimulated, the ventromedial hypothalamus causes the animal to stop eating.
Destruction of this area would cause an animal to eat continuously and become overweight.
(EX. Fat Rat had Ventromedial removes- mnemonic is L comes before V. we eat then stop eating)
When are we hungry? Low glucose, high insulin
Set Point- theory says that the hypothalamus wants to maintain certain body weight.
Metabolic Rate – how our body uses energy. When we are below our optimum body weight, our metabolic rate drops.
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Hunger Hormones
o I’m Hungry = Orexin and Grehlin
o I’m Not Hungry = Leptin and PYY
ENVIRONMENTAL BASIS OF HUNGER (NURTURE)
Externals- external food cues. (Ex. glucose level decreases with sight, smell of a food)
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Garcia effect- once nauseous on particular food then always nauseous- taste aversions
Culture- people learn to like certain foods.
EATING DISORDERS
Bulimia – Binge eating followed by purging (vomiting, exercising, laxatives)
Anorexia Nervosa – Starve body to below 85% normal body weight
Obesity – severely overweight (could be due to unhealthy eating habits or predisposition)
SEXUAL MOTIVATION
Sexual Response Cycle (Masters and Johnson) - initial excitement, plateau, orgasm, resolution
Sexual Motivation is very much driven by psychological factors. – Sexual desire prevails even when capacity to have sex is absent.
Sexual Orientation- Evidence suggests that there is a genetic link. (EX- if one identical twin is gay the other is more likely. They also
have similar brain structures
SOCIAL MOTIVATION
Achievement Motivation- varies among individuals – we have a desire to master complex tasks and reach personal goals. Most high
achievers prefer moderate tasks that they can be successful on.
Extrinsic motivation- people motivated by $ and
Intrinsic motivation- motivated by esteem needs, satisfaction
Management Theory Theory X management style- people are motivated by external rewards and punishment. This style works for a short period of
time.
Theory Y management style- people are motivated by job satisfaction, high morale. This management style is more effective.
Conflicting MotivesApproach-Approach- when one has two choices and both have positive outcomes (EX. Should I go to Daytona or Myrtle Beach
for spring break.)
Avoidance – Avoidance – must choose between unattractive outcomes. (Ex. Mom asks you to wash the dishes or clean the
\bathroom)
Approach- Avoidance- when one has one choice that has both desirable and undesirable outcomes. (EX. I like Ice Cream but it’s
very fattening)
Multiple Approach Avoidance – One must choose between two or more options, each having desirable and undesirable
qualities. (Ex. Choosing which college to attend)
WORK MOTIVATION
Flow- concept where one is so absorbed in one’s work or an activity that he/she loses sense of time and self (considered mentally healthy- EX.
having so much fun with friends that you can’t believe how fast the time has gone).
THEORIES OF EMOTION
James-Lange Theory (2 diff. people) – physiological response (heart pounds) first which causes emotion (feeling afraid) second.
Cannon-Bard Theory (2 diff. people) - physiological change and emotion happen simultaneously.
Shacter two-factor theory (sometimes called Lazarus or Singer) physiological arousal and cognitive label/mental interpretation (“I’m afraid”) occur
simultaneously to cause the emotion.
STRESS
Stressors- life events causing us to have stress.
SRRS (Social Readjustment Rating Scale) used to measure stress caused by different life changing events. This is measured in LCUs (life changing
units) EX- going to college, girlfriend/boyfriend breaks up with you, parents fighting.
Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome- reaction to stress-occurs in 3 stages- (Mnemonic ARE)
alarm reaction – sympathetic nervous system is activated
resistance – cope with stress
exhaustion. (Vulnerable to sickness or disease in this stage)
Perceived control – perceived control over the situation lessens stress, perceived lack of control makes an event more stressful
Personality (5-7%)
PSYCHOANALYTICAL (aka Psychodynamic – neo-Freudians)
Freudian Theory states that personality is shaped during childhood and adolescence.
Psychosexual Stages – sexual urges are an important aspect of personality development
Oral – sucking, biting
Anal – Bowel elimination
Phallic – Oedipus/Electra Complex, penis envy, identification (boy cannot beat father for mother’s attention he uses defense mechanism of
attaching himself to father.)
Latency – Sexual feelings are out of conscious awareness
Fixation – under or over gratification of a stage means stuck in it.(Oral fixation – chewing gum, smoke, over eat)
Personality consists of three parts:
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Id- pleasure principle, instincts, unconscious sexual and aggressive drives.
