Preparation Material for Ethics
A Framework for Thinking Ethically
Learning Objectives:
Students completing the ethics unit within the first-year engineering program will be able to:
1) Define the term ethics and identify sources of a person’s ethics.
2) State why professions like engineering have their own codes of ethics and how they might be
used.
3) Implement a structured approach to addressing an ethical dilemma as may occur for a student
or professional engineer.
We all have an image of ourselves - of how we are when we act ethically or are "at our best." We
probably also have an image of what an ethical community, an ethical business, an ethical
government, an ethical engineering practice or an ethical society should be. Ethics really has to
do with all these levels, a) acting ethically as individuals, b) creating ethical organizations and
governments, and c) making our society as a whole ethical in the way it treats everyone.
What is Ethics?
Simply stated, ethics refers to standards of
behavior that tell us how human beings
ought to act in the many situations in which
they find themselves-as friends, parents,
children, citizens, business people, teachers,
professionals, and so on.
It is helpful to identify what ethics is NOT:
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Ethics is not the same as feelings. Feelings
provide important information for our ethical
choices. Some people have highly developed
habits that make them feel bad when they do
something wrong, but many people feel good even
though they are doing something wrong. And
often our feelings will tell us it is uncomfortable to
do the right thing if it is hard.
Ethics is not religion. Many people are not
religious, but ethics applies to everyone. Most
religions do advocate high ethical standards but
sometimes do not address all the types of
problems we face.
Ethics is not just following the law. A good system of law does incorporate many
ethical standards, but law can deviate from what is ethical. Law can become ethically
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Preparation Material for Ethics
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corrupt, as some totalitarian regimes have made it. Law can be a function of power alone
and designed to serve the interests of narrow groups. Law may have a difficult time
designing or enforcing standards in some important areas, and may be slow to address
new problems.
Ethics is not following culturally accepted norms. Some cultures are quite ethical, but
others become corrupt -or blind to certain ethical concerns (as the United States was to
slavery before the Civil War). "When in Rome, do as the Romans do" is not a satisfactory
ethical standard.
Ethics is not science. Social and natural science can provide important data to help us
make better ethical choices. But science alone does not tell us what we ought to do.
Science may provide an explanation for what humans are like. But ethics provides
reasons for how humans ought to act. And just because something is scientifically or
technologically possible, it may not be ethical to do it.
Why Identifying Ethical Standards is Hard?
There are two fundamental problems in identifying
the ethical standards we are to follow:
1. On what foundation do we base our ethical
standards?
2. How do those standards get applied to specific
situations we face?
If our ethics are not based on feelings, religion, law,
accepted social practice, or science, what are they
based on? Many philosophers and ethicists have
helped us answer this critical question. They have suggested at least five different sources of
ethical standards we should use.
Five Sources of Ethical Standards
The Utilitarian Approach
Some ethicists emphasize that the
ethical action is the one that provides
the most good or does the least harm,
or, to put it another way, produces
the greatest balance of good over
harm. The ethical corporate action,
then, is the one that produces the
greatest good and does the least harm
for all who are affected-customers,
employees, shareholders, the community, and the environment. For example, ethical
warfare balances the good achieved in ending terrorism with the harm done to all parties
through death, injuries, and destruction. The utilitarian approach deals with
consequences; it tries both to increase the good done and to reduce the harm done.
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Preparation Material for Ethics
The Rights Approach
Other philosophers and ethicists suggest that
the ethical action is the one that best protects
and respects the moral rights of those affected.
This approach starts from the belief that
humans have a dignity based on their human
nature per se or on their ability to choose
freely what they do with their lives. On the
basis of such dignity, they have a right to be
treated as ends and not merely as means to
other ends. The list of moral rights -including
the rights to make one's own choices about
what kind of life to lead, to be told the truth,
not to be injured, to a degree of privacy, and
so on-is widely debated; some now argue that
non-humans have rights, too. Also, it is often said that rights imply duties-in particular,
the duty to respect others' rights.
The Fairness or Justice Approach
Aristotle and other Greek philosophers
have contributed to the idea that all
individuals should be treated equally.
Today we use this idea to say that
ethical actions treat all human beings
equally-or if unequally, then fairly
based on some standard that is
defensible. As an example, consider we
if pay people more based on their harder
work or the greater amount that they
contribute to an organization, and say that is fair. But there is a debate over CEO salaries
that are hundreds of times larger than the pay of others; many ask whether the huge
disparity is based on a defensible standard or whether it is the result of an imbalance of
power and hence is unfair.
