ANIMAL ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
CHAPTER 40: AN INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
Animal Anatomy: An Overview
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Anatomy
Physiology
Tissues
o Epithelial Tissue
 Basement Membrane
 Simple Epithelium
 Stratified Epithelium
 Cells
 Cuboidal
 Columnar
 Squamous
 Glandular Epithelia
 Mucous Membrane
o Connective Tissue
 Collagenous Fibers
 Elastic Fibers
 Reticular Fibers
 Loose Connective Tissue
 Fibroblasts
 Macrophages
 Adipose Tissue
 Fibrous Connective Tissue
 Tendons
 Ligaments
 Cartilage
 Chondrocytes
 Bone
 Osteoblasts
 Osteons
 Blood
 Plasma
 Erythrocytes
 Leukocytes
 Platelets
o Nervous Tissue
 Neuron
 Axon
 Dendrite
o Muscle Tissue
 Skeletal Muscle
 Striated Muscle
 Cardiac Muscle
 Smooth Muscle
Organs
Mesenteries
Thoracic Cavity
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Abdominal Cavity
Organs Systems
o Table 40.1 page 840
Body Plans and the External Environment
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Physical Laws Constrain Animal Form
Body Size and Shape Affect Interactions with the Environment
Regulating the Internal Environment
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Interstitial Fluid
Homeostasis
Homeostatic Control System
o Receptor
o Control Center
o Effector
o Negative Feedback
o Positive Feedback
Introduction to the Bioenergetics of Animals
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Heterotrophism
Metabolic Rate
cal, kcal, C
Endothermic
Ectothermic
Inverse Relationship between Body Size and Metabolic Rate
Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)
Standard Metabolic Rate (SMR)
Energy Budgets
Energy Expenditures
CHAPTER 41: ANIMAL NUTRITION
Nutritional Requirements
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Fuel
Biosynthesis
Glucose Regulation
Caloric Imbalance
o Undernourishment
o Overnourishment
Obesity
Essential Nutrients
o Malnourished
Essential Amino Acids
Essential Fatty Acids
Vitamins
o Table 41.1 page 854
Minerals
o Table 41.2 page 855
Food Types and Feeding Mechanisms
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Opportunistic Feeders
o Herbivores
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o Carnivores
o Omnivores
Suspension-Feeders
Substrate-Feeders
Fluid-Feeders
Bulk-Feeders
Overview of Food Processing
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Ingestion
Digestion
Enzymatic Hydrolysis
Absorption
Elimination
Specialized Compartments
o Intracellular Digestion
o Extracellular Digestion
 Gastrovascular Cavities
o Complete Digestive Tract
o Alimentary Canal
The Mammalian Digestive System
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Peristalsis
Sphincters
Glands
o Salivary Gland
o Pancreas
o Liver
o Gallbladder
The Oral Cavity
o Teeth
o Saliva
 Mucin
 Buffers
 Antibacterial Agents
 Salivary Amylase
o Tongue
o Bolus
The Pharynx
o Glottis
o Epiglottis
The Esophagus
o Peristalsis
o Voluntary Muscles
o Involuntary Muscles
The Stomach
o Upper Abdominal Cavity
o Accordion-like Folds and Elastic Wall
o Storing Food
o Digestion
 Gastric Juice
 HCl
 Pepsin
 Pepsinogen
o

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Chief Cells
Mucous
 Ulcers
 Mechanical Mixing
 Acid Chyme
 Heart Burn or Reflux
 Cardiac Sphincter
 Pyloric Sphincter
The Small Intestine
o Digestion and Absorption of Nutrients
o Duodenum
 Pancreas
 Hydrolytic Enzymes
 Alkaline Solution (Bicarbonate)
 Liver
 Bile
o Bile Salts
o Bile Pigments
o Enzymatic Action
 Carbohydrate Digestion
 Starch and Glycogen
o Oral Cavity
 Salivary Amylase
o Small Intestine
 Pancreatic Amylases
 Maltase
 Sucrase
 Lactase
 Intestinal Epithelium
 Protein Digestion
 Stomach
o Pepsin
o Pepsinogen
 Small Intestine (Duodenum)
o Trypsin (Pancreas)
o Chymotrypsin (Pancreas)
o Dipeptidases
o Carboxypeptidase (Pancreas)
o Aminopeptidase
o Intestinal Epithelium
o Enteropeptidases (Activator)
 Nucleic Acid Digestion
 Nucleases
 Fat Digestion
 Insolubility
 Duodenum
 Bile Salts (From Gallbladder)
o Emulsification
 Lipase
o Absorption of Nutrients
 Jejunum
 ileum
 Villi
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 Microvilli
 Capillaries
 Lacteal
 Passive Diffusion (Fructose)
 Active Transport (Amino Acids, Small Peptides, Vitamins, Glucose, etc.)
