Mechanics and Usage Guide
I. Apostrophe ( ‘ )
A. Use ‘s to form possessives of:
 Singular nouns or names, even those ending with an s (ex: the girl’s pen, the class’s
enthusiasm, Jane’s guitar, Chris’s book)
B. Use just an apostrophe (‘) to form possessives of:
 Plural nouns ending in s or es. (ex: the girls’ desks, the classes’ test scores)
Add ‘s for plural nouns not ending in s. (ex: the children’s department, men’s clothing)
C. Possessive pronouns (its, yours, his, hers, theirs, ours) do not use an apostrophe. It’s = It is
D. Use apostrophes to form contractions (ex: can’t, I’ll, should’ve, y’all, etc.)
E. Use the apostrophe for the plurals of letters and symbols. (ex: Dot the i’s and cross the t’s.)
F. No apostrophe is needed to make numbers (or decades) plural. (ex: during the 1980s, the ‘60s)
G. No apostrophe is needed to make capitalized acronyms plural. (OEQs, DVDs)
II. Commas ( , )
A. Use a comma after introductory expressions
 Introductory clauses, which contain a subject and verb (ex: Because we were
running several tests that day, we were late to the meeting.)



Introductory phrases, which lack a subject and/or verb (ex: Knowing that the rain
would soon begin, we packed up our basket and got in the car.)
Introductory prepositional phrase (ex: In conclusion, our trip was a disaster.)
Introductory words (ex: Initially, I was turned off by her bad breath.)
 Note: When a subordinate clause comes before the main clause, it is set off with a comma
(ex: When our dog turned rabid, we were forced to put her down.). However, a
subordinate clause is not set it off with a comma when it follows the main clause (ex: We
were forced to put our dog down when she turned rabid.).
o
Common subordinate conjunctions: when, because, since, although, until, etc.
B. Use commas to set off parenthetical information (nonessential information that could
be removed from a sentence without changing its basic meaning)

Parenthetical words, such as however, therefore, consequently, etc. (Ex. I would be
happy, however, to wash your dog for you.)

Parenthetical phrases (ex: John drove away from the date, wishing he had tried to kiss her.
Upon further consideration, he concluded that, since they had eaten garlic fries at dinner,
not kissing her might have been the better decision.)

Non-essential appositive phrases (ex: Kristen, a girl with good taste in music, detests reggae.)

Essential appositive phrases are not set off with commas (ex: The pop-singer Lady Gaga
sort of weirds me out.)

Parenthetical non-essential clauses
 A non-essential clause gives information that does not change the essential
meaning of the word it is modifying. (ex: My grandfather, who is eighty years
old, walks three miles a day.)
 An essential clause is essential to maintain the meaning of the word it is
modifying. (ex: The woman who interviewed you is my sister.)

The pronoun which begins non-essential clauses. (ex: Megan really enjoyed
The Crucible, which is a play about hunting for witches.)

The pronoun that begins essential clauses. (ex: Megan really enjoys books that
are about hunting witches.)

Note: The pronoun who is for humans; the pronouns that and which are for
non-human entities.
C. Use a comma to separate independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction
(and, but, for, or, so, yet) *[the word because is typically not a coordinating conjunction]*
 Paul’s car must be repaired, or we’ll have to take the bus.
 John never leaves the house because he doesn’t like crowds of people.
D. Use a comma to separate items in a list
 Three or more items, phrases, or clauses in a list (ex: The box was full of CDs, tapes,
and records.)
E. Use a comma to separate coordinate adjectives (adjectives that describe the same noun
and could be linked logically by the word and)
 Examples: Long, complex trajectories are hard to model.
Long and complex trajectories are hard to model.
*Hint: If you can switch the order of the adjectives, then separate them with commas. If
you can’t, then don’t use commas.
 Example: We stayed at an expensive summer resort. (no comma)
We stayed at a summer expensive resort. (adjectives can’t be rearranged)
F.Use a comma to set off direct and indirect quotes
 Examples: The manager asked, “Who will take responsibility?”
“That house there,” he whispered, “is haunted.”
The question we ask ourselves is, What is the purpose of life?

