E-ISSN 1154-7311 Instructions for best user experience. What Is Advertising? William M. O'Barr We know it when we see it. We are exposed to it thousa reasonably good, although seldom perfect, at distinguis is something that we tend to take for granted, seldom th into existence. But what is this thing called advertising? Fig. 1.1 Can A Definition of Advertising Encomp A library or Internet search will turn up no consistent de laymen, and practitioners have taken turns offering insig introductory unit examines some of those attempts, but single definition will do, and each effort at describing ad ignoring others. Taken together, these definitions emph advertising with society, culture, history, and the econom 1. Defining Advertising Broadly A stroll through the galleries of one of London's great in Museum, takes you deep into the history of Britain. You India, or spend your time exploring the evolution of Eng Imagine the job of James Laver (1899-1975) who becam Design, and Paintings. This Oxford-educated art critic w Military Uniforms (1948) and A Concise History of Costu compiler of a book on Victorian advertisements1 would i on the bold graphics, curiosities, and outlandish claims advertisements. (This was a time when advertisers coul regulation, save for what the public would stand.) Ads fr slaughtering beef for extract, they promise to regrow ha suggest the cleansing power of soap. Fig. 1.2 A 19th-Century E for Beef Extract [Sou Fig. 1.3 Extravagant Claims W in Victorian Advertisement Fig. 1.4 A Gratuitous Use of R in 19th-Century Advertisin In introducing Victorian Advertisements, Laver asks, "W Advertising is as old as Humanity: indeed, much o colours of the flowers but so many invitations to th product". Everything is already there: the striking "conditioning of the customer".... Advertising migh first arrests the attention of the passer-by and the mutually advantageous exchange.2 FYI... The Victoria & Albert Museum in London is one of the world's quoted for his pithy comments about the world of fashion. A device to arrest attention — now that's a broad definit a traffic cop in a busy intersection, a gun pointed at you afternoon, the snarl of a pit bull, and a nude person stre many ways to arrest human attention, and only some ar and then induces him to accept a mutually advantageou separate ads from the rest? Think about it a moment. S intersection offers mutual advantages: you avoid an acc arrest; the officer does his job (surely an advantageous public order. Acquiescing to someone holding a loaded and can assist the criminal in his "work" as well. The ice get cooled off. The dog protects its territory, and you av and you get a break and perhaps a good laugh as well. Let's delve a bit more deeply to see if we can find more definition of advertising. He invites us to think of the bird Fig. 1.5 Is This Advertising flowers in the annual give-and-take of nectar in exchang as this example seems, and far from slick magazine ads highlight critical components of ads — they call for our a offer us objects and services (for which we have to pay, to us (otherwise we wouldn't buy them) and to the seller Although this definition does not manage to distinguish attention grabbers (that we find worthwhile to pay attent features of advertisements: exchange, attention, mutua definition, it applies without much difficulty to advertising even in other times and places. It works for a spice disp wall in ancient Herculaneum. And it works for a store wi Fig. 1.6 An Open-Air Spic in India, c.1850 [Sou Fig. 1.7 An Ancient Notice A Wine for Sale [Sour Fig. 1.8 Window Shop in Hong Kong [Sour FYI... The ancient Roman city of Herculaneum was preserved by an e archaeological remains provide many insights into life in Roman In bringing all these things together — across time, plac definition emphasizes the antiquity of advertising. Rathe yesterday, it seems as old as humanity and as universa light, is thus a part of social life. We humans exchange a way that benefits us and those we deal with. Certainly impossible to imagine life without exchange. How could all the cigarettes produced there? How could the folks in grow? And what would New Yorkers smoke or eat? Whether we think of the relatively small-scale societies Westernization, England at the time of the Norman Con 21st century, it seems that exchange is the name of the trade, we sell — but most of all we exchange what we h instead. And where does advertising fit into this? Accord arrests the attention of the passer-by and then induces exchange." 