 Blood Stream
 Chylomicrons
 Hepatic Portal Vessel
 Liver
Digestive Efficiency and Cost
Hormones Helping Digestion
o Released from Stomach and Duodenum
o Nerve Impulses
o Gastrin (Stomach)
 Negative Feedback
o Enterogastrones (Duodenum)
 Secretin
 Cholecystokinin (CCK)
Large Intestine (Colon)
o Cecum/ Appendix
o Recovering Water
o Feces
 Diarrhea
 Constipation
 Natural “Flora”
 Vitamin Production
o Fiber
o Salts
o Rectum
o Sphincters (Voluntary and Involuntary)
Evolutionary Adaptations of Vertebrate Digestive Systems
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Structural Adaptations
o Dentition
o Jaw Hinge
o Expandable Stomachs
o Length of Alimentary Canals
 Herbivore = Longer
 Carnivore = Shorter
Symbiotic Microorganisms
o Ruminants
CHAPTER 42: CIRCULATION AND GAS EXCHANGE
Circulation in Animals
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Gastrovascular Cavities
Blood Pressure
Open Circulatory Systems
o Hemolymph
o Hearts
o Sinuses
Closed Circulatory Systems
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o Blood
o Hearts
o Vessels
Cardiovascular System
o Heart
 Atria
 Ventricles
o Vessels
 Arteries
 Veins
 Capillaries
 Arterioles
 Capillary Beds
 Venules
 Blood Flow
o Two Chambered Heart (Fish)
 Gill Circulation
 Systemic Circulation
o Three Chambered Heart (Amphibian and Most Reptiles)
 Pulmocutaneous Circulation
 Systemic Circulation
 Double Circulation
o Four Chambered Heart (Crocodiles, Birds, and Mammals)
 Endothermic
 Figure 42.3 page 874
Double Circulation in Mammals
o Figure 42.4 page 875
The Mammalian Heart
o Cardiac Cycle
o Systole
o Diastole
o Cardiac Output
 Heart Rate
 Stroke Volume
o Valves
 Atrioventricular (AV) Valve
 Semilunar Valves
o Pulse
o Heart Murmur
o Figure 42.5 page 876
o Figure 42.6 page 876
Maintaining the Heart’s Rhythmic Beat
o Sinoatrial (SA) Node
o Pacemaker
o Atrioventricular (AV) Node
o Electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG)
o Figure 42.7 page 877
Structural Differences of Arteries, Veins, and Capillaries
o Endothelium
o Figure 42.8 page 878
Blood Flow Velocity
o Flow Through Arteries
o Flow Through Veins
o Figure 42.9 page 878
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Blood Pressure
o Systolic Pressure
o Peripheral Resistance
o Diastolic Pressure
o Cardiac Output
o Figure 42.10 page 879
o Figure 42.11 page 880
Blood Flow Through Capillary Beds
o Figure 42.12 page 881
Capillary Exchange
o Figure 42.13 page 881
Lymphatic System
o Lymph
o Lymph Nodes
Composition of Blood
o Connective Tissue
o Plasma
o Cellular Elements
 Red Blood Cells
 Erythrocytes
 Hemoglobin
 White Blood Cells
 Leukocytes
 Platelets
Stem Cells
o Pluripotent
o Bone Marrow
o Erythropoietin
Blood Clotting
o Fibrinogen
o Fibrin
o Hemophilia
o Thrombus
Cardiovascular Diseases
o Heart Attack
o Stroke
o Atherosclerosis
o Arteriosclerosis
o Hypertension
o Cholesterol
o Low-Density Lipoproteins (LDL’s)
o High-Density Lipoproteins (HDL’s)
Gas Exchange in Animals
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Gas Exchange
o Respiratory Medium
o Respiratory Surface
Gills
o Ventilation
o Countercurrent Exchange
Tracheal Systems
Lungs
Mammalian Respiratory Systems
o Nasal Cavity
o
o
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Pharynx
Larynx
 Voicebox
o Trachea
o Bronchi
o Bronchioles
o Alveoli
o Capillaries
Ventilating the Lungs
o Breathing
o Positive Pressure Breathing
o Negative Pressure Breathing
o Diaphragm
o Tidal Volume
o Vital Capacity
o Residual Volume
o Parabronchi (Birds)
Breathing Regulation
o Breathing Control Centers
o Figure 42.26 page 893
Gas Diffusion
