E-ISSN 1154-7311
Instructions for best user experience.
What Is Advertising?
William M. O'Barr
We know it when we see it. We are exposed to it thousa
reasonably good, although seldom perfect, at distinguis
is something that we tend to take for granted, seldom th
into existence. But what is this thing called advertising?
Fig. 1.1 Can A Definition of Advertising Encomp
A library or Internet search will turn up no consistent de
laymen, and practitioners have taken turns offering insig
introductory unit examines some of those attempts, but
single definition will do, and each effort at describing ad
ignoring others. Taken together, these definitions emph
advertising with society, culture, history, and the econom
1. Defining Advertising Broadly
A stroll through the galleries of one of London's great in
Museum, takes you deep into the history of Britain. You
India, or spend your time exploring the evolution of Eng
Imagine the job of James Laver (1899-1975) who becam
Design, and Paintings. This Oxford-educated art critic w
Military Uniforms (1948) and A Concise History of Costu
compiler of a book on Victorian advertisements1 would i
on the bold graphics, curiosities, and outlandish claims
advertisements. (This was a time when advertisers coul
regulation, save for what the public would stand.) Ads fr
slaughtering beef for extract, they promise to regrow ha
suggest the cleansing power of soap.
Fig. 1.2 A 19th-Century E
for Beef Extract [Sou
Fig. 1.3 Extravagant Claims W
in Victorian Advertisement
Fig. 1.4 A Gratuitous Use of R
in 19th-Century Advertisin
In introducing Victorian Advertisements, Laver asks, "W
Advertising is as old as Humanity: indeed, much o
colours of the flowers but so many invitations to th
product". Everything is already there: the striking
"conditioning of the customer".... Advertising migh
first arrests the attention of the passer-by and the
mutually advantageous exchange.2
FYI...
The Victoria & Albert Museum in London is one of the world's
quoted for his pithy comments about the world of fashion.
A device to arrest attention — now that's a broad definit
a traffic cop in a busy intersection, a gun pointed at you
afternoon, the snarl of a pit bull, and a nude person stre
many ways to arrest human attention, and only some ar
and then induces him to accept a mutually advantageou
separate ads from the rest? Think about it a moment. S
intersection offers mutual advantages: you avoid an acc
arrest; the officer does his job (surely an advantageous
public order. Acquiescing to someone holding a loaded
and can assist the criminal in his "work" as well. The ice
get cooled off. The dog protects its territory, and you av
and you get a break and perhaps a good laugh as well.
Let's delve a bit more deeply to see if we can find more
definition of advertising. He invites us to think of the bird
Fig. 1.5 Is This Advertising
flowers in the annual give-and-take of nectar in exchang
as this example seems, and far from slick magazine ads
highlight critical components of ads — they call for our a
offer us objects and services (for which we have to pay,
to us (otherwise we wouldn't buy them) and to the seller
Although this definition does not manage to distinguish
attention grabbers (that we find worthwhile to pay attent
features of advertisements: exchange, attention, mutua
definition, it applies without much difficulty to advertising
even in other times and places. It works for a spice disp
wall in ancient Herculaneum. And it works for a store wi
Fig. 1.6 An Open-Air Spic
in India, c.1850 [Sou
Fig. 1.7 An Ancient Notice A
Wine for Sale [Sour
Fig. 1.8 Window Shop
in Hong Kong [Sour
FYI...
The ancient Roman city of Herculaneum was preserved by an e
archaeological remains provide many insights into life in Roman
In bringing all these things together — across time, plac
definition emphasizes the antiquity of advertising. Rathe
yesterday, it seems as old as humanity and as universa
light, is thus a part of social life. We humans exchange
a way that benefits us and those we deal with. Certainly
impossible to imagine life without exchange. How could
all the cigarettes produced there? How could the folks in
grow? And what would New Yorkers smoke or eat?
Whether we think of the relatively small-scale societies
Westernization, England at the time of the Norman Con
21st century, it seems that exchange is the name of the
trade, we sell — but most of all we exchange what we h
instead. And where does advertising fit into this? Accord
arrests the attention of the passer-by and then induces
exchange."