Ego- reality principle, mediator between id and superego. Freud says it is important to develop this.
Superego- conscious, morality
Defense Mechanisms- Freud’s believed it’s the ego’s job to protect the conscious mind from threatening thoughts buried in the unconscious. They
are:
Repression- pushing thoughts out of conscious awareness.
Denial- not accepting the truth. (Biff waits at the locker for Muffy)
Displacement- redirecting feelings toward another person/object. (Ex. Father yells at kids after a bad day at work).
Projection- believing thoughts you have about yourself are held by other people. (Ex. pointing out that somebody is a bad friend when you may be a
bad friend.)
Reaction Formation- expressing the opposite of how one truly feels (EX. Biff claims he loathes Muffy)
Regression- return to an earlier, comforting form of behavior.Rationalization- justifying or making excuses for an undesirable event or occurrence.
(Ex. “I don’t treat my girlfriend very well but my friends don’t treat theirs well, so it’s okay”).
Sublimation- channeling frustration toward a different goal. (Ex. working extra hours after getting a divorce).
Neo-Freudians (psychodynamic perspective) Criticism of Freud is that it’s difficult to prove theories (little empirical evidence), knowing the
unconscious is unobservable,
Horney’s criticism is that Freud’s theory has a male bias. Males have womb envy
Jung- neo-Freudian (believes in unconscious but conflicts are social not sexual) -personal unconscious and collective unconscious,
archetypes.
Adler- neo- Freudian – motivation by fear of failure (inferiority) and desire to achieve (superiority). Importance of birth order.
TRAIT THEORIES- characteristics of people that go unchanged throughout life and in all different situations. (EX. honesty, laziness). Nature
(biology) oriented theories. The criticism is that they underestimate the situation.
Nomothetic approaches – a basic set of traits can be used to describe all people’s personalities
Eysenck’s - introversion-extraversion, stability-instability scales can describe personalities. These are the main traits that
underlie all others.
Big 5 Personality Traits- extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, openness, stability. These 5 scales are what are needed
to describe personalities.
Cattell – 16 PF
Idiographic Approach all humans have unique personalities and cannot be described in generalizations. – Gordon Allport. He believed
cardinal dispositions are the traits that have the greatest influence.
BIOLOGICAL THEORIES- personality determined by genes, chemistry. EX- temperament- emotional style of dealing with world/others such as
getting angry easily.
Heritability- measure of the percentage of a trait that is inherited.
Temperament – a personas emotional style and characteristic way of dealing with the world
Somatotype Theory (Sheldon) – three body types associated with personality traits (mesomorphs .etc)
BEHAVIORIST THEORY- personality determined by environment, reinforcers
SOCIAL – COGNITIVE THEORY- (Bandura) personality determined by the environment and patterns of thought (the way we interpret events)
Reciprocal determinism (aka triadic reciprocality) – interaction between traits, environment and person’s behavior. 3 factors influence
one another in a looplike fashion ]
Self-efficacy – if you are optimistic about your own ability to get things done, low self efficacy = powerless
Internal and External locus of control. The belief someone has as to how much control of their destiny they have. Internals
believe if they work hard they will succeed.
Learned Helplessness- the belief that some people get (because of bad uncontrollable events) that says they cannot help
themselves to create or get out of unpleasant circumstances.
HUMANISTIC THEORYPeople are innately good and have free will (people control own destiny).
Self- actualization Maslow (people are motivated to reach full potential and grow)
Unconditional positive regard by Rogers (accepting someone no matter what) creates an environment that allows someone to develop a
self-concept.
Individualistic cultures (United States- where the focus is on the self, making own decisions) vs. Collectivist cultures (Japan- where the emphasis
is on doing what the community wants).
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ASSESSMENT TECHNIQUES
Psychoanalytic Projective Tests- purpose is to reveal the unconscious
(TAT) Thematic Apperception Test- people given a picture and asked to say what is happening in the picture
Rorschach inkblot- people given a picture of an inkblot and asked to state everything they see in it.
Personality Inventories- MMPI- (self report inventory) Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory- most widely used self-report.
Barnum effect- susceptibility of people to be deceived when reports show vague, general and usually positive assessments of individuals.
Astrologers, psychics exploit this.