o Partial Pressure
Oxygen Transport
o Respiratory Pigments
o Hemocyanin
o Hemoglobin
o Dissociation Curve
Carbon Dioxide Transport
o Hemoglobin
o Carbonic Anhydrase
o Carbonic Acid
o Bicarbonate
o Figure 42.29 page 896
Deep-Diving Adaptations for Respiration
CHAPTER 43: THE BODY’S DEFENSES
Nonspecific Defenses Against Infection
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First Line of Defense
o Epithelial Tissue
 Skin
 Mucous Membranes
o Lysozyme
Second Line of Defense
o White Blood Cells (Leukocytes)
 Phagocytosis
 Phagocytic Cells
 Neutrophils
o Chemotaxis
 Monocytes
 Macrophages
o Lysosome
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 Eosinophils
 Natural Killer (NK) Cells
Inflammatory Response
o Histamine
o Basophils
o Mast Cells
o Chemokines
o Figure 43.5 page 903
Antimicrobial Proteins
o Complement System
o Interferons
How Specific Immunity Arises
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B Lymphocytes (B Cells)
T Lymphocytes (T Cells)
Antigen
Antibodies
Antigen Receptors
T Cell Receptors
Effector Cells
Memory Cells
Clonal Selection
Primary Immune Response
o Plasma Cells
Secondary Immune Response
Immune Tolerance for Self
Role of Surface Markers in T Cell Function
o Major Histocompatibility Complex(MHC)
o Class I MHC Molecules
o Class II MHC Molecules
o Antigen Presentation
o Cytotoxic T Cells (TC)
o Helper T Cells (TH)
o Antigen-Presenting Cells (APCs)
Immune Responses
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Humoral Immunity
Cell-Mediated Immunity
Helper T Lymphocytes
o CD4 Molecule
o Cytokines
 Interleukin-2 (IL-2)
 Interleukin-1 (IL-1)
Cytotoxic T Cells
o CD8
o Perforin
o Tumor Antigen
B Cell Antibodies
o T-Dependent Antigens
o T-Independent Antigens
Antibody Structure and Function
o Epitope
o Immunoglobulins (Igs)
 Heavy Chains
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 Light Chains
o Monoclonal Antibodies
o Antibody-Mediated Disposal of Antigen
 Neutralization
 Opsonization
 Agglutination
 Membrane Attack Complex (MAC)
 Immune Adherence
Invertebrate Rudimentary Immune System
Immunity in Health and Disease
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Active Immunity
o Immunization
o Vaccination
Passive Immunity
Blood Groups and Blood Transfusion
o ABO Blood Groups
o Rh Factors
Tissue Grafts and Organ Transplantation
Allergies
o Anaphylactic Shock
Autoimmune Diseases
o Lupus
o Rheumatoid Arthritis
o Insulin-Dependent Diabetes Mellitus
o Multiple Sclerosis (MS)
Immunodeficiency Diseases
o Severe Combined Immunodeficiency (SCID)
o Hodgkin’s Disease
o Emotional Stress
Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS)
o Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
o HIV-1 and HIV-2
o CD4 Molecules
CHAPTER 44: REGULATING THE INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT
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Homeostatis
Thermoregulation
Osmoregulation
Excretion
An Overview of Homeostasis
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Regulator
Conformers
Budgets (gains and losses)
Regulation of Body Temperature
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Q10 Effect
Conduction
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Convection
Radiation
Evaporation
Ectotherm
Endotherm
Adjusting the Rate of Heat Exchange with the Environment
o Vasodilation
o Vasoconstriction
o Countercurrent Heat Exchanger
Cooling by Evaporative Heat Loss
Behavioral Responses
Changing the Rate of Metabolic Heat Production
Mammals and Birds
o Nonshivering Thermogenesis (NST)
o Brown Fat
o Insulation
 Hair
 Fat
 Feathers
Amphibians and Reptiles
Fishes