2. Defining Advertising Narrowly
During his lifetime, Raymond Williams (1921-1988) was
critics. He taught at both Oxford and Cambridge Univer
Birmingham School of Cultural Studies. He devoted his
about as a result of the industrialization of society and t
which he saw in much of a favorable light. In his extens
dislocations, wealth and poverty, changes in the nature
another, environmental pollution, and the like.
FYI...
Raymond Williams helped establish the field of cultural studies
Birmingham School of Cultural Studies.
On several occasions he wrote about advertising, but n
essay entitled "Advertising: The Magic System."3 Recog
as a means of getting attention and providing informatio
Williams focused on the institutionalization and professi
the late 1800s in Britain and elsewhere, its commercial
social critic, he was also interested in ways its enormou
Williams too offered a definition of advertising. He called
society. It's a catchy phrase, but what does it mean? In
note is that Williams locates advertising in a social conte
historical moment. It is a part of modern capitalist societ
attention-grabbing devices in non-capitalist societies in
advertising cannot be decoupled from the way it came i
society.
Modern advertising in Britain (and America as we shall
century in support of mass consumption in highly indust
advertising agents began providing services — buying a
magazines, and other media, writing copy and eventual
developing persuasive techniques to persuade consum
demands for their services, and out of the provision of t
agencies. These full-service agencies charged hefty fee
talented writers and artists. Soon advertisements began
stations, billboards in the streets, and the pages of mas
newspapers. In fact art itself had found a new patron.
Fig. 1.9 Public Transportatio
for Advertising, London, 187
Fig. 1.10 Advertising in Pub
New York City, 1880s [S
Fig. 1.11 Advertisem
in Print Media, 1889 [S
Calling advertising the official art of capitalist society foc
in this case, by capitalist interests. Sponsorship of art is
look back to the Renaissance, for example, to see how
context. In that time, it had two great patrons: the Catho
sponsors (like the Medici family and important city-state
The Church commissioned Michelangelo to paint the Si
was commissioned by the City of Florence. So it was wi
Fig. 1.12, 1.13 "Sponsored" Art in the
the period. To eat, they sold their work to those who cou
adapted their creative ideas to what their benefactors w
all creativity and talent was subverted. Michelangelo inc
works, and artists often had ideas that were saved and
to do.
And what was all this art used for? In addition to being "
to demonstrate wealth and power), the Church used rel
pilgrims coming for the first time to a great cathedral. Un
be dwarfed by modern office buildings or hidden behind
have stood as the largest building in sight — bold, incre
might lead the worshipers to the stained glass windows
scarce (no TV, no magazines, no Internet), these image
Crucifixion, the Resurrection, and the Saints had enorm
ideas. They would instruct and teach. They would hold
Fig. 1.14 Details of a Stained G
in Ste. Chapelle, Paris [
Likewise was the power of portraits painted for the wea
only the rich might have their images immortalized. Imp
were recorded in paintings and graced the palaces of th
they became historical truth and connected the present
Fig. 1.15 Portrait of Catherin
by Santi di Tito, (1536-1603
Fig. 1.16 Marriage of Fredrick
by Giambattista Tiepolo, (1696-
In calling advertising the official art of capitalist society,
of art in modern times. Today corporations, instead of th
produced serves their needs and desires just as art has
commercial attempts to bedazzle, to instruct, to teach, t
consumers. And the companies that can afford the best
prosperity, and place in the sun. After all, isn't mere pre
what it is all about? Only the wealthiest can pay the pric
who work for them.
Fig. 1.17a A Popular Sup
Commercial, 2005 [So
Fig. 1.17b Another Popular
Commercial, 2005 [So
If Laver's definition of advertising as an attention-getting
advertising, Williams' definition of advertising as sponso
Both things are true, but each definition brings out a rad
3. Defining Advertising as Mediated Communication
Albert Lasker (1880-1952) grew up in Galveston, Texas
Chicago, and lived out his later years in New York. From
Thomas Agency in Chicago — one of the great advertis
Late in life, he married the much younger Mary Lasker w
Together, they established The Lasker Foundation, a ph
medical research, with some of the money Lasker had e
was quirky (he insisted on fresh cut flowers, changed da
(he had a real knack with advertising), and successful (h
century). His name appears on virtually every list of gre
Gunther, popular biographer of the mid-20th century, w
Flood (1960).4 Not to be outdone, Lasker dictated his au
Told It (1963).5
One of the anecdotes in these biographies is about a m
and John E. Kennedy in May 1905. Lasker was a junior
and Kennedy was retired from the Royal Canadian Mou
copywriter. The apocryphal account tells that Kennedy s
read as follows:
I can tell you what advertising is. I know you don'
have you know what it is and it will mean much to
advertising is send the word 'yes' down by the be
Kennedy.6
FYI...