The Common Good Approach
Greek philosophers have also contributed to the notion
that life in community is a "good" that is shared and
beneficial for all (or most) members of a given
community in itself and our actions should contribute
to that life. This approach suggests that the interlocking
relationships of society are the basis of ethical
reasoning and that respect and compassion for all
others-especially the vulnerable-are requirements of
such reasoning. This approach also calls attention to the
common conditions that are important to the welfare of
everyone. This may be a system of laws, effective
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Preparation Material for Ethics
police and fire departments, health care, a public educational system, or even public
recreational areas. The issues of should taxes support education could be framed as a
common good debate.
The Virtue Approach
A very ancient approach to ethics is that ethical
actions ought to be consistent with certain ideal
virtues that provide for the full development of
our humanity. These virtues are dispositions and
habits that enable us to act according to the
highest potential of our character and on behalf
of values like truth and beauty. Honesty, courage,
compassion, generosity, tolerance, love, fidelity,
integrity, fairness, self-control, and prudence are
all examples of virtues. Virtue ethics asks of any
action, "What kind of person will I become if I
do this?" or "Is this action consistent with my
acting at my best?"
Each of these approaches can help us determine which behaviors can be considered ethical.
What is Engineering Ethics?
Many professions, engineering included, have codes of ethics which are intended to assist
members of the profession. Engineers take seriously their responsibility – not just for the quality
of the jobs – but for the safely and well-being of the public. The National Society of Professional
Engineers (NSPE) has been the profession’s most respected
voice on the practice of ethical engineering. The following is
extracted from the NSPE Code of Ethics found at
http://www.nspe.org/resources/ethics/code-ethics. This short
summary is intended to give you a sample of one resource
available to you as an engineering student and later as a
practicing engineer. Please review it carefully.
Codes of ethics are created in the context of real life and in the face of existing ethical ambiguity.
For this reason, codes of ethics created in response to actual or anticipated ethical conflicts are
easier to understand in their application to real problems.
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Preparation Material for Ethics
Extracted From - National Society of Professional Engineering
Code of Ethics for Engineers
Preamble
Engineering is an important and learned profession. As members of this profession, engineers are
expected to exhibit the highest standards of honesty and integrity. Engineering has a direct and
vital impact on the quality of life for all people. Accordingly, the services provided by engineers
require honesty, impartiality, fairness, and equity, and must be dedicated to the protection of the
public health, safety, and welfare. Engineers must perform under a standard of professional
behavior that requires adherence to the highest principles of ethical conduct.
I. Fundamental Canons
Engineers, in the fulfillment of their professional duties, shall:
1. Hold paramount the safety, health, and welfare of the public.
2. Perform services only in areas of their competence.
3. Issue public statements only in an objective and truthful manner.
4. Act for each employer or client as faithful agents or trustees.
5. Avoid deceptive acts.
6. Conduct themselves honorably, responsibly, ethically, and lawfully so as to enhance the
honor, reputation, and usefulness of the profession.
II. Rules of Practice
Rules of Practice give examples of good practice for each of the Fundamental Canons. This
section includes some for the first cannon as examples.
1. Engineers shall hold paramount the safety, health, and welfare of the public.
a. If engineers’ judgment is overruled under circumstances that
endanger life or property, they shall notify their employer or client
and such other authority as may be appropriate.
b. Engineers shall approve only those engineering documents that are
in conformity with applicable standards.
c. Engineers shall not reveal facts, data, or information without the prior consent of
the client or employer except as authorized or required by law or this Code.
Much more detail and examples for each Rule of Practice and the following Professional
Obligation are included in the full NSPE Code at http://www.nspe.org/Ethics/index.html
III. Professional Obligations
1. Engineers shall be guided in all their relations by the highest standards of honesty and
integrity.
2. Engineers shall at all times strive to serve the public interest.
3. Engineers shall avoid all conduct or practice that deceives the public.
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Preparation Material for Ethics
4. Engineers shall not disclose, without consent, confidential information concerning the
business affairs or technical processes of any present or former client or employer, or
public body on which they serve.
5. Engineers shall not be influenced in their professional duties by conflicting interests.
6. Engineers shall not attempt to obtain employment or advancement or professional
engagements by untruthfully criticizing other engineers, or by other improper or
questionable methods.