Invertebrates
Feedback Mechanisms in Thermoregulation
Acclimatization
Torpor
o Hibernation
o Estivation
o Daily Torpor
Water Balance and Waste Disposal
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Osmoregulation
Transport Epithelium
Nitrogenous Waste
o Ammonia
o Urea
o Uric Acid
Osmolarity
Osmoconformer
Osmoregulator
Maintaining Water Balance in the Sea
Maintaining Osmotic Balance in Fresh Water
Anhydrobiosis
Maintaining Osmotic Balance on Land
Excretory Systems
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Selective Reabsorption
Secretion
Filtration
Filtrate
Protonephridia: Flame-Bulb Systems
Metanephridia
Malpighian Tubules
Vertebrate Kidneys
Mammalian Kidneys
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Figure 44.21 page 944
Renal Artery and Renal Vein
Ureter
Urinary Bladder
Urethra
Renal Cortex
Renal Medulla
Nephron
 Glomerulus
 Bowman’s Capsule
Filtration of the Blood
Pathway of the Filtrate
 Proximal Tubule
 Loop of Henle
 Distal Tubule
 Collecting Duct
 Cortical Nephrons
 Juxtamedullary Nephrons
Blood Vessels Associated with the Nephrons
 Afferent Arteriole
 Efferent Arteriole
 Peritubular Capillaries
 Vasa Recta
From Blood Filtrate to Urine
 Figure 44.22 page 946
 Proximal Tubule
 Descending Limb of the Loop of Henle
 Ascending Limb of the Loop of Henle
 Distal Tubule
 Collecting Duct
The Kidney’s Conservation of Water
 Figure 44.23 page 948
Regulation of the Kidney’s Functions
 Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
 Juxtaglomerular Apparatus (JGA)
 Aldosterone
 Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System (RAAS)
 Atrial Natriuretic Factor (ANF)
 Figure 44.24 page 950
Special Habitat Adaptations
CHAPTER 45: CHEMICAL SIGNALS IN ANIMALS
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Hormone
Target Cells
An Introduction to Regulatory Systems
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Endocrine System
Endocrine Glands
Neurosecretory Cells
Figure 45.1 page 956
Invertebrate Regulatory Systems
o
o
o
o
Ecdysone
Brain Hormone (BH)
Juvenile Hormone (JH)
Figure 45.2 page 957
Chemical Signals and Their Modes of Action
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Local Regulators
o Growth Factors
o Nitric Oxide (NO)
o Prostaglandins (PGs)
Signal Transduction Pathways
o Reception
o Signal Transduction
o Response
o Figure 45.3 and 45.4 page 959
Intracellular Receptors
o Steroid Hormones
o Thyroid Hormones
The Vertebrate Endocrine System
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Figure 45.5 page 960
Table 45.1 page 961
Tropic Hormones
Hypothalamus
Pituitary Gland
o Anterior Pituitary (Adrenohypophysis)
 Releasing Hormones
 Inhibiting Hormones
o Posterior Pituitary (Neurohypophysis)
Posterior Pituitary Hormones
o Oxytocin
o Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
o Figure 45.6 page 963
Anterior Pituitary Hormones
o Growth Hormone (GH)
o Insulinlike Growth Factors (IGFs)
o Prolactin (PRL)
o Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
o Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
o Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
o Gonadotropins
o Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)
o Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone (MSH)
o Endorphins
Pineal Gland
o Melatonin
Thyroid Gland
o Triiodothyronine (T3)
o Thyroxine (T4)
o Development and Maturation
o Homeostasis
o Calcitonin
Parathyroid Glands
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o Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)
o Vitamin D
o Figure 45.9 page 967
Pancreas
o Islets of Langerhans
 Alpha Cells
 Glucagon
