Running head: FEMINIST DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
Postcolonial Feminist Discourse Analysis
A paper submitted in partial fulfillment
of the course requirements of NURS 601
Submitted to: Dr. Wendy Duggleby
December 5, 2014
by
Tracy Oosterbroek RN BN MScN (Doctoral student)
1
FEMINIST DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
2
Postcolonial Feminist Discourse Analysis
Postcolonial feminism is a perspective that contributes to knowledge development
based on goals of empowerment and radical social transformation (von Feigenblatt, 2009).
Postcolonial feminist discourse analysis is a vehicle through which researchers deconstruct
effects of colonization that transcends gender by addressing contextual socio-political
power relations (Lazar, 2005). For the purpose of this paper, I will describe and discuss
philosophical, epistemological, ontological, ideological and ethical underpinnings of
postcolonial feminist discourse analysis as a methodological approach to inquiry. I will
analyze and critique why this method is appropriate in addressing the diversity of factors
that influence health and power related inequities, and social contextual factors including
social status, culture and gender. I will conclude by discussing how the tenants of
postcolonial feminist discourse analysis are relevant to ongoing development and
advancement of nursing knowledge and how this approach impacts health research
inquiry.
The Postcolonial Perspective
Most influential to the advancement of knowledge in the social sciences can be
attributed to postmodernism. This time period reflects the influence of philosophers such
as Lyotard and most notably Foucault. Lyotard (1979; 1984, as cited in Dahnke & Dreher,
2011) was skeptical of the metanarrative as an overarching way of constructing
knowledge, explaining and understanding the world around us that represents the complex
sociopolitical intersection between historical discourse and power. Foucault, the most
notable of postmodernists viewed knowledge as a product of societal power relationships
(Anderson & McCann, 2002; Meleis, 2012). He rejected global totalitarian theories that did
FEMINIST DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
3
not recognize the influence of power imbalances in knowledge development. Foucault
challenged the norms, suggesting new ways to critique the relationship between
knowledge, truth and power (Martin, as cited in Diamon & Quinby, eds., 1988). The nature
of knowledge developed in nursing is influenced by the uniqueness of the approach the
theorist applies to the process.
The postcolonial approach is one of three approaches that emerged out of the
postmodern era. The postcolonial perspective extends the way we look at and address
issues related to culture, by accounting for contextual historical and socio-political factors
(Racine & Perron, 2011) in a transformative way that differs from postmodern and
poststructuralist views (Meleis, 2012). While former methods serve to provide a historical
account of a particular phenomenon, the postcolonial perspective critiques the effects of
colonial influence and power (Meleis, 2012). Moreover, the postcolonial perspective
challenges power differentials and unequal power relationships remnant of colonialism’s
past (Anderson, et al., 2003). This perspective is a powerful mechanism for the
deconstruction of existing knowledge and research that contributes to the perpetuation of
historical colonization forces related to race, ethnicity and gender (Racine & Petrucka,
2011). In terms of universal truth, questions of relevance contribute to knowledge
development that allow scholars and researchers to seek out and accept alternate versions
of truth that represent meaning and significance for subjects.
Feminist Knowledge Development
Postcolonial perspectives proposed by Foucault emerged simultaneously with the
first wave of feminism (Martin, as cited in Diamond and Quinby, eds., 1988) challenging the
powers of medicine, science and education (Diamond & Quinby, 1988). Feminist
FEMINIST DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
4
philosophy is characterized by criticism of gender stereotypes that dominated knowledge
and theory development prior to the 1960s that represent women as embodied, emotional
beings of less intellect than male counterparts (Dahnke & Dreher, 2011). Harding (1989, as
cited in Dahnke & Dreher, 2011) defined two streams of feminism called feminist
empiricism and feminist standpoint theory. The first claims that science is distorted by
social and gender biases that render knowledge that lacks objectivity; the later suggests
that the feminist standpoint recognizes effects of these biases and products of knowledge
development reflect objectivity that is otherwise impossible to identify and define (Dahnke
& Dreher, 2011). The second wave of feminism provided a perspective that transcends
gender and raises consciousness of contextual factors related to gender, race, ethnicity and
culture that influence the human conditions. Moreover, the feminist perspective seeks to
empower others by challenging traditional values, beliefs and assumptions that lead to
oppression and marginalization (Meleis, 2012). Feminist ways of knowing in nursing
recognize the subjective and objective and places value on the unique situation of
individuals from their distinctive socio-political context. The feminist philosopher seeks to
release the oppressed from the historical, socio-political powers that have perpetuated
marginalization.