7. Engineers shall not attempt to injure, maliciously or falsely, directly or indirectly, the
professional reputation, prospects, practice, or employment of other engineers. Engineers
who believe others are guilty of unethical or illegal practice shall present such
information to the proper authority for action.
8. Engineers shall accept personal responsibility for their professional activities, provided,
however, that engineers may seek indemnification for services arising out of their
practice for other than gross negligence, where the engineer’s interests cannot otherwise
be protected.
9. Engineers shall give credit for engineering work to those to whom credit is due, and will
recognize the proprietary interests of others.
How Are Good Decisions Made?
Making good ethical decisions requires exploring the ethical aspects of a decision and weighing
the considerations that should impact our choice of a course of action. Having a method for
ethical decision making is absolutely essential. When practiced regularly, the method becomes so
familiar that we work through it automatically without consulting the specific steps.
The more novel and difficult the ethical choice we face, the
more we need to rely on discussion and dialogue with others
about the dilemma. Only by careful exploration of the
problem, aided by the insights and different perspectives of
others, can we make good ethical choices in such situations.
We have found the following framework for ethical decision
making a useful method for exploring ethical dilemmas and
identifying ethical courses of action.
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Preparation Material for Ethics
Methodology for Resolving Ethical Dilemmas
A. Identifying Potential Actions and Consequences
1. Students and professionals at work will face many ethical dilemmas. These arise
when there are multiple stakeholders whose interests need to be served. When the
interests of stakeholders conflict, an ethical dilemma which must be resolved exists,
good ethical practice requires that potential consequences of any resolution should be
determined before applying it. The methodology taught in this module emphasizes:
Identifying the issues and points of ethical conflict for a given ethical dilemma, to
provide a convincing ethical analysis, it is necessary to move beyond naming the
issue (e.g., data ownership and access, plagiarism, etc.) to describing the nature of the
moral conflict. Note that identifying the points of ethical conflict is often one of the
hardest jobs in ethical analysis.
2. Identifying the interested parties or stakeholders, think of interested parties in
progressively larger groupings, like in the figure provided in the previous page
illustrating how people, groups and entities are related to each other. Frequently,
consideration of the interested parties will bring more issues to mind.
3. Identifying the potential actions and their consequences, and identify possible actions
and those consequences that have a good probability of occurring, or those that may
not have such a high probability of occurring, but would have very serious
implications. When considering consequences, be sure to consider, in turn, each of
the interested parties and the probable consequences of the proposed action on those
parties. When considering actions and consequences to the protagonist, keep in mind
that consequences may be positive or negative.
4. Identifying the duties or obligations of the protagonist [protagonist. leading figure: a
main participant in an event] to each interested party before an action is taken.
For each case, consider primarily the obligations of the
protagonist toward the various interested parties. It is
sometimes tempting to dismiss the obligation of the
protagonist when some other person fails to live up to
his/her moral obligation. Also be sure to state why the
professional has that duty. Keep in mind that given the
right context and consequences, lack of technical
competence can become a moral issue. Referring to your
profession’s code of ethics will then help clarify the
obligations of people in your profession.
When applying the four criteria, it is often helpful to have an organizing form or worksheet.
A sample worksheet is illustrated following the next section.
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Preparation Material for Ethics
B. Selecting the “Best” Action
For each moral conflict or ethical dilemma encountered, there are four criteria used to judge
the potential response:
1. Whether the response addresses each of the issues and points of ethical conflict.
2. Whether each interested party’s legitimate expectations are considered.
3. Whether the consequences of acting are recognized, specifically described and
incorporated into the decision.
4. Whether each of the duties or obligations of the protagonist are described and
grounded in moral considerations. Moral considerations can be guided through
approaches defined earlier by asking questions such as:
a. Which option will produce the most good and do the least harm? (The
Utilitarian Approach)
b. Which option best respects the rights of all who have a stake? (The Rights
Approach)
c. Which option treats people equally or proportionately? (The Justice
Approach)
d. Which option best serves the community as a whole, not just some members?
(The Common Good Approach)
e. Which option leads me to act as the sort of person I want to be? (The Virtue
Approach)
This allows the protagonist to make the decision based on an organized approach and the best
available information. Once all of these are considered and the dilemma’s relevance to
applicable codes of ethics and past cases are weighed in, an educated, well-thought decision
can be reached, and hopefully one that is just.