2. Defining Advertising Narrowly During his lifetime, Raymond Williams (1921-1988) was critics. He taught at both Oxford and Cambridge Univer Birmingham School of Cultural Studies. He devoted his about as a result of the industrialization of society and t which he saw in much of a favorable light. In his extens dislocations, wealth and poverty, changes in the nature another, environmental pollution, and the like. FYI... Raymond Williams helped establish the field of cultural studies Birmingham School of Cultural Studies. On several occasions he wrote about advertising, but n essay entitled "Advertising: The Magic System."3 Recog as a means of getting attention and providing informatio Williams focused on the institutionalization and professi the late 1800s in Britain and elsewhere, its commercial social critic, he was also interested in ways its enormou Williams too offered a definition of advertising. He called society. It's a catchy phrase, but what does it mean? In note is that Williams locates advertising in a social conte historical moment. It is a part of modern capitalist societ attention-grabbing devices in non-capitalist societies in advertising cannot be decoupled from the way it came i society. Modern advertising in Britain (and America as we shall century in support of mass consumption in highly indust advertising agents began providing services — buying a magazines, and other media, writing copy and eventual developing persuasive techniques to persuade consum demands for their services, and out of the provision of t agencies. These full-service agencies charged hefty fee talented writers and artists. Soon advertisements began stations, billboards in the streets, and the pages of mas newspapers. In fact art itself had found a new patron. Fig. 1.9 Public Transportatio for Advertising, London, 187 Fig. 1.10 Advertising in Pub New York City, 1880s [S Fig. 1.11 Advertisem in Print Media, 1889 [S Calling advertising the official art of capitalist society foc in this case, by capitalist interests. Sponsorship of art is look back to the Renaissance, for example, to see how context. In that time, it had two great patrons: the Catho sponsors (like the Medici family and important city-state The Church commissioned Michelangelo to paint the Si was commissioned by the City of Florence. So it was wi Fig. 1.12, 1.13 "Sponsored" Art in the the period. To eat, they sold their work to those who cou adapted their creative ideas to what their benefactors w all creativity and talent was subverted. Michelangelo inc works, and artists often had ideas that were saved and to do. And what was all this art used for? In addition to being " to demonstrate wealth and power), the Church used rel pilgrims coming for the first time to a great cathedral. Un be dwarfed by modern office buildings or hidden behind have stood as the largest building in sight — bold, incre might lead the worshipers to the stained glass windows scarce (no TV, no magazines, no Internet), these image Crucifixion, the Resurrection, and the Saints had enorm ideas. They would instruct and teach. They would hold Fig. 1.14 Details of a Stained G in Ste. Chapelle, Paris [ Likewise was the power of portraits painted for the wea only the rich might have their images immortalized. Imp were recorded in paintings and graced the palaces of th they became historical truth and connected the present Fig. 1.15 Portrait of Catherin by Santi di Tito, (1536-1603 Fig. 1.16 Marriage of Fredrick by Giambattista Tiepolo, (1696- In calling advertising the official art of capitalist society, of art in modern times. Today corporations, instead of th produced serves their needs and desires just as art has commercial attempts to bedazzle, to instruct, to teach, t consumers. And the companies that can afford the best prosperity, and place in the sun. After all, isn't mere pre what it is all about? Only the wealthiest can pay the pric who work for them. Fig. 1.17a A Popular Sup Commercial, 2005 [So Fig. 1.17b Another Popular Commercial, 2005 [So If Laver's definition of advertising as an attention-getting advertising, Williams' definition of advertising as sponso Both things are true, but each definition brings out a rad 3. Defining Advertising as Mediated Communication Albert Lasker (1880-1952) grew up in Galveston, Texas Chicago, and lived out his later years in New York. From Thomas Agency in Chicago — one of the great advertis Late in life, he married