Philosophical Tenants of Postcolonial Feminism
During the mid-20th century, positivist and post-positivist traditions waned and
became rejected in favor of what some scholars referred to as less rigorous methodologies
(Denzin & Lincoln, 2002). Expansion of qualitative methodologies posited alternative
perspectives of truth that abandoned traditional hierarchical views of knowledge
validation and value (Denzin & Lincoln, 2002). These scholars recognized differing versions
FEMINIST DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
5
of truth and value inherent in each type of knowledge that contributed to a larger body of
knowledge in different, yet meaningful ways. Postcolonial scholarship is yoked in past and
current effects of colonization and recognizes prior knowledge as a product of racialization
and cultural essentialism that is constructed through a historical context (Anderson, 2002).
The feminist movement on the other hand recognizes engendered issues but is not limited
to gender representations. The postcolonial feminist movement emerged reactively in
response to perceptions of oppression and in an effort to achieve social and economic
equality (von Feigenblatt, 2009) by challenging norms perpetuated by structural factors
that sustain colonial inequities (Racine & Petrucka, 2011). By challenging historical
constructions of culture and class, the postcolonial feminist perspective is one that is
sensitive to the attitudes, values, and beliefs that disempower vulnerable groups (Meleis,
2012). Moreover, traditional cultural theories continue to reflect essentialist views of
culture (Anderson & McCann, 2002; Racine & Petrucka, 2011). Postcolonial feminism
creates a bridge between postcolonial and feminist perspectives by recognizing
intersections between race, culture, society, gender and class by moving beyond past
essentialist definitions of culture. The dichotomy between rich and poor, powerful and
powerless, and the ongoing struggle against oppression and inequality define the core
values of the postcolonial feminist movement (Wuest, 1994). Moreover, knowledge claims
that emerge by way of critique of current and historical socio-political factors related to
power and gender go beyond historicism and contextualization typical of the
poststructuralist viewpoint (Meleis, 2012).
Epistemology, ontology and ideology. Postcolonial feminist knowledge is a
socially constructed product of social, economic, political and historical contexts (Sprague,
FEMINIST DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
6
2005). Feminist epistemologies have evolved since the 1960s from an emancipatory view
focused on women and their inherent political and socioeconomic powerlessness to recent
perspectives that recognize differences between genders but does not discriminate based
upon power or value (Dahnke & Dreher, 2011). Moreover, values embedded in feminist
theory represent epistemological issues related to validity and legitimization of relational,
contextual, and subjective sources of data, participants (informants) as experts, and
distinctions between personal and scientific, theoretical and practical (Campbell & Bunting,
1999). Early feminists focused on the social dichotomies of power imbalances that
positioned women as inferior and of less social worth (Dahnke & Dreher, 2011). Female
powerless embodiment, governed by the forces of nature marked the distinction of power
between men and women.
Feminist ideology represents gender as separate and distinct within a hierarchal
structure (Lazar, 2005). Modern feminism however, while steeped in tradition of female
oppression, transcends gender recognizing and seeking to address issues related to
marginalization and inequality in a broader context. Modern feminists embrace differences
that exist between the genders in the absence of hierarchical structures that define social
superiority. This new perspective rejects the dichotomies of former feminist ideologies
(Campbell & Bunting, 1991).