Do not use a comma when quote-weaving (ex: Kelley informs her audience that
“two million children…are earning their bread.”)
…unless the syntax calls for a comma (ex: Kelley informs her listeners that, “while
[they] sleep,” children are busy producing items “for [them] to buy.”)
III. Colon ( : ) *(You must have a complete sentence before a colon.)*
A. Use a colon to introduce a list.
 Good – The meetings are in the following states: Iowa, Texas, and Utah.
 Bad – The meetings are in: Iowa, Texas, and Utah.
B. Use a colon to emphasize an idea or to restate for clarity. (This often has the effect of
emphasizing something important.)
 After a long workout, I crave only one thing: chocolate milk.
 If the colon is linking two sentences, they must be two very closely related sentences.
Ex. – Her message was very clear: she would not be sharing her cake.
C. Use a colon to introduce a quote with added impact.
 With one simple statement, Faulkner shifts his tone from pessimistic to resilient: “I
decline to accept the end of man.”
IV. Dashes ( -- ) [A dash is a mark of separation that is stronger than a comma, less formal than a
colon, and more relaxed than parentheses.]
A dash is not the same as a hyphen. To make a dash when typing or handwriting, use two
hyphens. The computer will probably convert it to one long dash.
A. Use dashes to set off technical definitions
 Ex: Using integrated circuits—tiny slices of pure silicon embedded with traces of
impurities—engineers reduced a roomful of vacuum-tubes to a tiny black box.
B. Use dashes to set off parenthetical phrases for more emphasis
 Ex: If he insists on visiting—and I hope he won’t—then please let me know.
C. Use dashes to set off parenthetical information that has commas within it
 Ex: The triathlon events—running, swimming, and biking—test one’s endurance.
V. Semicolon ( ; )
A. Use a semicolon to link two related independent clauses—in place of a comma and a
conjunction.
 Ex: It’s hard to learn all the rules of punctuation; the rules don’t always make sense.
B. When joining two independent clauses with a semicolon and a conjunctive adverb (ex:
however, therefore, instead, thus, etc.), set off the conjunctive adverb with a comma.
 Ex: I prefer oatmeal for breakfast; nevertheless, I will not refuse grits.
C. Do not join two independent clauses with just a comma—this is a comma splice!
 Ex: I like to eat pizza, my girlfriend prefers tacos.
VI. Parentheses ( )
A. Use parentheses to introduce abbreviations and acronyms.
 ex: Neptune’s atmosphere is dominated by the Great Dark Spot (GDS).
B. Use parentheses for asides, particularly for information that clarifies procedures or results.
 ex: Omit commas after short introductory adverbial phrases (less than five words).
Other Usage Rules
A. Invoke = to call on (a deity, muse, etc.) with earnest desire, as in a prayer or supplication
Evoke = to produce or draw out (memories, feelings, etc.)
Envoke = not a word in the English language
B. Never include the pronoun “you”…unless writing a love letter or an instructional manual.
C. Avoid 1st person singular pronouns (“I” and “me”) in rhetorical analysis writing; 1st
person plural pronouns (“we” and “us”) are okay if used sparingly.
D. Watch for pronoun/antecedent disagreement. Never use “they” as a singular pronoun.
 No – “When a person has ringworm, they should resist scratching the infected area.”
 Yes – “When a person has ringworm, he or she should resist scratching the infected area.”
Or “When people have ringworm, they should resist scratching the infected area.”
Note: If it feels clunky to write “he or she” each time, then consider choosing either “he”
or “she” and swap out genders with each new example.
E. Titles of larger, self-contained works—books, movies, magazines, newspapers, etc.—
should be in italics (or underlined when handwriting). Titles of smaller pieces within a
larger work—poems, chapter titles, articles, songs, etc.—should be in quotation marks.
F. No ellipses at the beginning or ending of quotes – only in the middle for omitted material.