 Beta Cells
 Insulin
o Figure 45.10 page 968
o Type I Diabetes Mellitus (Insulin-Dependent Diabetes)
o Type II Diabetes Mellitus (Non-Insulin-Dependent Diabetes)
Adrenal Glands
o Adrenal Cortex
 Corticosteroids
 Glucocorticoids
o Cortisol
 Mineralocorticoids
o Aldosterone
o Adrenal Medulla
 Epinephrine (Adrenaline)
 Norepinephrine (Noradrenaline)
 Catecholamines
o Stress and the Adrenal Gland Figure 45.14 page 971
Gonadal Steroids
o Androgens
 Testosterone
o Estrogens
 Estradiol
 Progestins
 Progesterone
CHAPTER 46: ANIMAL REPRODUCTION
Overview of Animal Reproduction
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Sexual Reproduction
o Gametes
 Ovum
 Spermatozoon
o Zygote
Asexual Reproduction
o Fission
o Budding
o Fragmentation
o Regeneration
Reproductive Cycles
o Parthenogenesis
o Hermaphroditism
o Sequential Hermaphroditism
Mechanisms of Sexual Reproduction
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Fertilization
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o External
o Internal
Pheromones
Gonads
Spermatheca
Cloaca
Mammalian Reproduction
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Anatomy of the Human Male
o Figure 46.8 page 981
o Testes
o Seminiferous Tubules
o Leydig Cells
o Scrotum
o Epididymis
o Ejaculation
o Vas Deferens
o Ejaculatory Duct
o Urethra
o Semen
 Seminal Vesicles
 Prostate Gland
 Bulbourethral Glands
o Penis
 Baculum
 Viagra
 Glans Penis
 Prepuce (Foreskin)
Anatomy of the Human Female
o Figure 46.9 page 983
o Ovaries
o Follicle
o Ovulation
o Corpus Luteum
o Oviduct
o Uterus
 Endometrium
o Cervix
o Vagina
 Hymen
o Vestibule
 Labia Minora
 Labia Majora
o Clitoris
o Bartholin’s Glands
o Mammary Glands
Human Sexual Response
o Vasocongestion
o Myotonia
o Coitus (Sexual Intercourse)
o Orgasm
Spermatogenesis
o Figure 46.11 page 985
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o Spermatogonia
o Acrosome
Oogenesis
o Figure 46.13 page 986
o Oogonia
o Primary Oocytes
o Secondary Oocytes
Male Pattern Hormones
o Androgens
 Testosterone
o Figure 46.14 page 987
Female Pattern Hormones
o Figure 46.15 page 988
o Menstrual Cycle (compared to Estrous Cycles)
 Menstruation
 Estrus
 Menstrual Flow Phase
 Proliferative Phase
 Secretory Phase
o Ovarian Cycle
 Follicular Phase
 Ovulation
 Luteal Phase
o Hormones
 LH
 FSH
 Estrogens
 Progesterone
o Menopause
Embyronic and Fetal Development
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From Conception to Birth
o Pregnancy (Gestation)
o Embyro
o Conception
o First Trimester
 Zygote Cleavage and Blastocyst
 Placenta
 Organogenesis
 Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (HCG)
o Second Trimester
o Third Trimester
o Labor (Figure 46.19 page 992
o Parturition (Birth)
o Lactation
Reproductive Immunology
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The “Enigma”
Trophoblast
Contraception
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Figure 46.21 page 994
Abstinence
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o Rhythm Method
o Natural Family Planning
Barrier Methods
o Condom
o Diaphragm
Intrauterin Devices (IUDs)
Coitus Interruptus (Withdrawal)
Chemical Contraceptives
o Birth Control Pills
Sterilization
o Tubal Ligation
 Female: Tube tie
 Male: Vasectomy
Modern Technology Solving Reproductive Problems
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Diagnoses
Ultrasound Imaging
Sperm Donation
In Vitro Fertilization
CHAPTER 48: NERVOUS SYSTEM
An Overview of Nervous Systems
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Sensory Receptors
Sensory Input
Central Nervous System (CNS)
Motor Output
Effector Cells
Nerves