Postcolonial feminist methodologies reflect a realist ontology recognizing the
societal impacts related to gender, race, culture, and social class (Denzin & Lincoln, 2003).
Moreover, this critical standpoint emphasizes social context in relationship to real-world
and real-life problems while recognizing the impossibility of asserting one truth or
complete representations of truth. Subjectivity of truth is appreciated and as a criterion of
FEMINIST DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
7
evaluation, gives meaning to contextual experiences of the oppressed (Denzin & Lincoln,
2003). Postcolonial feminist inquiry moves away from essentialist views of culture by
bringing the voice of the marginalized to the forefront (Racine, 2003). Doing so, produces
knowledge that represents the needs of communities from the perspective of the
vulnerable populations who are central to the research process.
Photovoice has been used as an instrument of data collection to enhance knowledge
transfer among marginalized groups. For example, Racine and Petrucka (2011) used
photovoice to engage Aboriginal community members in the research process in a
meaningful way. Photovoice is not only congruent with the epistemological and ontological
assumptions of postcolonial feminism, but is also an effective method for engaging
communities that appreciate and respect visual representations of stories (Racine &
Petrucka, 2011). Ensuring congruence between the philosophical underpinnings and
methodological operationalization of research activities is crucial when knowledge
translation at the community level is priority. Significant and meaningful connection with
community members is essential not only to engage community member participation, but
to improve effective knowledge transfer at the community level.
Postcolonial Feminist Discourse Analysis and Health, Nursing Knowledge and
Inquiry
A postcolonial feminist perspective on knowledge development provides a critically
analytic lens through which the researcher views the world that emphasizes collaboration,
emancipation, and empowerment (Patton, 2002). While it has already been asserted in this
paper that postcolonial and feminist perspectives provide a lens through which the
FEMINIST DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
8
intersections between historical context and power in relation to gender, culture and race,
discourse analysis adds yet another dimension to this already richly complex perspective.
Discourse represents a construction of reality and truth through talk and text
(Crowe, 2005; McCloskey, 2008; Smith, 2007). Construction of meaning represents
contextual understandings and interpretations of our experiences and relationships with
others and the world (Crowe, 2005). Moreover, ideologies and broader social values are
embedded in the meanings attached to language. Reality then, is a social construct that
emerges via multiple interpretative processes of discourse (Crowe, 2005). Gender ideology
from a feminist perspective is sensitive to imbalances and power differentials that are
uniquely gender biased. Additionally, these biases are perpetuated through discourse that
reflects persuasive normalcy of these ideologies (Lazar, 2005).
Feminist and postcolonial goals of empowerment and emancipation via analysis of
social hierarchies that are sustained through language use (Lazar, 2005) are examined and
evaluated through analysis of discourse. Discourse analysis is an analytic process that
represents socio-political and historical contexts (McCloskey, 2008). Tenants of discourse
analysis reflect interpretations and explanations of discursive power relationships in terms
of historical, social, and cultural ideologies in the form of social action (McCloskey, 2008).
Meanings related to language use emerge through discourse analysis processes and reveal
much about the knowledge expert and knowledge user. Knowledge that results as product
of these analytic process influence the way we interact with those in our care (McCloskey)
and cannot be separated from contextual factors (Buus, 2005).
Browne and Smye (2002) explored how postcolonial methodologies provide
scholars with new ways of exploration in coming to understand barriers to access among
FEMINIST DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
9
impoverished and underserved individuals and populations that are most at risk and
experience greatest inequities in service. While their study focused on a distinct group of
Aboriginal women, the epistemological and ontological tenants that informed the discourse
analysis they conducted could be applied to other underserved groups. For example,
discourse around institutional policies that perpetuate power imbalances, or worse,
conceal effects of colonization can be uncovered through analytic processes that aim to
identify power imbalances among impoverished groups. Movement into the practice arena
to influence health policy reflects ideological tenants of social action inherent in discourse
analysis and representative of the social responsibility of the postcolonial feminist
researcher (Anderson & McCann, 2002; McCloskey, 2008). Moreover, these discourses can
also serve to reveal new forms of colonial ideologies that persist and re-direct discourse to
counter these tendencies (Browne & Smye, 2002).