Albert Lasker is remembered as one of the key figures in Amer
20th century advertising, funded The Albert and Mary Lasker F
upstairs and spent a long evening in conversation with h
concise definition: "Advertising is salesmanship in print.
definition lies in what Kennedy meant by salesmanship.
age of Wal-Marts and other mega-stores where it is ofte
in a department store in, say, 1905. The clerks at the gl
outsides of what they sell. You can say that your hands
fingers are long or short, that you only want leather or d
domestic-made goods only, and so on. Whoever helps
right kind of gloves for you. She will answer your questio
what she says to what you want to know. This is person
and designed specifically for you. It is not about the thin
example, foreign-made goods when you have specified
ones, or leather gloves when you've said you want cloth
Fig. 1.18 The Glove Counte
Department Store, Dayton, Ohio
What Kennedy offered to Lasker was an interpretation o
advertising is the transformation of this personalized se
one. Advertising attempts to do what salesmanship doe
like a newspaper or magazine. That is the meaning of s
In 1905, newspapers, magazines, and billboards were t
were communicated. Radio did not exist as a commerci
pipe dream. In attempting to reach a broad audience wi
could not be tailored individually as in the face-to-face c
message had to work for a mass audience. It had to do
even millions of people what the store clerk did for the p
communicate a relevant selling message to as many pe
about short and long fingers, domestic as well as foreig
In the course of communicating to a mass audience, the
usually lost. Messages become less specific, and many
salesmanship becomes advertising, communication can
Kennedy's definition has become a great classic, espec
advertising professionals who see the genius of this sim
definition has to be adjusted, of course, for the times. M
1905 — radio, TV, the Internet. Were Kennedy announc
probably need to say: Advertising is salesmanship throu
Fig. 1.19 Radio Quickly Became A Medium for A
4. Is Advertising Information or Manipulation?
Within the field of economics, there are two divergent vi
the economy. One school of thought argues that advert
consumers who can use it to make more informed decis
way, advertising is understood to increase market efficie
alternatives.7
Another school of thought, famously put forward by Har
in The Affluent Society (1958),8 views advertising as ma
artificial needs and wants. Economists who follow this li
to cost and encouraging consumers to perceive new wa
allocation of their scarce resources toward buying highly
FYI...
John Kenneth Galbraith did much to popularize the understandi
Whichever viewpoint we take on this issue, the importan
themselves are given in particular contexts. These two i
efforts to understand advertising's economic effects. Ot
priorities about the particular features of advertising tha
of advertising that receive emphasis in other fields are p
(political science), gender, race, and class (sociology, c
(anthropology).
5. Advertising Defined by Contrasting It to What It Is
Product placement in movies, television, sports, popula
modern life. We expect to clearly identify the name of a
computer a TV character uses, and the brand of beer a
game. But does all this help sell products? Advertisers c
is so common that some advertising agencies specialize
Fig. 1.20 Some Critics Calle
Sideways (2005) "One Big Ad for P
Fig. 1.21 Product Placement
in Contemporary Sporting Ev
FYI...
The Lux Radio Theater, and Kraft Music Hall were popular rad
commercial sponsors. The Hallmark Hall of Fame brought total
Media critics argue that product placements, irrespectiv
distinction between advertising and programming so tha
stops and the other starts. Sponsorship of programming
commercial mass media: Lux Radio Theatre, Kraft Mus
all emerged in the early years of radio. Advertising agen
programs in the past. Product placement is a more cont
Fig. 1.22 An Ad for Lux Rad
in the 1930s [Sourc
Advertising has been called news,9 especially when it in
information about an existing one. However, most conte
new products (nor does it provide much new information
advertising is news really pushes the point out of propor
most of the time it clearly is not.