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Neuron Structure and Synapses
o Figure 48.2 page 1023
o Neuron or Nerve Cell
o Cell Body
o Dendrites
o Axons
o Axon Hillock
o Myelin Sheath
o Synaptic Terminals
o Neurotransmitters
o Synapse
o Presynaptic Cell
o Postsynaptic Cell
A Simple Nerve Circuit- the Reflex Arc
o Figure 48.3 page 1024
o Reflex
o Reflex Arc
o Sensory Neuron
o Motor Neuron
o Effector Cell
o Interneurons
o Ganglia
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o Nuclei
Types of Nerve Circuits
Supporting Cells (Glia)
o Astrocytes
o Blood-Brain Barrier
o Oligodendrocytes
o Schwann Cells
o Figure 48.5 page 1026
The Nature of Nerve Signals
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Measuring Membrane Potentials
o Membrane Potential
o Resting Potential
o Figure 48.6 page 1027
Maintaining a Membrane Potential
o Figure 48.7 page 1027
o Sodium-Potassium Pumps
o Chloride
Changes in Membrane Potential and Nerve Impulses
o Excitable Cells
o Gated Ion Channels
o Chemically-Gated Ion Channels
o Voltage-Gated Ion Channels
o Figure 48.8 page 1029
o Gated Potentials
 Hyperpolarization
 Depolarization
 Gated Potentials
o Action Potentials
 Threshold Potential
 Action Potential
 Figure 48.9 page 1030
Propagation of Nerve Impulse Along an Axon
o Figure 48.11 page 1032
o Saltatory Conduction
Electrical Synapses
Chemical Synapses
o Figure 48.12 page 1033
o Synaptic Cleft
o Synaptic Vesicles
o Neurotransmitter
o Presynaptic Membrane
o Postsynaptic Membrane
Neural Integration
o Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential (EPSP)
o Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential (IPSP)
o Summation
o Figure 48.13 page 1035
Neurotransmitters
o Table 48.1 page 1037
o Acetylcholine
o Biogenic Amines
 Epinephrine
 Norepinephrine
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 Dopamine
 Serotonin
o Amino Acids
 Gamma Aminobutyric Acid (GABA)
 Glycine
 Glutamate
 Aspartate
o Neuropeptides
 Substance P
 Endorphins
Gaseous Signals of the Nervous System
o Nitric Oxide (NO)
o Carbon Monoxide (CO)
Evolution and Diversity of Nervous Systems
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Cell Responses to the Environment
Nerve Nets
Cephalization
Nerve Cords
Figure 48.15 page 1039
Vertebrate Nervous Systems
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Figure 48.16 page 1040
Central Nervous System
o Central Canal
o Ventricles
o Cerebrospinal Fluid
o White Matter
o Gray Matter
Peripheral Nervous System
o Cranial Nerves
o Spinal Nerves
o Sensory Division
 Afferent (Incoming)
o Motor Division
 Efferent (Outgoing)
o Somatic Nervous System
o Autonomic Nervous System
 Sympathetic Division
 Parasympathetic Division
 Figure 48.18 page 1041
Brain Anatomy and Physiology
o Forebrain
 Cerebrum
 Cerebral Hemispheres
 Basal Nuclei
 Neocortex
 Corpus Callosum
 Cerebral Cortex
 Thalamus
 Epithalamus
 Hypothalamus
 Circadian Rhythm
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 Biological Clock
 Suprachiasmatic Nuclei (SCN)
o The Brainstem
 Midbrain
 Hindbrain
 Medulla Oblongata
 Pons
 Cerebellum
 Reticular Formation
 Arousal
 Sleep
 Electroencephalogram (EEG)
Specializations of the Cerebrum
o Figure 48.24 page 1047
o Four Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex
 Frontal
 Temporal
 Occipital
 Parietal
o Primary Motor Cortex
 Figure 48.25 page 1048
o Primary Somatosensory Cortex
o Integrative Function of the Association Areas
o Lateralization of Brain Function
o Language and Speech
 Broca’s Area
o Emotions
 Limbic System
o Memory and Learning
 Short-term Memory
 Long-term Memory