Ethical considerations
Postcolonial feminism addresses root causes of social justice by examining power
differentials that contribute to systemic and structural inequities (Anderson, et al., 2009).
This perspective requires the researcher to shift their gaze toward the perspective of the
marginalized in attempt to address issues of social justice. This standpoint address
inequities through critically reflexive processes aimed at identification of socio-political
structures that sustain marginalization of vulnerable individuals and populations.
Moreover, reflexive research processes require the researcher to recognize the impact of
personal, social, and political context on understandings about truth and interpretations
and analysis of discourse.
FEMINIST DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
10
Common criticisms of discourse analysis propose that researchers interpret what
they want through analytic processes (Smith, 2007). Traynor (2006) warns that solid
understanding of the theoretical underpinnings of discourse analysis methods are essential
to avoid normative categorizations that do not represent accurate interpretations of
discourse. Other authors have identified weaknesses in methodological rigor when
applying discourse analysis processes (Buus. 2004; Campbell, 2004). In contrast,
proponents suggest that discourse analysis has become increasingly popular in part as a
result of the rigorous complexity of the methodology when applied correctly (Traynor,
2006). According to Lazar (2005) the ultimate goal of feminist discourse analysis is that of
radical social-political transformation of society based on the ethical values of social justice.
Moreover, discourse analysis can reveal enhanced understanding of the “operation of
power” (Traynor, 2006, p. 71) that is inherent in the ways in which we communicate with
others.
Roy (2008) suggests that feminism has not only contributed to development of
knowledge but to the ways in which knowledge is developed. Feminist epistemology,
according to Roy (2008) has resulted in advances in sciences that represent a restructured
approach to research. She goes on to suggest that feminist studies prioritize the way
feminism influences scientific development of knowledge and how the feminist scholar
contributes to development of knowledge relevant to marginalized and underserved
populations. These priorities reflect a legacy of feminist scholarship that characterizes
humanistic commitment to scholarship by emphasizing equality and addressing inequity
especially in respect to societal power differentials (Traynor, 2006).
FEMINIST DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
11
Much has been written espousing the strengths and benefits of postcolonial feminist
scholarship, including discourse analysis methods. Published evidence of the
decolonization effects of postcolonial feminist scholarship is emerging in nursing
scholarship and requires further evaluation to determine if this perspective in fact
transcends postmodern limitations (Racine, 2003; Sochan, 2011). Moreover, how the
postcolonial feminist perspective directly impacts health research is not clearly known.
While philosophically geared at addressing needs of vulnerable communities, further
evaluation is required to address effectiveness in enhancing health care access and
outcomes as a product of postcolonial feminist discourse analysis.
Conclusion
Greater understanding of operations of power and growing interest and
commitment to research projects focused on social justice and equity may in part explain
the popularity of emancipatory approaches to knowledge development in nursing
(Traynor, 2006). Postcolonial feminist methodology is focused on transformational
knowledge development aimed at addressing social justice at the core of inquiry. Discourse
analysis provides a vehicle through which the researcher exposes power relationships that
are expressed through use of spoken or written language. Postcolonial feminist discourse
analysis uncovers the significance of language in defining covert power differentials that
position subjects when addressing concerns related to impoverished, underserved,
marginalized, and otherwise powerless communities. Congruence between
epistemological, ontological and methodological tenants are crucial in all research
endeavors that seek to achieve relevant knowledge translation and transfer (Racine &
Petrucka, 2011). This is essential when the purpose of research strategies aim to bridge the
FEMINIST DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
gap between knowledge and practice, especially when representative of the most
vulnerable, at risk populations.