But is advertising propaganda? This is a much more co
or misleading information that supports a political cause
advertising fit? Is this what Raymond Williams had in m
of capitalist society?
FYI...
The propaganda entry on the Wikipedia.org website contains ex
to websites about propaganda.
Propaganda tends to be thought of as political and we t
ideas on us that are different from our own. The term pr
connotations. And thus calling advertising propaganda —
supports the interests of those in power — fits with the a
(by providing partial information and focusing on some a
others) and that it is a tool of capitalist interests.
In Moscow and St. Petersburg, Americans would have e
"billboards" that contained images and quotations from
Today, many public places in the former Soviet Union c
and other highly advertised brands. Some critics of adv
replacement of socialist with capitalist propaganda.
Fig. 1.23 Political Imagery Filled
in the Former Soviet Union
Fig. 1.24 Advertisements Lik
Are Common in Contemporary R
6. Advertising is Commercial Speech
In 1993, the Supreme Court of the United States conclu
protected by the First Amendment, but to a somewhat le
speech. The court noted:
The commercial market place, like other spheres
provides a forum where ideas and information flo
information are vital, some of slight worth. But the
and the audience, not the government, assess th
presented.
Historians agree that the framers of the Constitution cle
mind when they wrote the First Amendment. Over the y
how far the fundamental right of freedom of speech exte
claims without regulation? Should society follow the anc
the buyer beware")?
FYI...
The official website of the NARC details the industry's self-r
governmental regulatory body.
In contemporary advertising practice in the United State
regulation and governmentally imposed restrictions on w
National Advertising Review Council, an industry-based
mission as fostering truth and accuracy in national adve
thus hoping to minimize governmental involvement in th
side, the Federal Trade Commission, an agency of the
mission of preventing unfair competition and protecting
practices in the marketplace.
7. Advertising Is the Middle Class Talking to Itself
Advertising is about desires, aspirations, and values. It
satisfaction through the purchase and consumption of c
aspirations, and values does advertising talk about? Th
the core values in most advertising copy are those of th
aspire to be a part of it.10 Getting married, settling down
values in American culture over the years. If textbooks,
idolized this view of what life is all about, advertising ha
look through the panoply of 19th- and 20th-century ads
Sometimes blatant, sometimes more subtle, these value
of ads.
In the 1920s, women marched in the streets demanding
movement was a rebellion against the idea that women
place was in the home, not in the public world of politics
ideals were deeply rooted in the culture, and advertising
1925, a Listerine advertisement showed the long face o
with this caption: "Often a bridesmaid, but never a bride
"tragic" story:
Edna's case was really a pathetic one. Like every
was to marry. Most of the girls of her set were ma
possessed more grace or charm or loveliness tha
And as her birthdays crept gradually toward that t
seemed farther from her life than ever.
She was often a bridesmaid but never a bride.
That's the insidious thing about halitosis (unpleas
know when you have it. And even your closest fri
Listerine immortalized the phrase "often a bridesmaid, b
Needless to say, using mouthwash was offered as poor
of being a bride. If the story seems anachronistic or idio
magazines published before about 1970 will reveal man
Listerine repeated its own message in 1955 with a more
distraught bridesmaid using the same caption and tellin
Most of the girls of her set were married...but not
too, as if she never would be. True, men were att
quickly turned to indifference. Poor girl! She hadn
dropped her so quickly...and even her best friend
Why risk the stigma of halitosis...?
FYI...
Read more about Listerine advertising history and view the "Of
History and New Media at George Mason University. The exte
usage can be seen by typing the phrase into a search engine.
A chance to get married, settle down, and perhaps raise
itself indeed! This story refers not to the flaunting of con
idealization of traditional values, and it was repeated ov
reinforced other values — hard work leading to success
good impressions, and the like. Roland Marchand's Adv
examines the specific social values that advertising pro
Over the years, the diamond has been promoted as a s
commitment. What better way to show her how much yo
of one carat or more? asks DeBeers. However glittering
diamond on a woman's hand is what it signifies — to he
signification lies those same values of marriage, faithful
values of the American middle class.