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Preparation Material for Ethics
Ethical Dilemma Worksheet
Issues and Points of Ethical Conflict
Interested Parties or Stakeholders
Duties or Obligations of the Protagonist to Stakeholders
The protagonist is _____________________
Stakeholder 1
Obligations to Stakeholder
Stakeholder 2
Obligations to Stakeholder
Stakeholder 3
Obligations to Stakeholder
Stakeholder 4
Obligations to Stakeholder
Stakeholder 5
Obligations to Stakeholder
Potential Actions and Their Consequences (Positive and Negative)
Action A
Positive Consequences
Negative Consequences
Action B
Positive Consequences
Negative Consequences
Action C
Positive Consequences
Negative Consequences
Action D
Positive Consequences
Negative Consequences
Selected Action and Rationale (Include reference to NSPE Code of Ethics when applicable.)
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Preparation Material for Ethics
Example Application of Method and Worksheet
Please consider the following Case Description
A woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was one drug that the doctors
thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the same town had recently
discovered. The drug was expensive to make, but the druggist was charging ten times what the
drug cost him to produce. He paid $200 for the radium and charged $2,000 for a small dose of
the drug. The sick woman's husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but
he could only get together about $1,000 which is half of what it cost. He told the druggist that his
wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said: “No, I
discovered the drug and I'm going to make money from it.” So Heinz got desperate and broke
into the man's store to steal the drug for his wife. Should Heinz have broken into the laboratory
to steal the drug for his wife?
Although each individual may see the case somewhat differently, a Completed Worksheet might
look something like the following.
Ethical Dilemma Worksheet
Issues and Points of Ethical Conflict
Should Heinz steal the drug from the pharmacy? Ethical issues include obedience to authority,
role of self-interest in the decision, moral correctness verse law, responsibility to others.
Interested Parties or Stakeholders
Heinz
Heinz’s wife
Druggist
Friends of Heinz and wife
Law Enforcement
Duties or Obligations of the Protagonist to Stakeholders
The protagonist is __Heinz____________
Stakeholder 1 - Heinz
Stakeholder 2 – Heinz Wife
Stakeholder 3 - Druggist
Stakeholder 4 – Friends of Heinz and Wife
Stakeholder 5 – Legal System
Obligations
Support spouse in sickness and in health
Be a law abiding citizen
Obligations
Help Heinz do the right thing
Obligations
Have business that continues to make a profit so he
can make other new drugs
Serve the public
Obligations
Help Heinz
Support the law
Obligations
Administer the Law
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Preparation Material for Ethics
Potential Actions and Their Consequences (Positive and Negative)
Action A – Heinz Steals Drug
Positive Consequences
Wife lives
Heinz is happy
Negative Consequences
Wife now must figure out how to
live without Heinz’s support
Friends feel bad
Heinz goes to jail
Action B – Heinz does not steal
drug
Positive Consequences
Legal system is in tack
Heinz does not go to jail
Action C
Positive Consequences
Negative Consequences
Friends feel bad
Wife dies
Heinz get depressed due to loss
of wife
Negative Consequences
Action D
Positive Consequences
Negative Consequences
Selected Action and Rationale (Include reference to NSPE Code of Ethics when applicable.)
Some possible answer you might give depending on your perspective:
Heinz should not steal the medicine because he will consequently be put in prison which will mean he is a
bad person. Rationale – Virtue Approach, Heinz acts as the sort of person he wants to be.
Heinz should not steal the medicine because prison is an awful place, and he would more likely languish
in a jail cell than over his wife's death. Rationale – the Justice approach, Heniz thinks this treats people
equally and proportionally.
Heinz should steal the medicine because everyone has a right to choose life, regardless of the law.
Rationale – Rights approach, Heinz thinks this best respects the rights of all who have a stake.
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Preparation Material for Ethics
The following are credited as sources of this material:
Bebeau, Muriel J. (1995). Moral Reasoning in Scientific Research. Cases for Teaching and Assessment.
Indiana University.
The Online Ethics Center for Engineering and Science at Case Western Reserve University. Website.
Available at http://temp.onlineethics.org/.
National Society of Professional Engineers Ethics Website. Available at
http://www.nspe.org/Ethics/index.html
“A Framework for Thinking Ethically.” ETHICS 1, no. 2 (Winter 1988).
http://www.scu.edu/ethics/practicing/decision/framework.html
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