the much younger Mary Lasker w Together, they established The Lasker Foundation, a ph medical research, with some of the money Lasker had e was quirky (he insisted on fresh cut flowers, changed da (he had a real knack with advertising), and successful (h century). His name appears on virtually every list of gre Gunther, popular biographer of the mid-20th century, w Flood (1960).4 Not to be outdone, Lasker dictated his au Told It (1963).5 One of the anecdotes in these biographies is about a m and John E. Kennedy in May 1905. Lasker was a junior and Kennedy was retired from the Royal Canadian Mou copywriter. The apocryphal account tells that Kennedy s read as follows: I can tell you what advertising is. I know you don' have you know what it is and it will mean much to advertising is send the word 'yes' down by the be Kennedy.6 FYI... Albert Lasker is remembered as one of the key figures in Amer 20th century advertising, funded The Albert and Mary Lasker F upstairs and spent a long evening in conversation with h concise definition: "Advertising is salesmanship in print. definition lies in what Kennedy meant by salesmanship. age of Wal-Marts and other mega-stores where it is ofte in a department store in, say, 1905. The clerks at the gl outsides of what they sell. You can say that your hands fingers are long or short, that you only want leather or d domestic-made goods only, and so on. Whoever helps right kind of gloves for you. She will answer your questio what she says to what you want to know. This is person and designed specifically for you. It is not about the thin example, foreign-made goods when you have specified ones, or leather gloves when you've said you want cloth Fig. 1.18 The Glove Counte Department Store, Dayton, Ohio What Kennedy offered to Lasker was an interpretation o advertising is the transformation of this personalized se one. Advertising attempts to do what salesmanship doe like a newspaper or magazine. That is the meaning of s In 1905, newspapers, magazines, and billboards were t were communicated. Radio did not exist as a commerci pipe dream. In attempting to reach a broad audience wi could not be tailored individually as in the face-to-face c message had to work for a mass audience. It had to do even millions of people what the store clerk did for the p communicate a relevant selling message to as many pe about short and long fingers, domestic as well as foreig In the course of communicating to a mass audience, the usually lost. Messages become less specific, and many salesmanship becomes advertising, communication can Kennedy's definition has become a great classic, espec advertising professionals who see the genius of this sim definition has to be adjusted, of course, for the times. M 1905 — radio, TV, the Internet. Were Kennedy announc probably need to say: Advertising is salesmanship throu Fig. 1.19 Radio Quickly Became A Medium for A 4. Is Advertising Information or Manipulation? Within the field of economics, there are two divergent vi the economy. One school of thought argues that advert consumers who can use it to make more informed decis way, advertising is understood to increase market efficie alternatives.7 Another school of thought, famously put forward by Har in The Affluent Society (1958),8 views advertising as ma artificial needs and wants. Economists who follow this li to cost and encouraging consumers to perceive new wa allocation of their scarce resources toward buying highly FYI... John Kenneth Galbraith did much to popularize the understandi Whichever viewpoint we take on this issue, the importan themselves are given in particular contexts. These two i efforts to understand advertising's economic effects. Ot priorities about the particular features of advertising tha of advertising that receive emphasis in other fields are p (political science), gender, race, and class (sociology, c (anthropology). 