Fig. 1.25 DeBeers: A Diamond Is
FYI...
An interesting place to begin investigating the story of diamond
Margaret F. Brinig, "Rings and Promises," Journal of Law, Eco
article is available through JSTOR online.
Each of these examples illustrates an important aspect
supports the cultural values. Using mouthwash and givi
and attaining the ideals. Advertising practitioners argue
Today's openly contested values and social diversity re
contemporary advertising as America recognizes and e
diversity. Advertising cannot afford to take a homogeniz
Contemporary advertising recognizes the plurality of Am
figuring out what "the middle class" thinks and reflecting
8. Defining Advertising Empirically
Humpty Dumpty: When I use a word, it means jus
neither more nor less.
Alice: The question is whether you can make wor
— Lewis Ca
FYI...
The Department of Advertising at the University of Texas at
advertising.
Jef Richards is an active researcher and teacher in the field o
has assembled some of his statements about advertising.
Should we ask advertising professionals what they mea
advertisement and advertising? Professor Jef Richards
of Advertising asked advertising and marketing experts
to know whether there is enough agreement to formulat
upon, especially for the purposes of teaching about adv
necessity for each professor, researcher, or author to e
foster agreement about the scope of topics in an advert
other practical implications, for example when courts loo
find inconsistency rather than agreement in usage.
Richards assembled a team of experts to discuss their d
Advertising is a paid, mediated form of communication f
persuade the receiver to take some action, now or in th
this definition are significant, but only time will tell if othe
9. Advertising Is "Selling Corn Flakes to People Wh
FYI...
There are many biographies of Leo Burnett on the Internet. T
influential builders and titans of the 20th century. The Americ
honors him.
Leo Burnett Worldwide has an extensive global network with m
Leo Burnett, one of advertising's most colorful figures, w
studied at the University of Michigan where he edited th
briefly as a police reporter before being hired to work in
Cadillac Motor Company. Burnett moved on to form his
Burnett Company, Inc., in Chicago in 1935. Today Leo
large multinational advertising agencies.
Burnett is famous for having created some of advertisin
the Tiger, the Keebler Elves, the Jolly Green Giant, the
and Ronald McDonald. These icons are associated with
loyalty that Burnett had in mind when he said advertisin
are eating Cheerios."14 While only a small proportion of
new products, most deals with promoting brand loyalty a
are not to switch brands.
Fig. 1.26 Strong Brand
Populate Modern Ads [S
10. Advertising Is a Form of Mythmaking
Consumer myths, marketplace mythology, and mythma
advertising professors and advertising professionals tod
by defining advertising as form of mythmaking? In his b
(1993),15 Sal Randazzo writes:
Myths are more than entertaining little stories abo
characters. The universality of myths, the fact tha
time and many cultures, suggests that they origin
Advertisers sell products by mythologizing them,
and fantasies.... Advertising is not simply in the b
Advertising turns products into brands by mytholo
them and giving them distinct identities, personali
our own.... Advertising has discovered a powerful
McDonalds — where a clown comes to play and everyo
— blissful fellowship over a soft-drink — is a dream. Ma
companionship away from the strains of urban life — is
released from a bottle who cleans house for you — live
that advertising has created around these brands has tr
hamburgers, soft drinks, cigarettes, and housework into
Fig. 1.27 Mr. Clean: A Genie from
Conclusion
So what is advertising? Advertising is a complex pheno
culture, history, and the economy — that defies any sim
it are universal, whereas others are culturally specific. It
into mediated communication. It sometimes provides ne
always attempts to persuade. In addition to selling mess
social ideals. And depending on your point of view, it is
and the economy.
Notes
1
De Vries, Leonard, Victorian Advertisements. (London
1968).
2
De Vries, 6.
3
Williams, Raymond. "Advertising: The Magic System."
Culture. (London: Verso, 1980), 170-195. This article is
Review, Vol. 1, No. 1 (2000), accessible through most u
http://www.aef.com/.
4
Gunther, John. Taken at the Flood: The Story of Alber
Brothers, 1960).
5
Lasker, Albert. The Lasker Story: As He Told It. (Chica
6
Lasker, 19.