12
FEMINIST DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
13
References
Anderson, J., Perry, J., Blue, C., Browne, A., Henderson, A., Basu Khan, K., Reimer Kirkham, S.,
Lynam, J., Semeniuk, P., & Smye, V. (2003). Rewriting cultural safety within the
postcolonial and postnational feminist project: Toward new epistemologies of
healing. Advances in Nursing Science, 26(3), 196-214.
Anderson, J. M., & McCann, E. K. (2002). Toward a postcolonial feminist methodology in
nursing research: Exploring the convergence of postcolonial and black feminist
scholarship. Nurse Researcher, 9(3), 7-27.
Browne, A., & Smye, V. (2002). A postcolonial analysis of healthcare discourses addressing
Aboriginal women. Nurse Researcher, 9(3), 28-41.
Buus, N. (2005). Nursing scholars appropriating new methods: The use of discourse
analysis in scholarly nursing journals 1996-2003. Nursing Inquiry, 12(1), 27-33.
Campbell, J. (2004). Application of discourse analysis to nursing inquiry. Nurse Researcher,
12(2), 30-41.
Campbell, J. C., & Bunting, S. (1991). Voices and paradigms: Perspectives on Critical and
Feminist Theory in Nursing. Advances in Nursing Science, 13(1), 1-15.
Crowe, M. (2005). Discourse analysis: Towards an understanding of its place in nursing.
Journal of Advanced Nursing, 51(1), 55-63.
Dahnke, M. D., & Dreher, H. M. (2011). Philosophy of Science for Nursing Practice: Concepts
and Applications. New York, NY: Springer Publishing.
Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (Eds.) (2003). Strategies of Qualitative Inquiry 2nd ed.
Thousand Oaks, CA:Sage Publications.
von Feigenblatt, O. F. (2009). Disciplinary "Moratorium": Postcolonial Studies, Third Wave
FEMINIST DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
14
Feminism, and Development Studies. Journal of Alternative Perspectives in the Social
Sciences, 1(3), 892-896.
Lazar, M. M. (Ed.). (2005). Feminist Critical Discourse Analysis. New York, NY: Palgrave
McMillan LTD.
Martin, B. (Fall, 1982). Feminism, Criticism, and Foucault. In I. Diamond & L. Quinby (Eds.),
Feminism and Foucault: Reflections on Resistance (pp. 3-19). Boston, MA:
Northeastern University Press.
McCloskey, R. (2008). A guide to discourse analysis. Nurse Researcher, 16(1), 24-44.
Meleis, A. I. (2012). Theoretical Nursing: Development and Progress. Philadelphia, PA:
Wolters Kluwer Health.
Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative Research and Evaluative Methods, 3rd ed. Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage Publications.
Racine, L. (2003). Implementing a postcolonial feminist perspective in nursing research
related to non-Western populations. Nursing Inquiry, 10(2), 91-102.
Racine, L., & Petrucka, P. (2011). Enhancing decolonization and knowledge transfer in
nursing research with non-western populations: Examining congruence between
primary healthcare and postcolonial feminist approaches. Nursing Inquiry, 18(1),
12-20.
Roy, D. (2008). Asking different questions: Feminist practices for the natural sciences.
Hypatia, 23(4),134-157.
Smith, J. L. (2007). Critical discourse analysis for nursing research. Nursing Inquiry, 14(1),
60-70.
Sochan, A. M. (2011). Stance and strategy: Post-structural perspective and postcolonial
FEMINIST DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
15
engagement to develop nursing knowledge. Nursing Philosophy, 12, 177-190.
Sprague, J. (2005). Feminist Methodologies for Critical Researchers. Walnut Creek, CA:
AltaMira Press.
Traynor, M. (2006). Discourse analysis: Theoretical and historical overview and review of
papers in the Journal of Advanced Nursing 1996-2004. Journal of Advanced Nursing,
54(1), 62-72.
Wuest, J. (1994). A feminist approach to concept analysis. Western Journal Nursing
Research, 16, 577-586.