5. Advertising Defined by Contrasting It to What It Is Product placement in movies, television, sports, popula modern life. We expect to clearly identify the name of a computer a TV character uses, and the brand of beer a game. But does all this help sell products? Advertisers c is so common that some advertising agencies specialize Fig. 1.20 Some Critics Calle Sideways (2005) "One Big Ad for P Fig. 1.21 Product Placement in Contemporary Sporting Ev FYI... The Lux Radio Theater, and Kraft Music Hall were popular rad commercial sponsors. The Hallmark Hall of Fame brought total Media critics argue that product placements, irrespectiv distinction between advertising and programming so tha stops and the other starts. Sponsorship of programming commercial mass media: Lux Radio Theatre, Kraft Mus all emerged in the early years of radio. Advertising agen programs in the past. Product placement is a more cont Fig. 1.22 An Ad for Lux Rad in the 1930s [Sourc Advertising has been called news,9 especially when it in information about an existing one. However, most conte new products (nor does it provide much new information advertising is news really pushes the point out of propor most of the time it clearly is not. But is advertising propaganda? This is a much more co or misleading information that supports a political cause advertising fit? Is this what Raymond Williams had in m of capitalist society? FYI... The propaganda entry on the Wikipedia.org website contains ex to websites about propaganda. Propaganda tends to be thought of as political and we t ideas on us that are different from our own. The term pr connotations. And thus calling advertising propaganda — supports the interests of those in power — fits with the a (by providing partial information and focusing on some a others) and that it is a tool of capitalist interests. In Moscow and St. Petersburg, Americans would have e "billboards" that contained images and quotations from Today, many public places in the former Soviet Union c and other highly advertised brands. Some critics of adv replacement of socialist with capitalist propaganda. Fig. 1.23 Political Imagery Filled in the Former Soviet Union Fig. 1.24 Advertisements Lik Are Common in Contemporary R 6. Advertising is Commercial Speech In 1993, the Supreme Court of the United States conclu protected by the First Amendment, but to a somewhat le speech. The court noted: The commercial market place, like other spheres provides a forum where ideas and information flo information are vital, some of slight worth. But the and the audience, not the government, assess th presented. Historians agree that the framers of the Constitution cle mind when they wrote the First Amendment. Over the y how far the fundamental right of freedom of speech exte claims without regulation? Should society follow the anc the buyer beware")? FYI... The official website of the NARC details the industry's self-r governmental regulatory body. In contemporary advertising practice in the United State regulation and governmentally imposed restrictions on w National Advertising Review Council, an industry-based mission as fostering truth and accuracy in national adve thus hoping to minimize governmental involvement in th side, the Federal Trade Commission, an agency of the mission of preventing unfair competition and protecting practices in the marketplace. 7. Advertising Is the Middle Class Talking to Itself Advertising is about desires, aspirations, and values. It satisfaction through the purchase and consumption of c aspirations, and values does advertising talk about? Th the core values in most advertising copy are those of th aspire to be a part of it.10 Getting married, settling down values in American culture over the years. If textbooks, idolized this view of what life is all about, advertising ha look through the panoply of 19th- and 20th-century ads Sometimes blatant, sometimes more subtle, these value of ads. In the 1920s, women marched in the streets demanding movement was a rebellion against the idea that women place was in the home, not in the public world of politics ideals were deeply rooted in the culture, and advertising 1925, a Listerine advertisement showed the long face o with this caption: "Often a bridesmaid, but never a bride "tragic" story: Edna's case was really a pathetic one. Like every was to marry. Most of the girls of her set were ma possessed more grace or charm or loveliness tha And as her birthdays crept gradually toward that t seemed farther from her life than ever. She was often a bridesmaid but never a bride. That's the insidious thing about halitosis (unpleas know when you have it. And even your closest fri Listerine immortalized the phrase "often a bridesmaid, b Needless to say, using mouthwash was offered as poor of being a bride. If the story seems anachronistic or idio magazines published before about 1970 will reveal man Listerine repeated its own message in 1955 with a more distraught bridesmaid using the same caption and tellin Most of the girls of her set were married...but not too, as if she never would