 Long-term Depression (LTD)
 Long-term Potentiation (LTP)
o Human Consciousness
CNS Injuries and Diseases (Treatment and Research)
o Nerve Cell Development
o Neural Stem Cells
CHAPTER 49: SENSORY AND MOTOR MECHANISMS
Sensing, Acting, and Brains
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Cyclical Processing Instead of Linear
Introduction to Sensory Reception
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Sensations
Perception
Sensory Reception
Sensory Receptors
o Exteroreceptors
o Interoreceptors
Sensory Transduction
o Receptor Potential
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o Figure 49.2 page 1060 (Taste Buds)
Amplification
Transmission
Integration
o Sensory Adaptation
Sensory Receptors
o Mechanoreceptors
 Muscle Spindle
 Figure 49.3 page 1061
 Hair Cell
 Figure 49.4 page 1061
o Pain Receptors
 Nociceptors
o Thermoreceptors
o Chemoreceptors
 Gustatory (Taste)
 Olfactory (Smell)
o Electromagnetic Receptors
 Photoreceptors
Photoreceptors and Vision
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-
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Diversity of Photoreceptors
o Eye Cup
o Compound Eyes
 Ommatidia
o Single-Lens Eye
The Vertebrate Single-Lens Eye
o Figure 49.9 page 1064
o Sclera
o Choroid
o Conjunctiva
o Iris
o Pupil
o Retina
o Lens
o Ciliary Body
o Aqueous Humor
o Vitreous Humor
o Focusing the Eye
 Figure 49.10 page 1065
 Accomodation
o Rod Cells
o Cone Cells
o Fovea
Light-Absorbing Pigment
o Figure 49.11 page1066
o Retinal
o Opsin
o Rhodopsin
o Bipolar Cells
 Figure 49.13 page 1067
 Figure 49.14 page 1067
o Photopsins
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o Color Blindness
Processing Visual Information
o Bipolar Cells
o Ganglion Cells
 Figure 49.15 page 1068
o Horizontal Cells
o Amacrine Cells
o Lateral Inhibition
o Optic Chiasm
o Lateral Geniculate Nuclei
o Primary Visual Cortex
o Figure 49.16 page 1068
Hearing and Equilibrium
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The Mammalian Ear
o Figure 49.17 page 1070
o Outer Ear
o Tympanic Membrane
o Middle Ear
 Malleus
 Incus
 Stapes
o Oval Window
o Inner Ear
 Cochlea
 Organ of Corti
 Round Window
 Pitch
Equilibrium
o Utricle
o Saccule
o Simicircular Canals
o Figure 49.19 page 1071
The Lateral Line System (Fish and Aquatic Invertebrates)
Gravity Sensors
o Statocysts
o Statoliths
Chemoreception – Taste and Smell
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Interrelatedness of Taste and Smell
Olfaction in Humans
o Figure 49.24 page 1075
o Taste Buds
Movement and Locomotion
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Energy Requirement
Swimming
Locomotion on Land
Flying
Cellular and Skeletal Underpinnings of Locomotion
Skeletal Functions
o
o
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Hydrostatic Skeletons
Exoskeletons
 Chitin
o Endoskeletons
 Human Skeleton Figure 49.28 page 1079
Body Proportions and Posture
Structure and Function of Vertebrate Skeletal Muscle
o Figure 49.30 page 1080
o Skeletal Muscle
o Myofibrils
o Myofilaments
 Thin Filaments
 Thick Filaments
o Sarcomere
o Z Lines
o I Bands
o A Bands
o Figure 49.31 page 1081
Interactions Between Myosin and Actin
o Myosin
o Actiin
o Sliding Filament Model
o Figure 49.33 page 1082
Control of Muscle Contraction
o Tropomyosin
o Troponin Complex
o Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
o T (transverse) Tubules
o Figure 49.35 page 1083
o Figure 49.36 page 1084
Variation in Muscle Activity
o Tetanus
o Motor Unit
o Recruitment
o Fast and Slow Muscle Fibers
o Myoglobin
Other Types of Muscle
o Cardiac Muscle
 Intercalated Discs
o Smooth Muscle