Positive Psychology- Seligman’s idea that happy people need to be studied more because they have certain thought patterns, lifestyles that lead to
happiness. EX. Correlational studies showing how optimistic people live longer lives.
Psychological Disorders (7-9%)
DEFINING ABNORMALITY
Psychological Disorders: UMAD behavior that is Unjustifiable (irrational- does not make sense to most people) Maladaptive (harmful), Atypical
(not shared by many others, unusual), Disturbing (to others-EX pedophilias sexual attraction to children).
DSM IV TR: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual – Identifies Psychological Disorders. The DSM does not suggest causes or treatments. Clients are
assessed at various AXIS levels, .Axis I is a clinical disorder, II is personality disorder, III is medical condition (physical related to mental) and IV
psychosocial (stressful life events).
Causes of Psychological Disorders
Perspective
Psychoanalytic / Psychodynamic
Humanistic
Behavioral
Causes
Internal, Unconscious childhood conflicts and/or repressed thoughts/ memories
Failure to strive towards one potential (self-actualize), low self-esteem, lack of unconditional
positive regard in one’s environment
Behavior is learned through modeling or reinforcements of behavior, people are conditioned
(through association) into behavior, the environment affects behavior
Self-defeating, irrational and/or negative thinking, maladaptive thinking or interpretation of events.
Biochemical imbalances (neurotransmitters), genetic predisposition for illness
Cognitive
Biomedical / Biological
ANXIETY DISORDERS
Phobias: irrational fears of specific object or situation (EX agoraphobia- open spaces)
Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD): constant low-level anxieties
Obsessive-Compulsive disorder (OCD): unwanted thoughts (obsessions) cause the need to engage in particular action or ritual
(compulsions) to reduce the anxiety.
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD): flashbacks, nightmares because of involvement in war or natural disaster.
Panic attacks: episodes of intense anxiety without any apparent provocation
SOMATOFORM DISORDERS
Hypochondriasis: complains of physical illness to doctor but cannot find cause
Conversion disorder: people will complain of severe physical problem such as paralysis or blindness. They will be unable to move their
arms or see but no biological cause can be identified.
DISSOCIATIVE DISORDERS
Dissociative Fugue or amnesia (not biologically caused) causes someone to suddenly be in unfamiliar environment after
their brain dissociative from their real self.
Dissociative Identity disorder: (aka multiple personalities) dissociate themselves from their true identity. Do not remember dissociation
occurring. Caused by intense childhood physical/sexual abuse. Some claim the subject is role playing the disorder from the therapist’s
questions’
MOOD OR AFFECTIVE DISORDERS
Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) - experience depression when there is less sunlight. Treatment is light therapy
Major Depressive disorder (unipolar depression)- the common cold of psychology. DSM criteria is more than 2 weeks of hopelessness,
worthlessness, fatigue, and/or change of appetite, sleeping pattern. Women are 2 times more likely to get.
Dysthymic Disorder mild depression 2 years or more
Bipolar disorder (manic depressive): extreme highs (mania- characterized by high energy, confidence, creativity) and extreme lows
(depression)
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SCHIZOPHRENIA
Symptoms of schizophrenia: delusions (unrealistic beliefs) of persecution (people are out to get me), delusions of grandeur (belief that
you have greater power/influence than you do. EX “I am the President” Hallucinations- hearing voices, seeing things that aren’t present,
disorganized thinking. Positive symptoms – added unusual behaviors. Negative symptoms- absence of appropriate behavior.
- Paranoid (delusions of persecution), Disorganized (word salad, neologisms), Catatonic (strange body postures, motionless),
Undifferentiated (no particular category)
Causes of Schizophreniastrong genetic influences through twin studies and the fact that 1% of population in almost all cultures has it
excess of neurotransmitter dopamine. Parkinson’s Patients who take dopamine increasing meds often have hallucinations
Correlates to Schizophrenia
enlarged brain ventricles
prenatal viruses
PERSONALITY DISORDERS (PD’s) (least debilitating of all disorders but negatively affects people’s ability to function)
Most PD’s can be deuced about it’s symptoms from the name EXCEPT antisocial
Paranoid (mild persecution)
Obsessive-Compulsive- OCD but not debilitated
Dependent- need attention and help from others
Narcissistic: seeing oneself as the center of the universe, self-absorbed, self-love
Antisocial: little regard for other people’s feelings, no sense of guilt, often law breakers.