be. True, men were att quickly turned to indifference. Poor girl! She hadn dropped her so quickly...and even her best friend Why risk the stigma of halitosis...? FYI... Read more about Listerine advertising history and view the "Of History and New Media at George Mason University. The exte usage can be seen by typing the phrase into a search engine. A chance to get married, settle down, and perhaps raise itself indeed! This story refers not to the flaunting of con idealization of traditional values, and it was repeated ov reinforced other values — hard work leading to success good impressions, and the like. Roland Marchand's Adv examines the specific social values that advertising pro Over the years, the diamond has been promoted as a s commitment. What better way to show her how much yo of one carat or more? asks DeBeers. However glittering diamond on a woman's hand is what it signifies — to he signification lies those same values of marriage, faithful values of the American middle class. Fig. 1.25 DeBeers: A Diamond Is FYI... An interesting place to begin investigating the story of diamond Margaret F. Brinig, "Rings and Promises," Journal of Law, Eco article is available through JSTOR online. Each of these examples illustrates an important aspect supports the cultural values. Using mouthwash and givi and attaining the ideals. Advertising practitioners argue Today's openly contested values and social diversity re contemporary advertising as America recognizes and e diversity. Advertising cannot afford to take a homogeniz Contemporary advertising recognizes the plurality of Am figuring out what "the middle class" thinks and reflecting 8. Defining Advertising Empirically Humpty Dumpty: When I use a word, it means jus neither more nor less. Alice: The question is whether you can make wor — Lewis Ca FYI... The Department of Advertising at the University of Texas at advertising. Jef Richards is an active researcher and teacher in the field o has assembled some of his statements about advertising. Should we ask advertising professionals what they mea advertisement and advertising? Professor Jef Richards of Advertising asked advertising and marketing experts to know whether there is enough agreement to formulat upon, especially for the purposes of teaching about adv necessity for each professor, researcher, or author to e foster agreement about the scope of topics in an advert other practical implications, for example when courts loo find inconsistency rather than agreement in usage. Richards assembled a team of experts to discuss their d Advertising is a paid, mediated form of communication f persuade the receiver to take some action, now or in th this definition are significant, but only time will tell if othe 9. Advertising Is "Selling Corn Flakes to People Wh FYI... There are many biographies of Leo Burnett on the Internet. T influential builders and titans of the 20th century. The Americ honors him. Leo Burnett Worldwide has an extensive global network with m Leo Burnett, one of advertising's most colorful figures, w studied at the University of Michigan where he edited th briefly as a police reporter before being hired to work in Cadillac Motor Company. Burnett moved on to form his Burnett Company, Inc., in Chicago in 1935. Today Leo large multinational advertising agencies. Burnett is famous for having created some of advertisin the Tiger, the Keebler Elves, the Jolly Green Giant, the and Ronald McDonald. These icons are associated with loyalty that Burnett had in mind when he said advertisin are eating Cheerios."14 While only a small proportion of new products, most deals with promoting brand loyalty a are not to switch brands. Fig. 1.26 Strong Brand Populate Modern Ads [S 10. Advertising Is a Form of Mythmaking Consumer myths, marketplace mythology, and mythma advertising professors and advertising professionals tod by defining advertising as form of mythmaking? In his b (1993),15 Sal Randazzo writes: Myths are more than entertaining little stories abo characters. The universality of myths, the fact tha time and many cultures, suggests that they origin Advertisers sell products by mythologizing them, and fantasies.... Advertising is not simply in the b Advertising turns products into brands by mytholo them and giving them distinct identities, personali our own.... Advertising has discovered a powerful McDonalds — where a clown comes to play and everyo — blissful fellowship over a soft-drink — is a dream. Ma companionship away from the strains of urban life — is released from a bottle who cleans house for you — live that advertising has created around these brands has tr hamburgers, soft drinks, cigarettes, and housework into Fig. 1.27 Mr. Clean: A Genie from Conclusion So what is advertising? Advertising is a complex pheno culture, history, and the economy — that defies any sim it are universal, whereas others are culturally specific. It into mediated communication. It sometimes provides ne always attempts to persuade. In addition to selling mess social ideals. And depending on your point of view, it is and the economy. Notes 1 De Vries, Leonard, Victorian Advertisements. (London 1968). 