7
Mitra, Anusree, and John G. Lynch, Jr. "Toward a Rec
Information Theories of Advertising Effects on Price Ela
Vol. 21. March 1995. 644-59
8
Galbraith, John Kenneth. The Affluent Society. Boston
9
For example, Albert Lasker is reported to have referre
embracing Kennedy's definition of advertising as salesm
10
William Deresiewicz, Professor of English at Yale Uni
in similar words in an essay about references to adverti
Middlemarch. (William Deresiewicz, Studies in English L
(Autumn 1998), 723-740. This appears in Note 23, Pag
Chapter 60 concerning the auction of a tray of miscellan
[the auctioneer] opens his mouth and out comes advert
advertising copy. But what is advertising copy if not the
itself? (italics added)."
11
Marchand, Roland. Advertising the American Dream.
1985.
12
Richards, Jef I, and Catharine M. Curran. "Oracles on
Definition." Journal of Advertising, Vol 31, No. 2 (Summ
13
Richards, 74.
14
Bendinger, Bruce. The Copy Work Shop Work Book.
60.
15
Randazzo, Sal. Mythmaking on Madison Avenue. Ch
16
Randazzo, ix, xii, and 1.
Media Credits
Fig. 1.1 Courtesy of Ogilvy & Mather Worldwide, Inc.
Fig. 1.2 De Vries, Leonard, Victorian Advertisements. (L
Limited, 1968) p. 23.
Fig. 1.3 De Vries, p. 57.
Fig. 1.4 De Vries, p. 25.
Fig. 1.5 Photo by Paolo Crisante.
Fig. 1.6 Victoria & Albert Museum, London / Art Resour
Fig. 1.7 Photo by Mike Freedman for
http://www.icteachers.co.uk/photos/ancientcivilisations.h
Fig. 1.8 © Corbis.
Fig. 1.9 Image from "A History of Advertising" by Henry
History of Advertising Trust Arcive.
Fig. 1.10 Brown, Henry Collins. Fifth Avenue Old and N
Crawford: NYC. 1924. p. 46.
Fig. 1.11 Provided courtesy HarpWeek LLC. February 1
Fig. 1.12 Brian Atkinson/ Alamy.
Fig. 1.13 Buonarroti, Michelangelo. Michel Ange: l'oevre
architechture. (Paris:Hachette, 1909) p. 1.
Fig. 1.14 PictureNet Corporation / Alamy.
Fig. 1.15 Scala / Art Resource NY.
Fig. 1.16 Scala / Art Resource NY.
Fig. 1.17a Courtesy of Cramer-Krasselt.
Fig. 1.17b Courtesy of DDB Worldwide Communication
Fig. 1.18 Courtesy of Special Collections & Archives, W
Fig. 1.19 Courtesy of http://earlyradiohistory.us/1922ad
Fig. 1.20 Sideways Dir. Alexander Payne. © Fox Home
Fig. 1.21 Picture by Eric Gilbert, Motorsport.com
Fig. 1.22 J. Walter Thompson Co. Archives, Domestic A
Hartman Center for Sales, Advertising and Marketing H
Special Collections Library, Duke University, (hereafter
Fig. 1.23 Wikipedia.com
Fig. 1.24 Courtesy of http://www.adammoore.com/ © Ad
Fig. 1.25 Courtesy of J. Walter Thompson.
Fig. 1.26 Reprinted with permission of Kellogg Compan
Fig. 1.27 Home Made Simple
William M. O'Barr
William M. O'Barr is Professor of Cultural Anthropology
since 1969. He holds secondary appointments in the De
has been a visiting professor at Northwestern, Dalhousi
recognized for his outstanding undergraduate teaching
Association and Trinity College (Duke University). His c
Perspectives, is one of Duke's most popular undergradu
courses include Advertising and Masculinity, Children a
Advertising.
He is author or co-author of ten books, including Culture
World of Advertising, Rules versus Relationships, and J
He has conducted anthropological research in East Afri
addition to his interest in social and cultural aspects of a
researched law in a variety of cultural settings.
In 2000, he founded Advertising & Society Review and
is author of Advertising and Society: An Online Curricul
published as supplements to AS&R.
Copyright © 2005 by The Advertising Educational Foun