Histrionic: overly dramatic behavior
Other Psychological disorders include: philias (unusual sexual attractions to objects or persons), eating disorders, substance abuse, autism, ADHD
David-Rosenhan Study:
Faked a mental illness (said he heard voices) once labeled, every behavior within hospital was interpreted as a sign of schizophrenia. One of his
confederates remained hospitalized for 58 days. (even acting normal).
This showed the powerful influence of labeling someone with a disorder; it also questioned the care for the mentally ill.
Treatments of Psychological Disorders (5-7 %)
HISTORYTrephining - holes placed in peoples heads might let the evil spirits out
Dix, Pinel - movement to reform treatment of mentally ill, no longer caging/treating as criminals.
Medical model- looked at mental illness as curable like physical illnesses.
Deinstitutionalization (1950s) - emptying of institutions because of new attitudes and advent of drug therapy pros- save $, helped patients
cons- led to increase of homeless.
Preventive Psychology – focuses on preventing people from getting a disorder (reduces suffering for client and costs for society)
Primary prevention – Reduce joblessness, homelessness, poverty, or prejudice
Secondary prevention – includes getting treatment for those at risk. EX. grief counseling – the govt. offers counseling to war
veterans
Tertiary prevention – is stopping the manifested symptoms from becoming too severe.
TYPES OF THERAPY
Biological (Biomedical) Therapy
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Psycho Surgery- destruction of part of the brain to change behavior
o Prefrontal lobotomy- cuts the main neurons leading to the frontal lobe. Rarely done because of risks
Electro Convulsive Therapy (ECT) - Electric current passed through both hemispheres of the brain. This is often used for severe depression.
Side effects include memory loss.
Drug therapy
o antianxiety- Ex. Xanax, Valium (Tranquilzers- barbiturates)
o antidepressants- Ex. Prozac, Zoloft, MAO inhibitors, SSRI’s (increase activity of serotonin)
o anti-psychotic- Ex. Thorazine, Haldol (block receptors sites for Dopamine). Excessive use of these can lead to Tardiv
Dyskenesia- muscle tremor associated with Parkinson’s
o mood stabilizers- Ex. Lithium (Bi-Polar Disorder)
Psychoanalytic Therapy
Insight Therapies – revealing the repressed problems in the unconscious
Hypnosis- people are less likely to repress troubling thoughts
Free Association- to say whatever comes to mind without thinking (reveals clues and provides insight about what is really bothering us in
our unconscious.
Dream Analysis- through symbols reveal the latent (underlying) content of dream. Dreams are a window into the unconscious
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Resistance- patient disagrees with therapist’s analysis because painful thoughts are surfacing into the ego (denial is much easier), barrier to bringing
out the unconscious
Transference- patients sometimes transfer strong threatening feelings (of love or anger) they have toward parents or partners (or siblings) onto the
therapist. (Resembles displacement)
Behavioral Therapy
Counter Conditioning- Reversing the present conditioned response.
Systematic Desensitization- teaching client to gradually replace anxious feelings with relaxed ones. This is effective with phobias.(EX.using anxiety hierarchy such as seeing a spider from 25 ft. away then seeing a spider crawl up your leg until the fear is extinguished)
Exposure Therapy – exposure to what you normally avoid (virtual reality)
Flooding therapy- exposure to fear but start with most frieghtening fear first. EX. Throw boy in room with dog.
Aversive Conditioning- pairing unwanted behavior with an unpleasant stimulus (Ex. a nauseous pill is given to an alcoholic in his/her
drink.) Alcohol is associated with sickness. Bed wetters can be shocked out of unwanted behavior.
Modeling- watch people behave in a calm manner.
Token economy- rewarded for every wanted behavior.
Cognitive Therapy
(Beck) Changing/Challenging thought patterns or beliefs about themselves or events. Emphasis on more positive thinking.
Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT. Ellis) replaces irrational beliefs with rational ones aka cognitive restructuring.
Humanistic Therapy (Rogers, Maslow, Perls - Gestalt)
Client or person- centered therapy (Rogers) in which the therapist accepts the client no matter what he says/does (unconditional positive regard),
shows empathy, uses active listening (EX. paraphrasing feelings/statements by client). Therapist helps client to self-actualize and grow as a person.
Gestalt Therapy (Perls) – get in touch with the “whole” self.
Existential Therapy – finding meaning within life
Group Therapy- family therapy or AA where one sees that they are not alone with problems.
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