2 De Vries, 6. 3 Williams, Raymond. "Advertising: The Magic System." Culture. (London: Verso, 1980), 170-195. This article is Review, Vol. 1, No. 1 (2000), accessible through most u http://www.aef.com/. 4 Gunther, John. Taken at the Flood: The Story of Alber Brothers, 1960). 5 Lasker, Albert. The Lasker Story: As He Told It. (Chica 6 Lasker, 19. 7 Mitra, Anusree, and John G. Lynch, Jr. "Toward a Rec Information Theories of Advertising Effects on Price Ela Vol. 21. March 1995. 644-59 8 Galbraith, John Kenneth. The Affluent Society. Boston 9 For example, Albert Lasker is reported to have referre embracing Kennedy's definition of advertising as salesm 10 William Deresiewicz, Professor of English at Yale Uni in similar words in an essay about references to adverti Middlemarch. (William Deresiewicz, Studies in English L (Autumn 1998), 723-740. This appears in Note 23, Pag Chapter 60 concerning the auction of a tray of miscellan [the auctioneer] opens his mouth and out comes advert advertising copy. But what is advertising copy if not the itself? (italics added)." 11 Marchand, Roland. Advertising the American Dream. 1985. 12 Richards, Jef I, and Catharine M. Curran. "Oracles on Definition." Journal of Advertising, Vol 31, No. 2 (Summ 13 Richards, 74. 14 Bendinger, Bruce. The Copy Work Shop Work Book. 60. 15 Randazzo, Sal. Mythmaking on Madison Avenue. Ch 16 Randazzo, ix, xii, and 1. Media Credits Fig. 1.1 Courtesy of Ogilvy & Mather Worldwide, Inc. Fig. 1.2 De Vries, Leonard, Victorian Advertisements. (L Limited, 1968) p. 23. Fig. 1.3 De Vries, p. 57. Fig. 1.4 De Vries, p. 25. Fig. 1.5 Photo by Paolo Crisante. Fig. 1.6 Victoria & Albert Museum, London / Art Resour Fig. 1.7 Photo by Mike Freedman for http://www.icteachers.co.uk/photos/ancientcivilisations.h Fig. 1.8 © Corbis. Fig. 1.9 Image from "A History of Advertising" by Henry History of Advertising Trust Arcive. Fig. 1.10 Brown, Henry Collins. Fifth Avenue Old and N Crawford: NYC. 1924. p. 46. Fig. 1.11 Provided courtesy HarpWeek LLC. February 1 Fig. 1.12 Brian Atkinson/ Alamy. Fig. 1.13 Buonarroti, Michelangelo. Michel Ange: l'oevre architechture. (Paris:Hachette, 1909) p. 1. Fig. 1.14 PictureNet Corporation / Alamy. Fig. 1.15 Scala / Art Resource NY. Fig. 1.16 Scala / Art Resource NY. Fig. 1.17a Courtesy of Cramer-Krasselt. Fig. 1.17b Courtesy of DDB Worldwide Communication Fig. 1.18 Courtesy of Special Collections & Archives, W Fig. 1.19 Courtesy of http://earlyradiohistory.us/1922ad Fig. 1.20 Sideways Dir. Alexander Payne. © Fox Home Fig. 1.21 Picture by Eric Gilbert, Motorsport.com Fig. 1.22 J. Walter Thompson Co. Archives, Domestic A Hartman Center for Sales, Advertising and Marketing H Special Collections Library, Duke University, (hereafter Fig. 1.23 Wikipedia.com Fig. 1.24 Courtesy of http://www.adammoore.com/ © Ad Fig. 1.25 Courtesy of J. Walter Thompson. Fig. 1.26 Reprinted with permission of Kellogg Compan Fig. 1.27 Home Made Simple William M. O'Barr William M. O'Barr is Professor of Cultural Anthropology since 1969. He holds secondary appointments in the De has been a visiting professor at Northwestern, Dalhousi recognized for his outstanding undergraduate teaching Association and Trinity College (Duke University). His c Perspectives, is one of Duke's most popular undergradu courses include Advertising and Masculinity, Children a Advertising. He is author or co-author of ten books, including Culture World of Advertising, Rules versus Relationships, and J He has conducted anthropological research in East Afri addition to his interest in social and cultural aspects of a researched law in a variety of cultural settings. In 2000, he founded Advertising & Society Review and is author of Advertising and Society: An Online Curricul published as supplements to AS&R. Copyright © 2005 by The Advertising Educational Foun